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Content

4 16 31
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
Early Medieval The Delhi Sultanate Vijayanagara
India (750-1200 AD) Empire

42 50 69
Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6
Bhakti & Sufi The Mughals The Marathas
Movements

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 CHAPTER - 1

EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA

(750 – 1200 AD)
INTRODUCTION whole country was divided into numerous
regional states which were busy in
• In the beginning of the 8th century, India fighting with each other.
presented a pitiful sight of a family which
was divided into many parts. • But recent studies have indicated
that, though politically divided, India
witnessed a growth of new and rich
The word medieval means ‘the middle
cultural activities in the fields of art,
age’. It is used in history to refer to the
literature and language.
period which lies between ancient and
modern period. • In fact, some best specimens of temple
architecture and Indian literature belongs
• In 647 A.D., with the death of king to this period. Thus, far from being ‘dark’
Harshvardhan, India was divided into it may be treated as a bright and vibrant
many small kingdoms where small kings phase of Indian history.
were fighting with each other to establish
their supremacy.
• This wicked political uncertainty prevailed
EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
about 50 years. After the death of Harsha, India witnessed
significant changes. Such as,
• The outcome was that till the beginning
• A period of political fragmentation, which
of 8th Century, India was disintegrated
paved the way for feudalism.
among the small independent kingdoms
of the rulers who had different powers • A new clan of Rajputs emerged during
and honours and whose main aim was to this period.
display the strength of their forces and • One of the striking features of the
offensive attack. political history of the times was what is
• There was no central government and known as the tripartite struggle between
the country was divided into many the Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Gurjara-
independent states. Pratiharas.

Dark or Vibrant phase of Indian Indian Feudalism

history? • This period (from 750 to 1200) in Indian
• The period between AD 750 and AD 1200 history has been termed as a period of
is referred to as an early medieval period ‘Indian Feudalism’ by a few historians.
of Indian History. It was earlier treated by They believed that a number of changes
historians as a ‘dark phase’. took place in Indian society.

• It was so because during this time the • One significant change was the growing

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 power of a class of people who are variously a sphere of authority with the help of
called Samantas, Ranaks, Rautas etc. armed supporters.
Existing kings often acknowledged them • In course of time these revenue-bearing
as their subordinates or samantas. lands began to be considered hereditary
• As these samantas gained wealth and, and monopoly of a few families.
they declared themselves to be maha- • The hereditary chiefs began to assume
samanta, maha- mandaleshvara (the many of the functions of the government.
great lord of a “circle” or region) etc. They not only assessed and collected
• Their origins were very different. land revenue but also assumed more
ŠŠ Some were government officers who and more administrative power such as
were defeated rajas who continued to the rights over lands of their followers
enjoy the revenue of limited areas. without the prior permission of the rulers.

ŠŠ And others were local hereditary chiefs • This led to an increase in the number of
or tribal leaders who had carved out people who drew sustenance from the
land without working on it.

Implications
Erosion in the authority of centralized kingship
Political Reduction in number of central troops as standing army
implication Decline in centralized bureaucracy
Rise of regional kingdoms
Decline of long distance trade, commerce
Localization of trade/self-sufficient level of economy
Economical
Decrease in the quality/quantity of coin
implication
Decline of guild
Agriculture based economy
Proliferation of castes and sub castes took place
Impetus to Jajmani system. Jajmani system or Yajman system was an
economic system most notably found in villages of India in which one caste
Social
performed various functions for other castes and received grain or other
implication
goods in return. It was an occupational division of labour involving a system
of role-relationships that enabled villages to be mostly self-sufficient.
Larger land ownership led to high social status
Cultural Growth of regional language and culture
implication Provided a conducive environment for Bhakti Movement to flourish

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Social Conditions
In the beginning of the 8th century the society was divided into four sections:
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. But these were not strictly
bound according to their duties.
Chatur-
There were Brahmins who were fighters and there were Kshatriyas who
Varna
used to trade for livelihood. In the same way, many Vaishyas and Shudras
system
were kings.
People used to marry within their own community or ‘jati’. Inter community
marriages were rare.
The position of women was not appreciable. Widows were not allowed to
Status of remarry. On the other hand, 'sati pratha’ was forcefully prevailed, according
women to which widows burnt themselves in the pyre (chita) of their husband.
Polygamy was prevalent mostly in upper sections of the society.
Common people, especially central India, led a pure and high moral life.
Most of the people were vegetarian. They neither killed any animal nor
High drank alcohol. These people also didn’t eat garlic and onion.
morality of
people There was a section of dirty, meat eating people who were called ‘chandals’
and were kept outside the city in the slums. They were considered
‘untouchables’.
People were very happy and prosperous. Rich people were very charitable
Charitable because it was considered as a noble act.
nature of
people They built roads, night shelters, hospitals and buildings for public welfare.
They dug wells in public interest.
There were an uncountable number of schools and many universities, in
which Nalanda University in the East, Vallabhi University in the West, were
the most famous ones.
Education
There was a Sanskrit college in Malwa (Dhar), and there was another
college in Ajmer. In these universities and colleges, Science, Mathematics
and Astronomy were taught apart from the Vedas.

EMERGENCE OF RAJPUT Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire

(Agni vansha-Agnikula theory).
AS A CLAN
AGNIKULA MYTH?
• The use of the term Rajaputra for specific
clans or as a collective term for various • The Agnikula myth, which refers to
clans emerged by the 12th century. certain clans emerging from the fire
of a great sacrifice conducted by sage
• From the death of Harsha to the 12th Vasishtha on Mount Abu, is also a fairly
century, the destiny of India was mostly late phenomenon.
in the hands of various Rajput dynasties.
• The ‘Agnikula Rajputs’ included the
• They are mythologically believed to be the Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Paramaras, and
descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vansha) Chahamanas.
or Lord Krishna (Chandra vansha) or the

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• The Rajputs were staunch followers of • Arab merchant Sulaiman called Pala
Hinduism. They also patronized Buddhism kingdom as Ruhma.
and Jainism. • Palas had close cultural relations with
• During their period the Bhakti Cult Tibet. Noted scholars Santarakshita
started in north India. and Dipankara introduced Vajrayana
Buddhism in Tibet.

TRIPARTITE STRUGGLE Prominent Dynasties of the

• During 8th century AD there were three
great power in India namely Palas in the
Time: Prathiharas/Gurjara
East , the Gurjar-Pratihar in the North , Prathiharas
and the Rashtrakuta in the Deccan. • Founder: Nagabhatta.
• All three struggled for supremacy and • Capital: Binnal near Jodhpur.
their desire to possess Kannauj.
• Mihirabhoja was the greatest ruler, a
• Constant fighting weakened the Rajputs. great devotee of Vishnu adopted the title
Also, they never united against a common of Adhivaraha.
enemy, thus ultimately failing to prevent
Islamic Invasion. • Al-Masudi who visited during his period
testifies its power. He called Prathihara
Causes for Tripartite Struggle between the kingdom as Al-Juzr and King Baura.
Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas are as
follows: • Sheikh Sulaiman also visited the court of
Bhoja.
• To acquire supremacy over Kanauj, as a
symbol of prestige. • Rajasekhara, court poet of Mahipala,
wrote Karpuramanjari and Kavya
• To get control over the rich resources of
mimamsa.
the Gangetic valley.
• To get control over Gujarat and Malwa Prominent Dynasties of the
whose nearness to the coast was very
important for foreign trade. Time: Rashtrakutas
• Lust for war booty, an important source • Dantidurga was the founder of the
for maintaining a huge army. Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• Desire to impress the smaller kingdoms • Initially they were subordinate to the
with the sense of their power and demand Chalukyas of Karnataka. In the mid-
respect. eighth century, Dantidurga, a Rashtrakuta
chief, overthrew his Chalukya lord.
Prominent Dynasties of the • Krishna I defeated the Gangas and the
Time: Pala eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built the
magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa
• Founder: Gopala. temple at Ellora.
• Capital: Monghyr. • Amoghavarsha I (815- 880 A.D.) ruled for
• Dharmapala was the greatest of the a long period of 64 years.
Dynasty, who ruled Kannauj with the title ŠŠ He was a follower of Jainism. Jinasena
Uttarapatha Swamin. was his chief preceptor.

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 ŠŠ He was also a patron of letters and Budaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
he himself wrote the famous Kannada Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the
work, Kavirajamarga. Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain
ŠŠ He had also built the Rashtrakuta saints.
capital, the city of Malkhed or • Sakatayana wrote the grammar
Manyakheda (In Gulbarga region of work called Amogavritti. The great
Karnataka). mathematician of this period, Viracharya
• Krishna third defeated chola King was the author of Ganitasaram.
Parantaka first and set up pillar of victory • The Kannada literature saw its beginning
at Rameshwaram. during the period of the Rashtrakutas.
• The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin Amogavarsha’s Kavirajamarga was the
and Kannada language was their mother first poetic work in Kannada language.
tongue. • Pampa was the greatest of the
Kannada poets. His famous work was
Cultural Contributions: Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna was another
famous Kannada poet and he wrote
Literature
Santipurana.

Cultural Contributions: Art and

Architecture
• The art and architecture of the
Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and
Elephanta.
• At Ellora images of Shiva in various forms -
Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara
and Somaskanda are carved.
• Other prominent cave temples at Ellora
are Indrasabha and Kotakailasa.
• At Ellora, the most remarkable temple is
the Kailasa temple. Its key features are:
ŠŠ It was built during the reign of Krishna
I.
ŠŠ It is carved out of a massive block of
rock 200 feet long, and 100 feet in
• The Rashtrakutas widely patronized breadth and height.
Sanskrit literature. ŠŠ The temple consists of four parts - the
• Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and main shrine, the entrance gateway,
the Kavirahasya was composed by an intermediate shrine for Nandi and
Halayudha during the reign of Krishna III. mandapa surrounding the courtyard.
• Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain, ŠŠ It has a three-tiered sikhara or
patronized many Jain scholars. His tower resembling the sikhara of the
teacher Jinasena composed Parsva Mamallapuram rathas.

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ŠŠ In the interior of the temple there is a Prominent Dynasties of the Time:
pillared hall which has sixteen square
pillars. The Solankis (942–1243 AD)
ŠŠ The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is • They ruled over Gujarat with the capital
shown as slaying the Buffalo demon city Anhilwad (presently Patan).
and Ravana lifting Mount Kailash, the • Mulraj:
abode of Shiva, is marvellous.
ŠŠ He was the founder of the dynasty.
ŠŠ The scenes of Ramayana were also His period marks the beginning of the
depicted on the walls. Gujarati Culture.
ŠŠ His reign marked the start of a period
during which Gujarati Culture flowered
as manifested in art, architecture,
language, and script. It is described as
the golden period of Gujarat’s history.
• Bhim I (Bhimdev): He was defeated
by Muhammad (also called Mahmud)
Ghazni, who looted and destroyed the
famous Somnath temple.
• Bhim II: He defeated Muhammad Ghori.

Prominent Dynasties of the

Time: The Chauhans of Delhi
and Ajmer
• The Chauhans declared their
independence in the 12th century at
Ajmer and they were the feudatories of
the Pratiharas.
• They captured Ujjain from the Paramars
of Malwa and Delhi in the early period of
the 12th century.
• Later they shifted their capital to Delhi.
• Prithviraj Chauhan was the most
important ruler of this dynasty who
fought with Muhammad Ghori in famous
battle of Tarai.

Prominent Dynasties of the

Time: Rathors of Kannauj (1090-
1194 AD)
• The Rathors established themselves on
the throne of Kannauj from 1090 to 1194

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 A.D. dynasty and Chittor was their capital.
• Jaichand was the last prominent ruler of • During the period of Rana Ratan Singh
this dynasty. of Mewar, Ala-ud-din Khilji invaded his
• He was killed in the battle of Chandwar territory and defeated him.
in 1194A.D. by Muhammad Ghori. • Rana Sangha and Maharana Pratap
were the most prominent Sisodiya rulers
Prominent Dynasties of the who gave a tough fight to the Mughal
rulers of India.
Time: The Chandelas of
Bundelkhand Prominent Dynasties of the
Time: Imperial Cholas
Vijayalaya Chola
• Vijayalaya Chola, who was probably
a Pallava Vassal, rose out of obscurity
during the middle of the 9th century C.E.
• Making use of the opportunity during
a war between Pandyas and Pallavas,
Vijayalaya captured Thanjavur in 848
C.E.
• He built the town of Thanjavur and a
temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini
there.
• They established themselves in the 9th
century.
Sundara Chola
• Mahoba was the capital of Chandela • The Chola power recovered during
during the period of Chandela Chief Sundara Chola’s reign.
Yasovarman. • The Chola Army under the command
• Kalinjar was their important fort. of the crown prince Aditya Karikala
defeated the Pandyas and invaded up to
• The Chandellas built the most famous Tondaimandalam in the north.
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050
A.D. and a number of beautiful temples • Uttama, son of the previous Chola king
at Khajuraho which are most famous for Gandaraditya, forced Sundara Chola to
their carving and sculptures. declare him heir.
• Paramal, who was last Chandela ruler • Uttama Chola’s reign was conspicuous
was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in for the lack of any major initiatives and
1203 A.D. he was replaced by the great Rajaraja
Chola in 985 C.E.
Prominent Dynasties of the Rajaraja Chola
Time: The Sisodiyas of Mewar • He is considered as the most powerful
• The Rajput ruler Bapa Rawat was the Chola ruler, became king in AD 985 and
founder of the Guhila or the Sisodiya expanded the control.

10
• Although the early Chola monarchs had • He built the famous Brihadeshwara
captured parts of Thondai-nadu, Kongu- temple at Thanjavur.
nadu and Pandi-nadu, the empire had
shrunk to the area around the Kaveri Delta Rajendra Chola
in the year 985 AD, when the 7th Chola • Rajaraja’s son Rajendra (r. 1012-1044)
monarch, Rajaraja, born Arulmolivarman, further consolidated Chola power.
assumed the throne.
• He created a Chola viceroyalty in
Madurai, appointing his son as the first
Chola-Pandya viceregal prince. Rajendra
next attacked the Western Chalukyas
and their allies.
• Rajendra’s reign was marked by his
expedition to the river Ganges (c. 1019
C.E.). The Chola army dashed through the
kingdoms north of Vengi and engaged
the Pala king Mahipala and defeated
him.
• The victorious Chola army returned with
the waters of the holy Ganges. In a series
of campaigns he marched north as to
the river Ganga (Ganges).
• He brought back some of its sacred water
in golden pots, emptied these into a tank
named Chola-ganga and adopted the
title of Gangai-konda (Capturer of the
Ganges). However, he did not assume
• Rajaraja immediately embarked on a control over the Ganges region.
campaign of territorial expansion and • The relationship with Srivijaya deteriorated
captured Pallava and Pandya territory. to the point that Rajendra sent a naval
• He successfully fought the Chera rulers of expedition against the kingdom in order
Kerala and extended his rule over parts to enforce acknowledgement of Chola
of modern Karnataka. suzerainty. He sent two diplomatic
missions to China.
• He captured the island of Sri Lanka
as a province of the Chola Empire; it • In 1070, after three of Rajendra’s sons
remained under direct Chola rule for 75 and one grandson had succeeded him,
years. Rajaraja built temples in his own a new line of Chalukya-Cholas was
name in all these areas. established when the Eastern Chalukya
prince Rajendra II (r. 1070-1125) ascended
• He conquered the Maldives Islands in the
the throne. His mother and grandmother
Indian Ocean and sent missions to the
were Chola princesses. Rajendra II
Indonesian Srivijaya Empire.
assumed the title of Kulottunga (Star of
• He encouraged the Shailendra monarch the Dynasty).
of Java to build a Buddhist monastery at
• During his reign, Sri Lanka gained
the Chola port of Nagapattinam.
independence from the Chola rule.

11
 However, trade flourished with Southeast fought and neither could claim mastery
Asia. Another Chola embassy was sent to over the other.
China, together with 72 merchants. Trade • Cholas never managed to overwhelm
with Srivijaya was active too. the Kalyani kingdom and the frontier
• The reign of Rajendra II was one of peace remained at the Tungabhadra River.
and prosperity. The Chola empire held • These wars however resulted in a lot of
together well until the end of the reign of bloodshed and the death of at least one
Kulottunga III in 1216. However, it was not monarch (Rajadhiraja Chola).
as extensive as in the days of Rajaraja I
and Rajendra I. Administration
• As the Pandya monarchs to the south • The whole empire was divided into
increased in strength and a group of ‘Mandalam’ (province) and these in
feudatory chieftains aggressively pursued turn into 'Valanadu' or Kottam and
power in the 13th century, the Chola Nadu. Village was the basic unit of
Empire shrank to the region around administration.
Thanjavur.
• The cholas are best known for their local
• The Chola dynasty came to an end in self-government at village level.
1279 when Rajaraja III died and the Chola
• Each village had an assembly to look
territory was easily absorbed into Pandya
after the affairs of the village. The general
rule.
assemblies were of three types:
Chola Chalukya Wars ŠŠ Ur: A general assembly of the village
• The History of Cholas from the period consisting of tax paying residents.
of Rajaraja was tinged with a series of ŠŠ Sabha or Mahasabha: It consisted
conflicts with the Western Chalukyas. of a gathering of the adult men
• The Old Chalukya dynasty had split into in the Brahmana villages called
two sibling dynasties of the Western and ‘Brahmadeya’ and agrahara village
Eastern Chalukyas. granted to the Brahmanas and of the
and was restricted to the Brahmans of
DO YOU KNOW? the villages.
• Chola temples often became the nuclei of ŠŠ Nagaram: It was found in trading
settlements which grew around them. And centres alone.
these temples were not only places of worship;
they were the hub of economic, social and FAMOUS COMMITTEES OF THE MAHASABHA
cultural life as well.
• Variyam: Executive Committee of Sabha
• Many of the achievements of the Cholas were
made possible through new developments in • Tottavariyam: Garden committee
agriculture. • Pon-Variyam: Gold committee
• Eri-Variyam: Tank Committee
• Rajaraja’s daughter Kundavai was
• Alunganattar: Executive Committee of Ur
married to the Eastern Chalukya prince
• Nyayattar: Judicial Committee
Vimaladitya. Stemming from this Cholas
• Udasin-Variyam: Committee of Ascetics
had a final interest in the affairs of Vengi.
• Samstua-Variyam: Annual Committee
• Western Chalukyas however felt that the
Vengi kingdom was under their natural • The ‘Uttaramerur’ inscription (10th
sphere of influence. Several wars were Century) describes how the local Sabha

12
 functioned. There was a close contact Mahmud of Ghazni (997-1030 AD)
between the Central authority and the
village assemblies. The Chola officials • Mahmud is said to
had only a supervisory role over these have made seventeen
assemblies. raids into India.
• The Mahasabha possessed the • At that time, North
proprietary rights over community lands India was divided
and controlled the private lands within its into a number of
jurisdiction. The judicial committee of the Hindu states. On the
Mahasabha, called the ‘nattar’ settled frontier of India, there
both civil and criminal cases of dispute. existed the Hindu
Shahi kingdom which
extended from the Punjab to Kabul.
THE MUSLIM INVASIONS • The initial raids were against the Hindu
INTO INDIA Shahi kingdom.
• The subsequent raids of Mahmud into
Arab Conquest of Sind (712 AD) India were aimed at plundering the rich
temples and cities of northern India.
• In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim
invaded Sindh. • In 1024, Mahmud defeated the Solanki
King Bhimadeva I, and plundered the
• Qasim organized the administration of famous temple of Somnath.
Sind. The people of Sind were given the
status of zimmis (protected subjects). • This was his last campaign in India.
Mahmud died in 1030 A.D.
• Jaziya was imposed for the first time on
Indian land. • Mahmud was not a mere raider and
plunderer of wealth. He had built a
• But the Muslims could not expand their wide empire. The Ghaznavi empire
authority further into India due to the roughly included Persia, Trans-oxiana,
presence of the powerful Pratihara Afghanistan and Punjab.
kingdom in western India.
• His conquest of Punjab and Multan
• Although the conquest of Sindh did not completely changed the political
lead to further conquests immediately, situation in India.
it had resulted in the diffusion of Indian
culture abroad. • He drained the resources of India by his
repeated raids and deprived India of her
• Many Arab travellers visited Sindh. Indian manpower.
medicine and astronomy were carried to
different regions by Arab. • The inclusion of Punjab and Afghanistan in
Ghazni’s kingdom made the subsequent
• The Indian numerals in the Arabic form Muslim conquests of India comparatively
went to Europe through them. easy.
• He also patronized art and literature.
ŠŠ Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the
court of Mahmud. He was the author
of Shah Namah.

13
 ŠŠ Al-beruni stayed in Mahmud’s court • Realizing the grave situation, the
and wrote the famous Kitab-i-Hind. Hindu princes of north India formed a
confederacy under the command of
Muhammad Ghori Prithiviraj Chauhan.
• The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni • Prithviraj rose to the occasion, and
but became independent after the death defeated Ghori in the battle of Tarain
of Mahmud Ghazni. near Delhi in 1191 A.D.
• Taking advantage of the decline of • In the Second Battle of Tarain in 1192 AD,
the Ghaznavid empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad Ghori thoroughly routed the
Muhammad popularly known as army of Prithiviraj, who was captured
Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under and killed.
their control. • The second battle of Tarain was a major
• Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to disaster for the Rajputs. The first Muslim
conquer India. kingdom was thus firmly established in
India at Ajmer.
• In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured
Multan and occupied whole of Sind. • After his brilliant victory over Prithiviraj
However in 1178 AD he was defeated by at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori returned
the ruler of Gujrat near Mt. Abu. to Ghazni leaving behind his favourite
general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make
• After his defeat he changed the whole further conquests in India.
plan of operation, in 1181 AD he conquered
Lahore. • In 1193, Aibak prepared the ground for
another invasion by Muhammad Ghori.
• In 1186 he attacked Punjab, and annexed This invasion was directed against the
it and led his invasion of the Chauhan Jayachand Rathor of Kanauj. Muhammad
kingdom. routed Jayachandra’s forces in the battle
of Chandawar.
The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192 AD)
• The Battle of Chandawar led to the
extension of Turkish Empire into Gangetic
doab, which provided it with a strong
economic base.
• The Battles of Tarain and Chandawar
contributed to the establishment of
Turkish rule in India.

Causes of Success of Muslims

against the Rajputs
• Political Causes: Rajput kings specially
Chauhan and Rathor, Chalukya and
Chandela fought with each other. So
their power became weak and they could
not face the enemy with unity.
• Social and Religious Causes: People
were divided into many divisions because
14
 of the caste system and they did not care ŠŠ There was no permanent army.
about national interest. When Chauhan ŠŠ The method of fighting was old.
and Rathor were defeated, the public
was disinclined. On the other hand, ŠŠ Elephants were their only power.
Muslims were united and they fought ŠŠ Rajputs believed in certain ethical
with religious enthusiasm. behaviour and did not use unfair
• Military causes: Indian military was full of means in wars, whereas the enemies
demerits – followed all policies—right and wrong.
ŠŠ The last thing is that Rajputs did not
attack first.

15
 CHAPTER - 2

THE DELHI SULTANATE

16
INTRODUCTION ŠŠ As a result of the fusion of “Indo-Muslim"
cultures new developments occurred in
• The period from 1206 to 1526 has been architecture, music, literature, religion
called the period of Delhi Sultanate. and clothing.
• In this period of time, India was ruled by a ŠŠ It is a fact that the Urdu language was
number of Turkish Sultans who belonged born during this period as a result of the
to the Turkish clan. These Sultans were intermingling of the local speakers of
also called Mamluks. Sanskrit and Prakrits with immigrants
• Five dynasties ruled over Delhi during this speaking Persian, Turkish and Arabic
period. They are the Slave dynasty, Khilji under the Muslim rulers.
dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, the Sayyid • The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-
dynasty and Lodi dynasty. Except the Islamic empire to have enthroned one
Lodis all other Delhi sultans were Turkish of the few female rulers in India, Raziya
in origin. The Lodis were Afghans. Sultana.
• Though the Sultanate made some
economic improvements in the provinces,
their most notable achievement was
THE SLAVE DYNASTY
holding off Mongol invasion and unifying
Northern India in the process.
(MAMLUK DYNASTY)
They were mostly the slaves of original
• The Sultanate ushered in a period rulers.
of Indian cultural and particularly
architectural renaissance.

17
Qutubdin Aibak (1206-10 AD) • He also introduced the Iqta system in
Delhi sultanate, which was a practice of
• Qutbuddin Aibak was a slave of tax farming. Under the Iqta system, an
Muhammad Ghori, who made him the officer was given a grant of revenue from
Governor of his Indian possessions. a territory in lieu of salary. However, the
• After the death of Ghori in 1206, Aibak Iqta system was not hereditary. The Iqta
declared his independence and thus system connected the farthest part of
founded the Slave dynasty as well as the the Sultanate to the central government.
Delhi Sultanate. • He is credited with building the Hauz-i-
• Muslim writers call him “Aibak Lakh Shamsi near Mehrauli in Delhi. He also
Baksh” or giver of lakhs because he gave completed the work on Qutub Minar,
liberal donations to them. which was started by his predecessor.
• Aibak patronized the great scholar • Mongols invaded for the first time under
Hasan Nizami. Chengiz Khan during this time.
• He started construction of Qutub minar • Currency reform: He introduced silver
(Delhi) after the name of a famous Sufi coins (tanka) and copper coin (jital).
saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki.
Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Ajmer) also Iltutmish’s role as consolidator
started during his rule. of Delhi sultanate
• Aibak died suddenly while playing
• He made Delhi as the capital and a major
chaugan (horse polo) in 1210.
Centre of economic and cultural activity.
• He was succeeded by his son Aram Baksh,
• The Iltutmish annexed Sindh and Multan
who was replaced by Iltutmish after eight
into the Delhi Sultanate.
months.
• He suppressed the Rajput revolts and
Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211- recovered Ranthampur, Jalor, Ajmir and
Gwalior.
1236 AD)
• He received the Mansur, the letter of
• He made Delhi as capital in place of recognition, from the Caliph by which he
Lahore. became the legal sovereign ruler of India.
• During his time slave, nobility became • His policies and love for justice earned
very strong. Zia-Ud din Barani referred deep respect from the people of Delhi.
them Turkan-e-Chihalgani (the corp of
forty loyal slaves). Raziya Sultana
• The only women ruler in the history of
Delhi, she ruled for three and half years
until 1240.
• She had all the qualities of a good
monarch (as told by Minhaj-us-Siraj in
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri),
• Still the Chihalgani (the group of forty
Turkish chiefs) could not accept the rule
of a woman.
18
• They rebelled against Razia when she • Balban introduced rigorous court
appointed her favourite Yakut as the discipline and new customs such as
superintendent of the Stables. Yakut was prostration (Shizda) and kissing the
an Abyssinian, which raised the jealousy Sultan’s feet (Paibos) to prove his
of Turko-Afghan nobles. superiority over the nobles.
• He also introduced the Persian festival of
Nauroz to impress the nobles and people
with his wealth and power.
• He abolished Chihalgani/association of
40 nobles. He did not allow Ulemas to
interfere into the political affairs of the
state. He did not allow Hindus to entry in
army or other institutions of authority.
• He built forts and established Afghan
garrisons to guard communications with
Bengal. He maintained pomp and dignity
at his court.
• He is famous for his policy of blood and
iron- This policy implied being ruthless to
the enemies, use of sword, harshness and
strictness and shedding blood. It allowed
use of all sorts of methods of terrorism
on enemies and inflicting violence upon
them.
• Malik Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda,
• He established a separate military
supported the rebel chiefs. Soon a battle
department - diwan-i-arz – and
ensued between the two rival groups
reorganized the army.
following which Yakut died and Razia
became a prisoner. • The outskirts of Delhi were often
plundered by the Mewatis. Balban
• Razia married Altunia and they jointly
took severe action against them and
tried to take the sultanate back from
prevented such robberies. Robbers were
Muizuddin Bahram Shah. However, Razia
mercilessly pursued and put to death.
and her husband were defeated and
forced to flee. While fleeing to Kaithal, • Balban died in 1287.
they were captured by the dacoits and
assassinated.
THE KHILJI DYNASTY
• In 1246 Balban succeeded in putting
• The Khiljis served under the Ilbari dynasty
Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of
of Delhi.
Iltutmish, as Sultan.
• Malik Firuz was the founder of the Khilji
Balban Dynasty who was originally the Ariz-I-
Mumalik appointed by Kaiqubad (last
• He propagated the Iranian theory of sultan of the Slave dynasty) during the
Divine Rights, which said that the Sultan days of the decline of the Ilbari Dynasty.
was the representative of God on Earth.

19
 He took advantage of the political
vacuum and ascended the throne of
Delhi as Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji. Alauddin Khilji (AD 1296-1316)
• The court of Khiljis was of multi-ethnical • He was the greatest ruler of the Khilji
background with people of Persian, Dynasty and was the first Muslim ruler to
Indian, Arab and Turkish origin. This extend his empire right up to the extreme
marked an end to the monopolization South of India.
of power and racial dictatorship by Ilbari
Turks and led to the widening of the • He lavishly distributed money and gold
social base of the ruling class. among his people, noble and ministers
so that they might forget the murder of
Jalal-ud-din and support him.
Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji (AD
• He was the first ruler of Delhi Sultanate
1290-96)
who did not ask for a manshur (letter of
• He came to the throne at the age of investiture) from the Caliph but called
seventy and ruled for six years. himself the deputy of the Caliph.
• He adopted a conciliatory policy towards • He concentrated all power of the
the nobles of the earlier regime and even state in his own hands; therefore, the
the Mongols. Therefore, he appointed period marked the zenith of despotic
Malik Chajju, who was Balban's nephew, government as well.
as the Governor of Kara, who rebelled
• Alauddin Khilji is said to have been
later.
poisoned by Malik Kafur, who was an
• One of the most important events of eunuch slave and military commander
his reign was the invasion of Devagiri, of Alauddin khilji. Alauddin Khilji died in
the capital of the Yadava king, Raja January 1316.
Ramachandra deva, in the Deccan, by Ali
Gurshasp, the nephew and son-in-law of Reforms and Experiments of
the sultan, and the Governor of Kara.
Alauddin Khilji
• After his successful campaign, Ali
Gurshasp invited the Sultan to Kara to The reforms of Alauddin aimed at improving
the administration, strengthening the
receive the enormous wealth. Jalaluddin
army, and gearing up the machinery of
came to Kara in July 1296, where Ali
land revenue administration, expand and
Gurshasp murdered him and proclaimed
improve the cultivation and welfare of the
himself the Sultan with the title of
people.
Alauddin.

20
 • He was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles, intermarriages between
noble families, inefficient spy-system and drinking liquor were the basic reasons for
the rebellions.
• Therefore, he passed four ordinances.
Administrative
• He confiscated the properties of the nobles.
measures to curb
• The intelligence system was reorganized and all the secret activities of the nobles
rebellions
were monitored.
• The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally stopped.
• Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of the Sultan were forbidden.
• Due to such harsh measures, his reign was free from rebellions.
• According to Zia Uddin Barani, the economic regulations were primarily military
measure, i.e., to maintain a large and efficient army for keeping the Mongols in
check. However, Amir Khusro considers it a welfare measure to ensure the supply of
important commodities at reasonable rates.
• Zawabit or detailed regulations were made to fix the cost of all commodities from
food grains to horses, cattle and slaves.
• He established four separate markets in Delhi for - food grains, costly cloths, horses,
slaves and cattle.
• Two officers, Diwan-i-Riyasat and Shahana- i-Mandi, controlled the markets.
Market Control
• He gave loans to the rich Multan merchants for purchasing cloth from different
or Economic
parts of the empire and selling it in the Sarai-Adl (cloth market at an open place
Regulation
inside Badaun gate.)
• Horses were sold directly to the military department (Diwan-i-Arz),
• Food grains were stocked at the warehouses to release during famine or shortage
of supply.
• The Karwanis or Banjaras carried the grains from villages to Delhi. To prevent
hoarding, all merchants were registered with the state.
• There were secret agents called munhiyans, who sent reports to the Sultan regarding
the functioning of these markets.
• Violation of regulations was severely punished.
• Zabita regulation: Biswa was declared as the standard unit of measurement of
cultivable land.
• Land revenue (Kharaj) was fixed at half of the produce based on paimash
Revenue/ (measurement) in the Doab i.e., the territory between the Ganga and the Jamuna.
Agrarian Reforms • Suppression of the hereditary revenue collectors-Rai, Rana, Rawat (top level) and
Khut, Muqaddam, Chaudhari (village level).
• House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (charai) were also levied.
• Land revenue was calculated in kind but demanded in cash.
• Establishment of a new revenue department, Diwan-i-Mustakharaj.

21
 • The realization of land revenue in cash enabled Alauddin to pay his soldiers in cash.
He was the first sultan to do so.
• Direct recruitment of the soldiers by Arz-i-Mamalik.
• Like Balban, he built several forts on the North West frontier and repaired old ones.
Military Reforms
• Introduction of Daagh (branding the horses) and Huliya/Chehra (descriptive rolls of
soldiers) system.
• Introduction of three grades of soldiers: Foot soldiers; Soldiers with one horse (ek-
aspa); and Soldiers with two horses (do-aspa)
• The north-western frontier was fortified and Ghazi Malik was appointed as the
Warden to protect the frontier.
• The military conquests of Alauddin Khalji include his expedition against Gujarat,
Mewar and the Deccan.
• In 1303, Alauddin marched to conquer Chittor. It was a powerful state in Rajasthan.
Raja Ratan Singh was defeated.
• The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed jauhar. This Padmini episode
was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavat written by Malik Mohammad
Jayasi. However, the same incident has not been mentioned in the contemporary
account of Amir Kushrau who was accompanying Allauddin in the campaign.
Military • Alauddin Khilji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far
Campaigns south.
• This region was ruled by four important dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas
of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• Malik Kafur, Chief Commander of Alauddin Khilji was instrumental in South Indian
campaigns.
• He attacked and defeated Devagiri Ramachandra Deva.
• Malik Kafur defeated the following South Indian Kings.
• Kakathiyas- Prataparudra Deva
• Hoysalas- Veera Bhallala III
• Pandyas- Veera pandya and Sundara Pandya.
• Alauddin Khilji dealt Mongol issue with blood and iron policy.

Development of Arts under TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

court patronage • The Tughlaqs were a Muslim family of
• Both Amir Khusrau and Mir Hasan Dehlvi Turkish origin.
enjoyed his patronage. • The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was
• He built a new city called Siri. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

• He built the Jamait Khana Masjid at the • Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for
dargah of Nizam-ud-din Auliya, and Alai Tughlaqabad near Delhi.
Darwaza near Qutub Minar. • The dynasty reached its zenith point
• He began the construction of Alai Minar between AD 1330 and 1335 when
near Qutub Minar but could not complete Muhammad Bin Tughlaq led military
it. campaign.

22
• Mohammad Bin Tuglaqh treacherously • He was very tolerant in religious matters.
killed his father and ascended the throne. • The Sultan maintained good relations
with foreigners and received an envoy
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (AD from the Chinese ruler.
1325-51) • Toghan Timur (AD 1341), a Chinese came
• Jauna Khan succeeded his father in AD to seek permission to rebuild Buddhist
1325 under the title of Muhammad- bin- Monasteries in the Himalayan region,
Tughlaq. which were destroyed during the crucial
expedition. The sultan gave permission
• He is the most controversial personality
and sent Ibn Batutah to the court of the
of Medieval Indian history.
Chinese emperor in 1347.
• He was the most learned scholar of his
• Ibn Battutah was a traveller from
time. He knew both Arabic and Persian
Morocco. He came to India in 1333. He
and had comprehensive knowledge
was appointed as the chief Qazi of Delhi
of philosophy, astronomy, logic,
by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. He has left
mathematics and physical science.
an invaluable account of Muhammad-
• His novel experiments ended in miserable bin-Tughlaq's reign in his book ‘Rehla’.
failures because they were all far ahead
• Reforms and Experiments of Muhammad
of their time.
Bin Tuglaqh (AD 1325-51)

23
 • There was a shortage of silver throughout the world in the fourteenth century. So,
inspired by the introduction of paper token currency in China, Sultan issued token coins.
Token These were coins of copper and brass that could be exchanged for fixed amounts of
Currency gold and silver from the Delhi Sultanate.
• This was one of the unique reforms of the sultan.
• However, inability to curb forging of token currency led to failure of this reform.
• He raised the land revenue in the Doab and imposed many other taxes.
• Instead of actual produce, standard yield was taken into account based on the officially
assumed prices.
• Unfortunately, the rain failed and there was a terrible famine in the country. The taxes
were collected rigorously. The peasants revolted in the doab. Later, the Sultan took
several measures.
• He created an agricultural department, "Diwan-i-Kohi" under the charge of "Diwan-i-
Agrarian Amir-Kohi" to bring barren (banjar) land under cultivation.
Reforms • Model farm under the state was created in an area of 64 square miles for which the
government spent seventy lakh tankas.
• He also started the practice of Ijarah (renting out the revenue to the highest bidder.)
• Sondhar (agricultural) loans were advanced to dig wells and to buy seed and implements.
• Shiqdars were appointed and given large sums of money to implement the scheme, but
they were incompetent and the scheme failed. However, the scheme became a part of
the agricultural policy of the Mughals.
• The failure of the schemes of the Sultan caused a crisis in the empire.
• Transfer of Capital (1327): It seems that the Sultan needed to make Deogiri as his second
capital so that he may have the capacity to control south India better. Deogiri was
renamed Daulatabad. After two or three years, Muhammad Tughlaq chose to forsake
Daulatabad because he soon found out that he could not control south India from Delhi
and he couldn't control north from Daulatabad.
Administrative
• Khorasan Expedition: The Sultan had a dream of widespread victory. He chose to win
Reforms and
Khorasan and Iraq and built a gigantic armed force for the reason. Nevertheless, his
Decisions
campaign ended in a disappointment.
• Quarachil Expedition: This campaign was propelled to counter Chinese attacks. It
likewise gives the idea that the campaign was coordinated against some headstrong
tribes in Kumaon-Garhwal district with the objective of bringing them under Delhi
Sultanate. This was too a failed attempt.

Rebellions
• The later part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign witnessed a spate of rebellions by the
nobles and provincial governors.
• The rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the establishment of the Madurai Sultanate.
• In 1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded. In 1347 Bahamani kingdom was established.
• The governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind revolted against the authority of Muhammad
bin Tughlaq.
• In Gujarat, Taghi rose in revolt against the Sultan who spent nearly three years chasing
him.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health deteriorated with age and he died in 1351.

24
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (AD 1351- welfare of the slaves.
1388) • He established a charity bureau called
Diwan-i-Khairat for the help of poor
• He was not a distinguished military persons, widows and orphans and through
leader. which pecuniary help was distributed for
• He led two unsuccessful campaigns into the marriage of poor Muslim girls.
Bengal against Haji Iliyas (Shams-ud-din • A charitable hospital called Darul-Shafa
Iliyas Shah) and Sikandar Shah. was set up at Delhi where free medicine
• Rather than territorial expansion, he and diet was supplied.
focused more on maintaining the status • About 300 new towns were built during
quo, but had limited success on this front his reign. The famous among them was
too. Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now
Reforms and Experiments of Firoz called Firoz Shah Kotla.
Shah Tughlaq • He strictly followed the advice of the
ulemas in running the administration.
• He pleased the nobles and assured
hereditary succession to their properties. • As he was guided by the ulemas, he was
intolerant towards Shia Muslims and
• The iqtas and the post of officials and Sufis.
soldiers were nearly made hereditary.
• He treated Hindus as second grade
• As per the Islamic law he levied the taxes. citizens and imposed Jizya.
• He abolished additional taxes called • In this respect, he was the precursor of
Abwabs and collected only 4 taxes; Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb.
ŠŠ Khams – tax on spoils of war • When Firoz died in 1388, His successors
ŠŠ Kharaz- land tax had to face the rebellion of the slaves
ŠŠ Zakat- charity tax created by Firoz.

ŠŠ Jiziya (tax paid by non-Muslim • In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate
populations to their Muslim rulers., In disintegrated further.
return for payment of the jizyah, non- • The invasion of Taimur in 1398 in fact
Muslim populations were granted delivered a deadly blow to the Tughlaq
protection of life and property and the dynasty.
right to practice their religion).
• He was the first Sultan to impose SAYYIDS (AD 1414-1451)
irrigation tax (Haqq-i-Sharab). But at the
same time he dug irrigation canals and • Before his departure from India, Timur
wells. The longest canal was about 200 appointed Khizr Khan as governor of
kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Multan.

• He organized the institution of slavery • He captured Delhi and founded the

into a system and employed them in Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
Royal Karkhanas and other production • Alam Shah (1445-1451), the weakest of the
activities. Sayyid princes handed over the throne to
• A separate department, Diwan-i- Bahlol Lodi and retired.
Bandagan, was established for the

25
LODIS (AD 1451-1526) • Greatly displeased by the arrogance of
Ibrahim, Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur
to invade India.
Bahlol Lodi
• In the first battle of Panipat (AD 1526),
• The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Babur defeated Ibrahim and killed him.
Afghans. Bahlol Lodi was the first Afghan He became the master of Delhi and Agra.
ruler of India. This puts an end to the Sultanate and the
• He died in 1489 and was succeeded by rise of Mughal dynasty in India.
his son, Sikandar Lodi.

Sikandar Lodi (AD 1489-1517) POLITY OF THE TIME

Sultanate Rule brought about some far
• Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517) was the greatest reaching changes in the political economic
of the three Lodi sovereigns. and social conditions of India.
• Sikandar Lodi transferred the capital to • The 'feudal', multi-centred, polity was
Agra. replaced by a centralized state. The king
• He introduced a new land measurement enjoyed practically unlimited powers.
scale known as Ghaz-i-Sikandari. 'Sultanate' was the form in which this
power was expressed.
• He extended his empire from Punjab to
Bihar and made the Sultanate stronger. • While the raid, ranas and thakuras failed
to unite the country, Turks succeeded in
• Roads were constructed and many
establishing an "all-India administration
irrigational facilities were provided.
by bringing the chief cities and the
• He set up an efficient espionage system great routes under the control of the
and introduced the system of auditing government of Delhi.
the accounts.
• He relaxed restrictions on trade,
which greatly promoted the economic
ADMINISTRATION DURING
prosperity of the people. SULTANATE
• He was staunch Sunni and a Muslim • The Nature of the Delhi Sultanate: In a
fanatic. He lacked religious tolerance theoretical and formal sense, the Delhi
and levied Jiziya and Pilgrimage tax on Sultans recognized the supremacy of
Hindus. the Islamic law (shariah) and tried to
• He was a liberal patron of arts and letters. prevent its open violation. But they had
He wrote verses in Persian under the pen to supplement it by framing secular
name of Gulrukhi meaning Rose Faced. regulations (zawabit), too.
• Central Administration: The central
Ibrahim Lodi (AD 1517-1526) administrative machinery of the
• Ibrahim Lodi, the arrogant eldest son of Sultanate consisted of the nobles
Sikandar Lodi, succeeded him. controlling various offices with the Sultan
at the helm of affairs.
• Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab
was insulted and disaffection between
king and courtiers became very common.

26
Diwan-i -Wizarat • It issued farmans and received letters
from subordinate officials.
• The Wizarat was the head of the
diwan-i-wizarat (Finance). He was the Barid-I-Mumalik
most important figure in the central
administration. • Barid-I-Mumalik was the head of the
State news-agency.
• Though he was one of the four important
departmental heads, he exercised a • He had to keep information of all that
general supervisory authority over others. was happening in the Sultanate.
• The wizarat organised the collection • The administrative sub- divisions had
of revenue, exercised control over local barids who sent regular news —
expenditure, kept accounts, disbursed letters to the central office.
salaries and allotted revenue assignments • The barids reported matters of state -
(iqta) at Sultan's order. wars, rebellions, local affairs, finances,
• There were several officials who helped the state of agriculture etc.
the wizarat such as the mushif-I mumalik • Apart from the barids, another set of
(accountant-general) and the mustaufi-i reporters existed who were known as
mumalik (auditor general). munhiyan.

Diwan-i Arz Diwan-I-Risalat

• Military department was headed by the • Diwan-I-Risalat was the highest religious
ariz-i mumalik. office. It was headed by Sadr-Us-Sudur.
• He was responsible for the administration • He took care of the ecclesiastical affairs
of military affairs. and appointed qazi.
• He inspected the troops maintained by • He approved various grants like waqf for
the iqta-holders. religious and educational institutions.
• He also supervised the commissariat wazifa and idrar to the learned and the
duties (supply and transport) of the poor.
Sultan's army.
• The army consisted of troops maintained Judiciary
by nobles as well as the standing army • The Sultan headed the judiciary and was
(hashm-i-qalb) of the Sultan. the final court of appeal in both civil and
criminal matters.
Diwan-I-Insha • Next to him was the Qazi-Ul-Mumalik (or
• Diwan-I-Insha looked after State Qazi-Ul-Quzzat), the chief judge of the
correspondence. It was headed by Dahir- Sultanate.
I-Mumalik. • Often, the offices of Sadr-Us-Sudur and
• This department dealt with all Qazi-Ul-Mumalik were held by the same
correspondence between the Sultan and person.
other rulers, and between the Sultan and • The chief qazi headed the legal system
provincial governments. and heard appeals from the lower courts.

27
Muhtasib defrayed their own expenses, paid the
troops maintained by them and sent the
• The muhtasib (public censors) assisted surplus (fawazil) to the centre.
the judicial department.
• The grant of iqta did not imply a right to
• Their task was to see that there was no the land nor was it hereditary through
public infringement of the tenets of Islam. the holders of Iqta tended to acquire
hereditary rights in Feroz Tughluq's reign.
Specific departments created • These revenue assignments were
by Rulers for specific functions transferable, the iqta-holder being
transferred from one region to another
Department Founder
every three or four years.
Diwan-i-Mustakharaj Alauddin Khilji • Therefore, iqta should not be equated with
(revenue arrears)
the fief of medieval feudal Europe, which
Diwan-i-Kohi Mohammad-bin- were hereditary and non-transferable.
(Agriculture) Tughlaq
• The assignments could be large (a whole
Diwan-i-Bandagan Feroz shah Tughlaq
(slaves)
province or a part). Assignments even to
nobles carried administrative, military
Diwan-i-Khairat (Charity) Feroz shah Tughlaq and revenue collecting responsibilities.
Diwan-i-Ishtiaq Feroz shah Tughlaq
• Thus, the provincial administration was
(pensions)
headed by the muqti or wali. He had to
maintain an army composed of horsemen
Administrative Units and and foot soldiers.
corresponding heads
Administrative unit Head ECONOMY
Province/Sarkars Naib/Wali • The lands were classified into three
Shiqs/Districts Shiqdar categories:
Paragana/Group of Chaudary and Amil 1 Iqta Land Land assigned to Muqtis
Villages
2 Khalisa Land under the direct control of
Gram/Village Muqaddam/Khut/ Land the Sultan
Potwaris
3 Inam Lands granted to religious
Land institutions
Iqta System
• Three groups of rural aristocracy- khot,
• This institution in the early lslamic
muqaddam, and chaudhuri - who
world was in force as a form of reward
collected land revenue (kharaj) from
for services to the State. This played an
the peasants on behalf of the state and
important role in maintaining centralized
deposited the same with the officials of
administration.
the diwan-i-wizarat.
• In order to consolidate, the Turkish rulers
• Besides land revenue (kharaj), every
made revenue assignments (iqta), in lieu
cultivator had to pay house tax (ghari)
of cash, to their nobles (umma). The
and cattle or grazing tax (charai).
assignees (known as muqti and wali)
collected revenue from these areas, • The peasantry paid one third of their

28
 produce as land revenue, and sometimes- • The system of coinage had also developed
even one-half of the produce. during the Delhi Sultanate. Gold coins or
• They led miserable lives during this dinars became popular during the reign
period. of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian
conquests.
• However, Sultans like Muhammad bin
Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took efforts
to enhance agricultural production by SOCIAL LIFE
providing irrigational facilities and by • Society of this period was of great
providing takkavi loans. inequalities. This was reflected in the
• They also encouraged the farmers Muslim society even more than in the
to cultivate superior crops like wheat Hindu, the latter being predominantly
instead of barley. rural where inequalities were less marked.
• Firoz encouraged the growth of In towns, the Muslim nobility led a life of
horticulture. great ostentation.

• During the Sultanate period, the process • During the Sultanate period, the Muslim
of urbanization gained momentum. society was divided into several ethnic
and racial groups.
• The growth of trade and commerce
witnessed as India exported a large • The Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian
number of commodities to other Muslims developed exclusively and there
countries. Grain and textile were the were no intermarriages between these
prominent items of export. groups.

• Overseas trade was under the control of • The Muslim nobles occupied high offices
Multanis and Afghan Muslims. and very rarely the Hindu nobles were
given high position in the government.
• The Gujarat Marwari merchants and
Muslim Bohra merchants dominated • The Hindus were considered zimmis or
inland trade. protected people for which they were
forced to pay a tax called jiziya.
• Construction of roads and their
maintenance facilitated for smooth • Muhammed bin Tuglaqh was probably
transport and communication. the only ruler who included Hindus and
lowborn people in the nobility.
• Sarai or rest houses on the highways
were maintained for the convenience of • Muhammed bin Tuglaqh also included
the travellers. Sufis in the administration.

• Cotton textile and silk industry flourished • There was little change in the structure of
in this period. the Hindu society during this period.

• Sericulture was introduced on a large • Traditional caste system with the

scale. Brahmins on the upper strata of the
society was prevalent.
• Paper industry grew and there was
extensive use of paper from the 14th and • The subservient position of women also
15th centuries. continued and the practice of sati was
widely prevalent.
• The royal karkhanas supplied the goods
needed to the Sultan and his household. • The seclusion of women and the wearing
of purdah became so common even

29
 Hindu women followed it. • Nobles were very powerful enough to act
as kingmakers and controlled the weak
sultans.
TECHNOLOGICAL
• Limitations of Iqtadari, Zamindari and
ADVANCEMENT OF THE Jagirdari system led to the disintegration
of Delhi Sultanate under weak sultans.
PERIOD • Invasion of Timurid created a havoc like
• New techniques and crafts were brought situation and became the main cause for
by the Muslims to India like Saqiya, the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate.
spinning wheel, pit-loom, lime mortar, true • There was absence of strong rulers.
arches, dome, paper and bookbinding, Unfortunately after the death of Sultan
stirrup, horseshoe, gunpowder, tin coating Firoz no strong ruler arose and successive
and mariner's compass. rule of weak kings hastened the process
• The Indians accepted all these without of decline.
hesitation or opposition. • Vastness of empire and poor means
of communication also contributed to
CAUSES OF DECLINE OF decline.

DELHI SULTANATE
• The rulers of Delhi Sultanate came to
power with the help of sword and army,
so there was no definite law of succession.

30
 CHAPTER - 3

VIJAYANAGARA AND
BAHMANI EMPIRE

31
INTRODUCTION of the kings of the Sangama dynasty are as
following:
• Vijayanagar empire was established in
1336 by Harihara and Bukka who were Harihara I (1336-1356 AD)
the sons of Sangama.
• He along with Bukka I was the founder of
• It had its capital on the banks of river the Vijayanagara kingdom. He was also
Tungabhadra. It extended from Krishna known as Vira Harihara I and Hakka. He
river to extreme south. ruled from 1336 AD to 1356 AD.
• Some scholars ascribe to the theory
of Telugu origin of Vijayanagar rulers, Bukka I (1356 AD- 1377 AD)
Others believe that they belonged to
Karnataka. • He sat on the throne after Harihara I and
ruled for about 20 years. He expanded the
• The former believe that the empire was empire by defeating the Shambuvaraya
established by Harihara I and Bukka I (the kingdom of Arcot and the Reddis of
sons of Sangama) who were employed Kondaveedu by 1360.
under the Kakatiya ruler.
• He defeated the Sultan of Madurai and
• When Warangal was taken by Ulugh Khan extended the territory into the south all
(later Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq) in 1323, the way to Rameswaram.
they got employed under Kampildeva
of Anegundi and when Anegondi was • During Bukka’s reign, the capital of the
conquered by the Delhi Sultan, they empire was established at Vijayanagara
were deputed there to restore order but which was more secure than the previous
instead they founded the Vijayanagar capital Anegundi.
empire.
Harihara Raya II (1377-1404 AD)
• According to one view, they were
feudatories of Hoysalas and after the • Bukka was succeeded by Harihara Raya
dissolution of Hoysala power in 1342, they II. The latter continued the policy of
emerged as their successors. expansion and controlled such ports as
Chaul, Goa and Dabhol. He conquered
• The Vijayanagara period is divided
the Srisailam and Addanki areas from
into four different dynasties- Sangama,
the Reddis of Kondaveedu. He took
Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.
the titles Vedamarga Pravartaka and
• There were many foreign travellers who Vaidikamarga Sthapanacharya.
visited the Vijayanagar empire and left
much valuable accounts, these were Virupaksha Raya (1404-1405 AD)
– Ibn Batuta (Moroccan), Nicolo de
Conti(Venetian), Abdur Razzak(Persian), • He could rule for one year only and was
and Domingo Paes (Portuguese). murdered by his sons and was succeeded
by Bukka Raya II who in turn was
succeeded by Deva Raya I.
SANGAMA DYNASTY (1336-
Deva Raya I (1406-1422 AD)
1485)
The dynasty was the first to rule over • He was always engaged in battles
Vijayanagar. The list and a short description against the Bahmani Sultan of Gulbarga,
Reddis of Kondaveedu and Velamas of

32
 Telangana. He was able to retain the Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya
large amount of territories he controlled.
(1485-1491 AD)
Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya (1422- • He tried to expand his empire but faced
1424 AD) stiff opposition from rebelling chieftains.
• He conquered the western ports
• Deva Raya was succeeded by
of Kannada country of Mangalore,
Ramchandra Raya in 1422 AD who
Honnavar, Bakanur and Bhatkal but lost
could rule only for a brief time. He was
Udayagiri to Gajapati Kapilendra in 1491.
succeeded by Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya
He died in 1491.
who in turn was succeeded by Deva
Raya II.
Thimma Bhupala (1491 AD)
Deva Raya II (1424-1446 AD) • He succeeded his father Narasimha
Deva Raya but was murdered by his
• He was a successful king. He thwarted
army commander who took advantage
the attacks of Ahmad Shah I of the
of political unrest. He was succeeded by
Bahamanis, conquered Kondaveedu
his younger brother Narasimha Raya II.
in 1432 and also defeated the Gajapati
of Orissa. He also invaded Lanka and
collected rich tributes from the region. Narasimha Raya II (1491-1505 AD)
He managed to collect tributes from the • Despite being the crowned King, he
ruler of Calicut. remained a puppet in the hands of his
commander Tuluva Narasa Nayaka till his
Praudha Raya (1485 AD) death in 1505. He was murdered by the
son of Narasa Nayaka, Viranarasimha
• Deva Raya II was succeeded by
Raya who proclaimed himself as the new
Mallikarjuna Raya, Virupaksha Raya II
king.
and Praudha Raya who were weak kings.
The last king of Sangama dynasty was • Vira Narasimha raya was acting as the
Praudha Raya who was driven out of the regent of the empire after the death of
capital by his able commander Saluva Narasa Nayaka.
Narasimha Deva Raya in 1485 AD. • Thus the Saluva dynasty came to an end.

SALUVA DYNASTY (1486- TULUVA DYNASTY (1505-

1505 AD) 1570 AD)
This was the second dynasty to rule the • This was the third dynasty to rule
Vijayanagar Empire. The list of Saluva Vijayanagar Empire. The most famous
dynasty kings and their short description ruler of the Vijayanagar kingdom, Krishna
are given below: Deva Raya belonged to this dynasty.
• The list and a short description of the
kings of Tuluva dynasty are given below:

33
 He was the commander of the Vijayanagar army under the rule of Saluva
Tuluva Narasa Narasimha Deva Raya and became the de-facto ruler of the kingdom
Nayaka (1491- after the death of Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya.
1503 AD) He successfully defended the kingdom against the Bahamani sultans,
Gajapatis and the disloyal chieftains.
Viranarasimha He became the king of Vijayanagar Empire following the death of Tuluva
Raya (1503 - Narasa Nayaka. His rule was mostly occupied with fighting against rebel
1509 AD) warlords.
He was the most famous king of Vijayanagara Empire. He earned the
Krishna Deva titles of Mooru Rayara Ganda, Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana and
Raya (1509 - Andhra Bhoja.
1529 AD) His father was Tuluva Narasa Nayaka and mother was Nagala Devi.
During his rule, the empire reached its Zenith.
He succeeded Krishna Deva Raya in 1529. He was the younger brother of
Krishna Deva Raya.
Achyuta Raya
(1529-1542 AD) When he died, his nephew Sadashiva was made the king who was still
a child. Aliya Rama Raya, son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya became the
regent of the king.
Sadashiva He was a mere puppet in the hands of his minister Aliya Rama Raya.
Raya (1542- During his time, the real power was exercised by Rama Raya.
1570)

Krishnadevaraya This relationship also helped him obtain

high class Arabian horses and expansion
• When Krishnadevaraya’s came to power, of overseas trade of the empire.
the condition of the empire was unstable, Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and
because he had to deal with rebellious Durate Barbosa visited his court and
subordinates and aggression of the have left accounts.
Gajapathis of Orissa and the Muslim
kingdoms in the north. Krishnadevaraya • Krishna Deva Raya was a contemporary
won the Gajapati kingdom in present day of Babur. So, when the First Battle of
Orissa and extended the Vijayanagara Panipat(1526) was fought, Krishnadeva
empire to that region too. Raya was the ruler of Vijayanagar in
southern India.
• Krishna Deva Raya defeated the Deccan
Sultans in the battle of Diwani. He • Krishna Deva Raya was a Vaishnavite
then invaded Raichur Doab(between but respected all religions. He was a
Tungabhadra and Krishna river, known devotee of Lord Venkateshwara of
for its fertile soil) confronting Sultan Tirupati. Vallabhacharya and Chaitanya
of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. He also Mahaprabhu, the renowned saints of
captured Bidar. the bhakti movement visited his court.
Madhwa saint Vyasathirtha was the
• He helped Portuguese rulers to conquer Rajaguru of Krishnadevaraya.
Goa from the Bijapur rulers in and
maintained friendly relations with them. • He is also known as ‘Andhra Bhoja’, for
his patronage of art and literature. Also

34
 known as Abhinava Bhoja, he himself Vallabhapuram and a channel called
was also a scholar, he wrote the Telugu Basavanna were constructed.
work Amuktamalyada and a Sanskrit • Krishnadevaraya repaired and restored
play, Jambavati Kalyana. many south Indian temples, hence, most
• In his court, eight eminent scholars of the big towers on temples in south
known as ‘Astadiggajas’ were patronized, India have the name Raya gopuram in
like – Allasani Peddana (Andhra-kavita- his honour.
pitamaha) and Nandi Thimmanna. The • Acchutadeva succeeded Krishnadeva .
imperial court had representatives of The later rulers was Sadashiva Raya but
Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil de facto ruler then was Rama Raya.
poets, who made large contributions to
their respective literatures.
Battle of Talikota
• He built Vijaya Mahal, Hazara
Ramaswamy temple and Vithal Swami • The Battle of Talikota was fought between
temple at Vijayanagar. the Sultanates of Deccan and Vijaynagar
kingdom in 1565 AD. The Vijaynagar
• He also built ‘Rajagopuram’. A new kingdom suffered defeat in the battle.
city was built called ‘Nagalapuram’ in
memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Also a • At the time of Battle of Talikota, Sadasiva
reservoir across river Tungabhadra called Raya was the ruler of Vijaynagar kingdom.

35
 He was a puppet ruler. The real power
was exercised by his minister Rama Raya.
ARAVIDU DYNASTY (1570-
He tried to crush the power of Deccan 1650 AD)
sultanates by creating differences
It was the 4th and last Hindu dynasty which
amongst them.
ruled Vijayanagara Empire. It was founded
• However, the Deccan sultanates got a by Tirumala.
hint of his plan and formed an alliance
against Vijayanagar kingdom. Soon, Tirumala Deva Raya
they attacked the kingdom and looted
and destroyed everything after entering • Tirumala Deva Raya was also the son-in-
the capital. law of Krishna Deva Raya. He re-founded
the Vijaynagar kingdom in Penukonda,
Andhra Pradesh. The kingdom was
Consequences destroyed by the Muslim rulers following
• The battle of Talikota ended the the battle of Talikonda.
prominence of Viajaynagara kingdom in • During his reign, Tirumala Deva Raya
South Indian politics. faced rebellion from Southern Nayakas
• The Kingdom of Mysore, Nayakas of of Madurai and Ginjee. He retired to a
Vellore, Nayakas of Keladi in Shimoga religious life in 1572 AD.
declared their independence from
Vijayanagar. Sriranga Deva Raya (Sriranga I)
• The Muslim Sultanates of Deccan could • He ruled Vijayanagara kingdom from
not gain much out of this victory because 1572 AD to 1586 AD. He faced repeated
they soon engaged themselves in fighting attacks from Muslim rulers of Deccan.
among themselves and fell easy prey to Nonetheless, he did his best to defend
the Mughals. the territories of the kingdom and died in
1586 without an heir.
Causes of Vijaynagar’s defeat
• Vijaynagar lost the battle because of Venkata II (1586-1614 AD)
lesser number of cavalry as compared • He succeeded his elder brother Sriranga
with Deccan Sultanates. I in 1586 as the new king of Vijayanagara
• The Deccan sultanates had more Empire. He revived the strength of the
sophisticated weapons in comparison to kingdom by dealing successfully with
Vijaynagar kingdom. the sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda.
He suppressed the rebelling Nayakas of
• The Deccan sultanates were better in
Tamil Nadu.
artillery warfare.
• The biggest reason for Vijayanagar's Sriranga II (1614 AD)
defeat was the betrayal of two key
commanders in Vijaynagar kingdom • He ruled for a brief period of time. During
known as Gilani brothers. his time, internal feud between the rival
factions started.

Ramadeva (1617-1632 AD)

• He ruled from 1617 AD to 1632 AD.
36
Sriranga III Religion and Philosophy
• He was the last ruler of the Vijayanagar • Early Vijayanagar rulers were followers
Empire. of Shaivism. Virupaksha was their family
• He ruled from 1642 to 1646 AD. God. Later they came under the influence
of Vaishnavism. However, Siva continued
to be worshipped.
Decline of the Empire
• Vaishnavism was professed in various
• The rulers of the Aravidu dynasty were forms. Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was
weak and incompetent. highly popular.
• Many provincial governors became • The Dvaita system of Madhava was also
independent. practiced.
• The rulers of Bijapur and Golconda seized • Epics and Puranas were popular among
some areas of Vijayanagar. the masses, especially since they served
as a means of education among women.
SOCIETY UNDER
Women
VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE • The practice of dancing girls attached
to temples was also in vogue. From the
Caste System account of Paes, we learn that Devadasis
Allasani Peddana, in his Manucharitam, held a highly respectable position in
mentions the four castes that existed in the society, and were given land grants,
Vijayanagar society. maid-servants, etc.
• Viprulu or Brahmins followed the • The plight of the widow was pitiable, but
traditional profession of teachers and they could remarry.
priests. They sometimes also performed
• The state encouraged widow remarriage
duties of soldiers and administrators.
by not levying any tax on It.
This is confirmed from the narration of
Domingo Paes. • The prevalence of Sati or Sahagamana
in the Vijayanagar Empire is proved from
• Rajulu or Rachavaru was generally
both inscriptions and foreign accounts of
associated with the ruling dynasty. The
the period.
rulers as well as generals were actually
Sudras, but called rachavaru because
of their position. As in the case of other Other Conditions
parts of South India, the Kshatriya Varna • Chess: It was a game promoted by the
seems to be absent here. state and players were rewarded.
• Matikaratalu or Vaishyas were the same • Untouchability: It existed and various
as merchants who carried on trade and classes such as Kambalattars, dombaris,
commerce. jogis and maravars were treated as
• Nalavajativaru or Sudras were mainly untouchables.
agriculturists, but some of them carried • Slavery: It was quite common and
on several other professions. They were Nicolo de Conti says that those failed to
not segregated, although considered repay debts became the property of the
inferior. creditor.
37
Economic Conditions under • Among the exports, the main items were
cloth, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter, sugar,
Vijayanagara Empire etc. The main imports consisted of horses,
• The Vijayanagar Empire was one of the elephants, pearls, copper, coral, mercury,
richest states then known to the world. China silks and velvets.
Several foreign travellers, who visited • Ships were used for coastal and overseas
the empire during the 15th and 16th trade. Vijayanagar had its own ships; the
Centuries, have left glowing accounts of art of shipbuilding was known, but we do
its splendour and wealth. not know if ocean-going ships were built.
• Abdur Razzak, the Persian diplomat and
traveller, remarks: 'The tradesmen of each Coinage
separate guild or craft have their shops close
to another'. Trade There was flourishing inland,
coastal and overseas trade which was an
important source of general prosperity. The
kingdom, according to Abdur Razzak, had 300
sea ports.
• Barbosa, another Portuguese traveller, says
that South India got its ships built in the
Maldives Islands.

• Agriculture: It was in a flourishing

condition. It was the policy of rulers to
encourage agriculture in the different • The Vijayanagar emperors issued a large
parts of the empire and to increase number of gold coins, called Varahas or
agricultural production by a wise Pagodas (because the most common
irrigation policy. Nuniz, the Portuguese symbol was Varaha-the Boar incarnation
traveller, speaks of the construction of a of Vishnu).
dam and excavation of canals.
• Harihara I and Bukka I used the Hanuman
• Industries: The agricultural wealth was symbol in their coins.
supplemented. by numerous industries,
the most important of which were textiles, • Krishna Deva Raya's coins had the figures
mining and metallurgy. Another important of Venkatesh and Balkrishna.
industry was perfumery. Industries and • Achyuta Raya used Garuda while
crafts were regulated by guilds. Tirumala maintained the original Varaha.
• It was common practice for people of the
same trade to live in one and the same Standard of Living
quarter of the city. • The accounts of foreign travellers speak
• The most important commercial area of the high standards of living of the
on the West coast was Malabar, with upper and middle classes.
its important port of Cannanore. It had • The splendour of the capital city bears
commercial relations with the islands testimony to the wealth, which was,
of the Indian Ocean, Burma, the Malay however, the monopoly of only a section
Archipelago and China in the East, and of the population.
Arabia, Persia, South Africa, Abyssinia
and Portugal in the West. • But the prices of articles were low and
the minimum necessities were probably
38
 not beyond the means of the common • Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516 A.D.) —
people. Portuguese traveller, who has given a
• However, producers, mainly agricultural valuable narrative of the government and
producers, apparently got inadequate the people of the Vijayanagar empire.
prices for their produce. • Domingos Paes (1520-1522 A.D) —
• Another main defect of the economic Portuguese traveller, who visited the
system was that the common people court of Krishnadeva Raya.
had to bear the brunt of taxation, which • Fernao Nuniz (1534-1537 A.D) —
was quite heavy and the local authority’s Portuguese merchant, who wrote the
sometimes-adopted oppressive methods history of the empire from its earliest
of collection. days to the closing years of Achyuta
Deva Raya’s reign.
Foreign Visitors of
Vijayanagara Kingdom THE BAHMANI EMPIRE
• Ibn Bututa (1333-1347 A.D.) — Moroccan • The Bahmani Empire was situated in the
traveller, who visited India during the north and acted as a dominating rival to
reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. And the Vijaynagar Empire.
came to Vijayanagar during the reign of • It was founded by an Afghan, Alauddin
Harihar I. Hasan in 1347.
• Nicolo Conti (1420-1421 A.D.) — Venetian • Vijayanagar and Bahmani Empire clashed
traveller, who gave a comprehensive for the Tungabhadra doab, Krishna-
account of the Hindu kingdom of Godavari delta and the Marathwada
Vijayanagar. country. For the first time, the use of
• Abdur Razzaq (1443-1444 A. D.) — Artillery was heard in their battles.
Persian traveller, who stayed at the court • The Bahmani capital was Hasanabad
of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given (Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425
a vivid account of the Vijayanagar city, when it was moved to Muhammadabad
while describing the wealth and luxurious (Bidar).
life of the king and the nobles.

Key Rulers
He was the next ruler of the Bahamani Kingdom.
Muhammad
He was an able general and administrator.
Shah-I (1358-
He defeated Kapaya Nayaks of Warangal and the Vijayanagara ruler
1377 AD)
Bukka-I.
Muhammad In 1378 A.D. Muhammad Shah-ll ascended the throne.
Shah-ll (1378- He was a peace lover and developed friendly relations with his neighbours.
1397 AD) He built many mosques, madrasas (a place of learning) and hospitals.
Feroz Shah He was a great general
Bahmani He defeated the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya I.
(1397-1422 AD)

39
 Ahmad Shah succeeded Feroz Shah Bahmani
Ahmad Shah He was an unkind and heartless ruler.
(1422 - 1435 He conquered the kingdom of Warangal.
AD) He changed his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
He died in 1435A.D.
In 1463A.D. Muhammad Shah lll became the Sultan at the age of nine
Muhammad Gawan became the regent of the infant ruler.
Muhammad
Under Muhammad Gawan’s able leadership the Bahmani kingdom
Shah-lll (1463
became very powerful.
- 1482 AD)
Muhammad Gawan defeated the rulers of Konkan, Orissa, Sangameshwar,
and Vijayanagar.
He was a Persian merchant.
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak because of the guidance of
Mahmud
Mahmud Gawan.
Gawan
At the age of 42, he joined the services of Bahmani kingdom.
His personal qualities lead him to the position of chief minister.

Administration Art and Architecture

• The Sultans followed a Feudal type of • Numerous mosques, madrassas and
administration. libraries were built like
• Tarafs – The kingdom was divided into ŠŠ The Juma Masjid at Gulbarga,
many provinces called Tarafs ŠŠ The Golconda Fort
• Tarafdar or Amir – Governor who ŠŠ The Golgumbaz at Bijapur
controlled the Taraf.
ŠŠ The Madrasas of Muhammad Gawan
Contribution to Education • Gol Gumbaz in Bijapur is called the
whispering gallery because when one
• The Bahmani Sultans gave great
whispers, the lingering echo of the
attention to education.
whisper is heard in the opposite corner.
• They encouraged Arabic and Persian
learning. Reasons for Decline of Bahmani
• Urdu also flourished during this period Kingdom
• There was a constant war between the
Bahmani and Vijayanagar rulers.
• Inefficient and weak successors after
Muhammad Shah III.
• The rivalry between the Bahmani rulers
and foreign nobles

40
Breakup of the Bahmani • Berar—The Imad Shahi dynasty at
Berarwas founded by Fatullah Imad-
kingdom ul-Mulk in 1490 A.D. This state had the
• The State of Bijapur was founded by shortest life span as it was annexed by
Yusuf Adil Shah in 1489 A.D. Ibrahim (1534- Nizam Shahis in 1574 A.D
58) was the first Bijapuri ruler to replace • Golconda—The Qutub Shahi dynasty
Persian by Hindvi (Dakhini Urdu) as the was founded by Auli Qutub Shah in 1518.
official language. Ibrahim II (1580-1627) Muhammad Quli was the founder of the
was affectionately called Jagadguru by city of Hyderabad. Aurangzeb annexed
his subjects. Muhammad Adil Shah lies Golconda in 1687.
buried in the Gol Gumbaz. Bijapur was
annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686. • Bidar—The Barid Shahi dynasty was
founded by Ali Barid in 1518. Bidar was
• Ahmednagar—The founder of the Nizam later annexed by the Adil Shahis of
Shahi dynasty was Ahmad Bahri in 1490. Bijapur.
This was conquered by Shahjahan in
1633.

41
 CHAPTER - 4

BHAKTI & SUFI MOVEMENTS

• But for the first time in South India
between the seventh and tenth century
that bhakti grew from a mere religious
doctrine into a popular movement based
on religious equality and broad-based
social participation.
• Similarly the Sufi movement was a
socio-religious movement of fourteenth
to sixteenth century. The exponents of
this movement were unorthodox Muslim
saints who had a deep study of vedantic
philosophy and Buddhism of India.
• They had gone through various religious
texts of India and had come in contact
with great sages and seers of India.
They could see the Indian religion from
very near and realized its inner values.
Accordingly they developed Islamic
Philosophy which at last gave birth to the
Sufi Movement.

REASONS FOR
INTRODUCTION EMERGENCE OF BHAKTI
• An important landmark in the cultural
history of medieval India was the MOVEMENT
revolution in society brought about by a • The Bhakti movement was the outcome
group of socio-religious reformers. of a number of causes. The root of the
• The revolution was known as the movement lay deep into the soil of India.
Bhakti Movement. Bhakti as a religious There was nothing new in the bhakti cult,
concept means devotional surrender to which did not already exist in India. The
a personally conceived Supreme God for elements of the cult could be traced from
attaining salvation. the Vedas onwards.
• The origin of this doctrine has been • Secondly the impact of the Muslim rule
traced to both the Brahmanical and and Islam put dread in the heart of
Buddhist traditions of ancient India and Hindu masses. The Hindus had suffered
to various scriptures such as the Gita. a lot under some of the fanatic rulers.
They wanted some solace to heal their

42
 despairing hearts. Ramanujacharya
• The bhakti movement brought them hope • In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who
and support and inner strength to save was born at Sriperumbudur near modern
Hinduism. The Sufi saints of the Muslim Chennai, preached Vishishtadvaita.
community also inspired the movement.
Some similar chords in the two evoked • According to him God is Saguna
resonance. brahman.
• The Muslim society firmly believed in the • He also advocated prabattimarga or
unity of God, the equality and fraternity path of self-surrender to God.
of mankind and complete surrender to • He invited the downtrodden to
God. It is a coincidence that the Hindu Vaishnavism and made Vaishnavism
reformers and the mystic saints were also popular.
trying to stress these features besides
• He has written Sri Bhashya.
others.
Nimbarka
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN • He was a younger contemporary of
Ramanuja.
SOUTH INDIA
• A Telugu Brahman, he spent most of his
• The saiva Nayanar saints and vaishnava
time in Vrindavan near Mathura in North
Alvar saints of South India spread the
India.
doctrine of bhakti among different
sections of the society irrespective of • He believed In total devotion to Krishna
caste and sex during the period between and Radha.
the seventh and the tenth century.
• Some of these saints came from the Madhvacharya
"lower" castes and some were women. • In the thirteenth century, Madhava from
Udupi propagated Dvaita Or dualism of
Adi Shankaracharya Jivatma and Paramatma.
• In the ninth century Sankara Started a • According to his philosophy, the world is
Hindu revivalist movement giving a new not an illusion but a reality.
orientation to Hinduism. • God, soul, matter are unique in nature.
• He preached Advaita or Non-dualism. • He wrote Geeta Bhashya.
• He established four Mathas in four
corners of the country. Basavanna
ŠŠ Dwaraka • His followers were known as Veerashaiva
ŠŠ Puri or Lingayat.
ŠŠ Badrinath • His followers worshipped shiva in Linga
form.
ŠŠ Sringeri
• Followers of him are called Smarthas. Nayanars and Alvars
• His most famous philosophical work is • The seventh to ninth centuries saw the
Viveka Choodamani. emergence of new religious movements,
43
 led by the Nayanars (saints devoted
to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN
to Vishnu) who came from all castes NORTH INDIA
including those considered “untouchable”
like the Pulaiyar and the Panars. Ramananda
• They were sharply critical of the Buddhists
• He was originally a follower of Ramanuja.
and Jains and preached ardent love of
Later he founded his own sect and
Shiva or Vishnu as the path to salvation.
preached his principles in Hindi at
• They drew upon the ideals of love and Banaras and Agra.
heroism as found in the Sangam literature
• He was a worshipper of Rama.
(the earliest example of Tamil literature,
composed during the early centuries of • He was the first to employ the vernacular
the Common Era) and blended them medium to propagate his ideas.
with the values of bhakti. • Simplification of worship and
emancipation of people from the
• The Nayanars were a group of 63
saints in the 6th to 8th century
traditional caste rules were his two
who were devoted to the Hindu important contributions to the Bhakti
god Shiva in Tamil Nadu. movement.
• There were 63 Nayanars, who
• He opposed the caste system and chose
belonged to different caste
backgrounds such as potters, his disciples from all sections of society
“untouchable” workers, peasants, disregarding caste.
hunters, soldiers, Brahmanas and
Nayanars chiefs.
Vallabhacharya
• The best known among them were
Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar and • He was a Telugu brahmin and founder of
Manikkavasagar. Pushtimarg (way of grace). It also came
• Thirumurai (meaning holy division) to be known as Vallabha sampradaya
is a twelve volume compendium of
songs or hymns in praise of Shiva (Vallabha Sect).
in the Tamil language from the • He advocated Krishna bhakti. Famous
6th to the 11th century by various
Krishna bhakti saint-poet, Surdas (1483-
poets in South India.
1 563) and seven other Krishna bhakti
• Alvars were a group of 12 devotional poets belonging to the ashtachhap were
saints in the 7th and the 12th
believed to have been the disciples of
centuries who were devoted to the
Hindu god Shiva in Tamil Nadu. Vallabha.
• There were 12 Alvars, who • The sect later became popular in Gujarat.
came from equally divergent
Alvars
backgrounds, the best known
being Periyalvar, his daughter Surdas
Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and
Nammalvar.
• Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya
• Their songs were compiled in and he popularized Krishna cult in north
theNalayira Divya Prabandham. India.
• He wrote Sur Sagar.
• He was contemporary to Tulsi Das and
Akbar.

44
• He is called the "Blind bard of Agra". relationship between Krishna and the
gopis of Vrindavana, and in particular
Mirabai one gopi named Radha. It is mentioned
that Radha is greater than Krishna.
• Mirabai was a great devotee of Krishna
and she became popular in Rajasthan • The Gita Govinda is organized into twelve
for her bhajans. chapters which are sub-divided into
twenty-four divisions called Prabandhas.
• Her Krishna was called Giridhar Nagar. The prabandhas contain couplets
• Her bhajans influenced Mahatma grouped into eights, called Ashtapadis.
Gandhi. • The text also elaborates the eight
moods of Heroine, the Ashta Nayika,
Tulsidas which has been an inspiration for many
• Tulsidas was a worshipper of Rama and compositions and choreographic works
composed the famous Ramcharitmanas, in Indian classical dances.
the Hindi version of Ramayana.
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN
MAHARASHTRA
BENGAL
Jnaneswar or Gyaneshwar
Chaitanya (1275-1296)
• He was a well-known saint and reformer • He was the pioneer bhakti saint of
of Bengal who popularised the Krishna Maharashtra.
cult.
• He taught that the only way to attain
• He renounced the world, became an God was bhakti and in bhakti there was
ascetic and wandered all over the country no place for caste distinctions.
preaching his ideas.
• Jnaneswari: an extensive commentary
• He proclaimed the universal brotherhood on the Bhagavad Gita. This was one of
of man and condemned all distinctions the earliest works of Marathi literature
based on religion and caste. and served as the foundation of bhakti,
• He believed that through love and ideology in Maharashtra.
devotion, song and dance, a devotee • Abhangs: These are hymns composed by
could feel the presence of God. him .
• He accepted disciples from all classes
and castes and his teachings are widely Namadeva
followed in Bengal even today. • He preached the gospel of love.

Jaydev • He opposed idol worship and priestly

domination.
• Another prominent Vaishnavite saint
• He started the Abhang cult in
from Bengal was Jaydev, who wrote Gita
Maharashtra.
Govind.
• Ekanatha composed many lyrics and
• The Gita Govinda describes the

45
 his bhajans and kirtans are famous even • He brought significant innovations in the
today. devotional practice:
• Another Bhakti saint of Maharashtra was ŠŠ He included dance-drama-music form
Tukaram, a contemporary of Sivaji. He was in the preaching of bhakti.
responsible for creating a background ŠŠ He founded the institution of satra
for Maratha nationalism. which later grew into a full-fledged
monasteries. His sect is called
Tukaram mahapurashiya dharma.
• Tukaram was a 17th-century Hindu poet
and sant of the Bhakti movement in Other Saints associated with
Maharashtra, Bhakti Movement
• He was part of the egalitarian, • Raidas (or Ravidas) most probably
personalized Varkari devotionalism belonged to the generation next to
tradition. Kabir's.
• He is best known for his devotional • Dhanna was a fifteenth century Jat
poetry called Abhanga and community- peasant from Rajasthan.
oriented worship with spiritual songs
known as kirtans. • Others saints were Sen (a barber) and
Pipa.
• His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or
Vithoba.
MONOTHESTIC
BHAKTI MOVEMENTS IN MOVEMENTS IN NORTH
OTHER REGIONS INDIA
• Kashmir: Saiva bhakti flourished in the
14th century. Lal Ded (woman) was the Guru Nanak
most prominent one.
• He is the founder of the Sikh religion and
• Gujarat: Vallabha sect of Vallabhacharya a disciple of Kabir.
(he was major) and Narasimha mehta
• He was born in Talwandi near Lahore.
(1414-1481, or 1500-1580), became popular
among merchants and landowners. • Guru Nanak dev ji passed the message of
Universal brotherhood.
Assam: Sankaradeva (1449-1568) • Guru Nanak Dev Ji asked his followers
to shun five evils which leads to illusion
• He preached absolute devotion to Vishnu
( maya) which eventually acts as a
or his incarnation, Krishna.
roadblock towards attainment of
• he had to face persecution of orthodox salvation. The five evils are: Ego, Anger,
Brahman priests. Greed, Attachment and Lust.
• Monotheistic ideas influenced his concept • The three duties that a Sikh must carry
of bhakti which came to be known as the out can be summed up in three words;
eka-sarana-dharma ('religion of seeking Pray, Work, Give.
refuge in one'). He denounced the caste
system and used common language.

46
 ŠŠ Nam japna: Keeping God in mind at Kabir Das
all times.
• Among the disciples of Ramananda, the
ŠŠ Kirt Karna: Earning an honest living. most famous was Kabir.
ŠŠ Vand Chhakna (Literally, sharing • He was born near Banaras and
one's earnings with others): Giving to abandoned by his parents. However, a
charity and caring for others. Muslim couple who were weavers brought
• He denounced caste distinctions and him up by profession.
rituals. • Love for all was Kabir’s principal tenet.
• His conception of religion was highly He emphasized that love was the only
practical and sternly ethical. medium which could bind the entire
• ‘Abide pure amidst the impurities of the human kind in an unbreakable bond of
world’ was one of his famous sayings. fraternity.
• His life was dedicated to establishing • He denounced idolatry and rituals and
harmony between Hindus and Muslims. laid great emphasis on the equality of
man before God.
• His followers are known as Sikhs.
• He emphasized the essential oneness
of all religions by describing Hindus and
Muslims ‘as pots of the same clay’.

47
• He regarded devotion to god as an ŠŠ Disciple (murid) progressed through
effective means of salvation. the "stages" and "states" by practicing
• In Kabir’s dictum the Teacher or ‘Guru’ spiritual exercises. Example: self-
has been accorded the prime position. mortification(subjugation of desire by
The teacher according to him was the self-discipline), recollection of God's
incarnation of God. name for concentration.

• Kabir asserted the impermanence of all ŠŠ Sufis practiced sama (musical recital)
things in the world. which was intended to induce a
mystical state of ecstasy. Ulema were
• Kabir expressed his ideas in a vast hostile to this practice.
collection of verses known as sakhis
and pads. These are said to have been ŠŠ Organisation of the sufis into various
composed by him and sung by wandering orders (silsilah). e.g. suhrawardi, Qadiri,
bhajan singers. Chishti etc.

• He is regarded as the greatest of the ŠŠ Hospice (khanqah) was the centre

mystic saints and his followers are called of the activities of a sufi order. Here,
Kabirpanthis. pir imparted spiritual training to his
disciples.
• Bijak is the sacred book of Kabirpanthis.
ŠŠ Sufism emphasised self-discipline to
gain knowledge of God.
SUFISM ŠŠ While orthodox Muslims emphasize
• It is mystical Islamic belief and movement. external conduct, the Sufis lay stress
Its aim is to establish direct communion on inner purity.
between God and man through personal
experience of mystery which lies within General points related to Sufism
Islam. Sufis though accepted the Shariat
did not confine their religious practice to • Sufism was a liberal reform movement
formal adherence. within Islam.

• There developed a number of sufi orders • It had its origin in Persia and spread into
or silsilah in and outside India, each had India in the eleventh century.
their specific characteristic but had some • The first Sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore
common features: started preaching his ideas.
ŠŠ Stress the importance of traversing the • The most famous of the Sufi saints of
sufi path as a method of establishing India was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, who
direct communion with divine reality. settled in Ajmer. Hence, Ajmer is called
ŠŠ Novice has to pass through a succession 'Mecca of India' His disciples are called
of "stations" or "stages" and changing sufis of Chisti order.
psychological conditions or "states" to • Another well-known Sufi saint was
experience God. Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. His branch of
ŠŠ Sufi path could be traversed only Sufi saints was known as the Sufis of the
under the strict supervision of a Suhrawardi Order.
spiritual guide (shaikl, pir or murshid) • Another famous Sufi saint was
who had himself successfully traversed Nizamuddin Auliya who belonged to the
it and consequently established direct Chishti order.
communion with God.
48
• Varieties of sources used to reconstruct Shaikh/ Pir Spiritual teacher
the history of sufi traditions A wide range
Murid Disciple
of texts were produced in and around
Sufi khanqahs. These included: Khalifa Successor

ŠŠ Treatises or manuals dealing with sufi Khanqah The hospice

thought and practices – The Kashf-ul- Sama Musical recital
Mahjub of Ali bin Usman Hujwiri (died Raksa Dance
c. 1071) is an example of this genre.
Fana Self-annihilation
ŠŠ Malfuzat (literally, “uttered”;
conversations of sufi saints).
ŠŠ Maktubat (literally, “written” collections SIMILARITIES BETWEEN
of letters); letters written by sufi
masters, addressed to their disciples BHAKTI AND SUFI
and associates
MOVEMENTS
ŠŠ Tazkiras (literally, “to mention and
• The Bhakti and Sufi movements showed
memorialise”; biographical accounts of
the people that the existence of God could
saints) – The fourteenth-centurySiyar-
be experienced under the guidance of a
ul-Auliya of Mir Khwurd Kirmani was
guru. Priests or ulemas are not required
the first sufi tazkira written in India. It
to feel the presence of God. Thus, many
dealt principally with the Chishti saints.
people began to question the authority
• Sufism stressed the elements of love and domination of their religion by
and devotion as effective means of the religious authorities.
realisation of God.
• The Bhakti and the Sufi saints criticized
• Love of God meant love of humanity and the existence of rituals in the Indian
so the Sufis believed service to humanity society.
was tantamount to service to God.
• Both Sufi and Bhakti movements
• Other ideas emphasized by Sufism are emphasised the feeling of universal
meditation, tolerance, good actions, brotherhood and religious tolerance. As
repentance for sins, performance of a result, an environment of mutual love
prayers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and respect was created among different
and suppression of passions by ascetic sections of society.
practices.
• The Bhakti and Sufi saints preached their
• These liberal and unorthodox features teachings in the local language. This
of Sufism had a profound influence on led to the development of the local and
medieval Bhakti Saints. vernacular languages and corresponding
• When the Sufi movement was becoming literature.
popular in India, about the same time the • Both promoted the idea of charity and
Bhakti cult was gaining strength among social service.
the Hindus.
• Both Bhakti and sufi saints were very
Sufi words Meaning popular among people. So, their shrine
and tombs became a place of pilgrimage
Tasawwuf Sufism
visited by both Hindus and Muslims.

49
 CHAPTER - 5

THE MUGHALS

INTRODUCTION from Agra and Delhi, until in the

seventeenth century they controlled
• Ruling as large a territory as the Indian nearly all of the subcontinent.
subcontinent with such a diversity of
people and cultures was an extremely • They imposed structures of administration
difficult task for any ruler to accomplish and ideas of governance that outlasted
in the Middle Ages. their rule, leaving a political legacy that
succeeding rulers of the subcontinent
• Quite in contrast to their predecessors, could not ignore.
the Mughals created an empire and
accomplished what had hitherto seemed • Today the Prime Minister of India
possible for only short periods of time. addresses the nation on Independence
Day from the ramparts of the Red Fort
• From the latter half of the sixteenth in Delhi, the residence of the Mughal
century they expanded their kingdom emperors.
50
Ancestors Brief Timeline
• The Mughals were descendants of two • The Mughal empire is conventionally said
great lineages of rulers. to have been founded in 1526 by Babur,
ŠŠ From their mother’s side they were by defeating the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim
descendants of Genghis Khan (died Lodhi, in the First Battle of Panipat.
1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes, China • The Mughal imperial structure, however,
and Central Asia. is sometimes dated to 1600, to the
ŠŠ From their father’s side they were the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar. This
successors of Timur (died 1404), the ruler imperial structure lasted until 1720, until
of Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey. shortly after the death of the last major
emperor, Aurangzeb, during whose reign
• However, the Mughals did not like to be the empire also achieved its maximum
called Mughal or Mongol. This was because geographical extent.
Genghis Khan’s memory was associated
with the massacre of innumerable people. • Reduced subsequently, especially during
It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their the East India Company rule in India, to
Mongol competitors. the region in and around Old Delhi, the
empire was formally dissolved by the
• On the other hand, the Mughals were British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of
proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least 1857.
of all because their great ancestor had
captured Delhi in 1398.

51
BABUR (AD 1526-1530) • Babur was also a great scholar in Arabic
and Persian languages. Turki was his
• Babur was related to Taimur from his mother tongue.
father’s side and to Chengiz Khan
through his mother. • He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-
Baburi in Turki language.
• He occupied Lahore easily by defeating
its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi. • He was also a naturalist and described
the flora and fauna of India.
• On 21 April 1526, the first Battle of Panipat
took place between Babur and Ibrahim • Babur was very fond of building gardens.
Lodi, who was killed in the battle. Charbagh was his favourite style of
garden building.
• In 1527, Babur defeated Rana Sanga of
Mewar in the Battle of Khanwa.
• In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from
HUMAYUN (AD 1530-1540)
another Rajput ruler Medini Rai. • Humayun means “fortune” but he
remained the most unfortunate ruler of
• In 1529, Babur defeated the Afghans
the Mughal Empire.
(Muhammad Lodi) in the Battle of Gaghra
in uttar pradesh. Humayun was leading • Humayun was thoroughly defeated by
the Mughal troops in the campaign. Sher Khan ( Sher Shah Suri) in the Battle
of Chausa in 1539 and the Battle of
• Babur died at Agra in 1530.
Kannauj in 1540.

52
• Humayun lost his Kingdom and went into founder of the Suri Empire in India, with its
exile for the next fifteen years. capital in Sasaram in modern-day Bihar.
• Humayun was blessed with an He introduced the currency of rupee.
opportunity in 1545, when Sher Shah An ethnic Afghan ruler, Sher Shah took
died. The successors of Sher Shah were control of the Mughal Empire in 1540.
not strong enough to hold the empire • Sher Shah was a pious Muslim and
together. Humayun marched from Kabul generally tolerant towards other religions.
to Delhi in 1555 and defeated Sikandar He employed Hindus in important offices.
Suri in Punjab. Then he marched to Delhi • He added a new city to Delhi called
and Agra and took easy possession of Purana Qila and built a mosque there.
Delhi and Agra.
• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram,
• However, he could rule only for six months which is considered as one of the
and died when he slipped down the stairs masterpieces of Indian architecture.
of his palace. He died in 1556.
• Sher Shah patronized Malik Muhammad
Jayasi who wrote the famous Hindi work
SHER SHAH SURI (AD 1540- Padmavat during his reign.
• After Sher Shah’s death in 1545, his
1545) successors (Islam Shah) ruled till 1555
• Sher Shah Suri (1486 – 1545) was the when Humayun re-conquered India.
53
Sher Shah’s Administration • Land survey was carefully done. All
cultivable lands were classified into three
• The king was assisted by four important classes – good, middle and bad.
ministers: Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-Wizarat,
Diwan-i-Insha, Diwan-i-Risalat. • His land revenue was based on the system
of Patta and Qabuliat.
• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into
forty-seven Sarkars. • The state’s share was one third of the
average produce and it was paid in cash
• Chief Shiqdar(law and order) and Chief or crop.
Munsie(judge) were the two officers in
charge of the administration in each • Sher Shah introduced new silver coins
sarkar. called “Dam” and they were in circulation
until 1835.
• Each sarkar was divided into several
parganas. Shiqdar(military officer), • Sher Shah had also improved
Amin(land revenue), Fotedar(treasurer) communications by laying important
Karkuns(accountants) were in charge of highways. Along with construction of
the administration of each pargana. many roads, He extended the Grand
Trunk Road from Chittagong in the
• The land revenue administration was well frontiers of the province of Bengal in
organized under Sher Shah. northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan
in the far northwest of the country.

54
• Police was efficiently reorganized and • During the first five years of Akbar’s reign,
crime was less during his regime. Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
• The military administration was also • Abul Fazal wrote a three volume history
efficiently reorganized and Sher Shah of his reign named as Akbarnama.
borrowed many ideas like the branding • He is believed to have died on 27 October
of horses from Alauddin Khalji. 1605, after which his body was buried at
• He created a network of Sarai(halting his mausoleum in Sikandra, Agra.
place) for efficient communication systems.
Around the sarai market also grew. Policy towards Rajputs
• Humayun, referred to him as “Ustad-I-
Badshahan”, teacher of kings.

AKBAR (AD 1556-1605)

• He succeeded the throne after his father
Humayun’s death.
• In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556,
Akbar defeated Hemu and established
strong control over Delhi. The Mughal
troops were laid by Bairam khan.

• The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable.

55
 It was a turning point in the history of • Akbar not only gave complete religious
Mughals. freedom to his wives, he also gave an
• He married the Rajput princess, the honoured place to their parents and
daughter of Raja Bharamal. relatives in the Mughal nobility.
• One by one, all Rajput states submitted
to Akbar.
• Rajputs served the Mughals for four
generations.
• Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man
Singh were given senior positions in the
administration by Akbar.
• However, the Ranas of Mewar continued
to defy despite several defeats.
• In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap
Singh was severely defeated by the
Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576.

56
• Thus, the Rajput policy effectively ended but later scholars of all religions were
the centuries old animosity between the allowed. Akbar invited Father Monserrat
Mughals and the Rajputs. also. These debates gave clarity to Akbar
• Also, since the latter were assimilated that the core teachings of all religions
in the administrative structure of the are the same.
empire, it affected the public policies of • Proclamation of Mazhar: he declared
Akbar and helped in the development of himself the chief interpreter of Islam
a composite culture. • To strengthen his belief in the oneness
• Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined with of all Akbar propounded the principle of
a broad religious toleration. He abolished Din Ai Elahi, through which he spread the
the pilgrim tax and later the jizya. theory of “All Religions are same”.
• The Rajput policy of Akbar proved to be • Sulh-i-kul: he proclaimed that under his rule
beneficial to the Mughal state as well as people of all faith should live peacefully.
to the Rajputs. • He banned Sati and allowed widow
remarriage.
Religious Policy of Akbar
• Akbar was not an extreme Muslim rather Land Revenue Administration:
he is known for his tolerance towards all Dahsala System
the religions.
• Akbar made some experiments in the
• Various factors were responsible for his land revenue administration with the
religious ideas. Like, help of Raja Todar Mal. The land revenue
ŠŠ his early contacts with the sufi saints, system of Akbar was called Zaboor
Bandobast Dahsala system which was
ŠŠ the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif,
completed in 1580.
ŠŠ his marriage with Rajput women, • By this system, Todar Mal introduced a
ŠŠ his association with intellectual giants uniform system of land measurement.
like Shaikh Mubarak and his two • Akbar changed the land measuring unit
illustrious sons Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl and introduced Gaz i Ilahi.
ŠŠ his ambition to establish an empire in • The revenue was fixed on the average
Hindustan. yield of land assessed based on the past
• Akbar made many religious matrimonial ten years.
alliances through which he sent a • Payment of revenue was made generally
message of unity and togetherness. His in cash.
marriage to the Rajput princess Jodha,
• The land was also divided into three
says volumes about his kindness. categories: good, bad and middling. It
• Akbar got a temple constructed for was further divided into four categories
Jodha in his palace, even though there mentioned below.
was a lot of opposition for the same.
Polaz Cultivated every year
• To develop a better understanding of
religion he organized debates in ibadat Parauti Cultivated once in two years
khana. In the starting only Muslim Chachar Cultivated once in three or four years
scholars were allowed to participate Banjar Cultivated once in five or more years

57
Mansabdari System • Most of the Muqti stayed in their Iqta, unlike
Jagirdars.
• Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system • Initially, ‘Iqta’ was a revenue-yielding piece of
in his administration. land which was assigned in lieu of salary --
just like ‘Jagir’. However, the Iqtadari system
• The term mansab literally means position, became hereditary in its later days whereas the
status or rank, but in context of the Mansabdari system was never hereditary.
structure of the Mughal administration, • Mansabdar was a royal officer in charge of
it indicated the rank of mansabdar- revenue collection and law and order duties --
that is holder of mansab - in the official who was paid salary either as cash or as land.
He used to deduct his own cut before sending
hierarchy. the remaining share to the emperor.
• Under this system every officer was
assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest Imperial Expansion
rank was 10 and the highest was 5000
for the nobles. • Akbar first attacked Malwa, a state of
strategic and economic importance
• Mansabdars were paid either in cash
commanding the route through the
(naqd) or in the form of assignments of
Vindhya Range to the plateau region
areas of land (jagir) out of which they
of the Deccan (peninsular India) and
had the entitlement to collect the land
containing rich agricultural land; it fell to
revenue and all other taxes through an
him in 1561.
authority appointed by the emperor.
• Then targeted the Rajputana region,
• The ranks were divided into two – zat and
except Mewar, all rajput rulers accepted
sawar. Zat fixed the personal status of a
Akbar’s sovereignty.
person. Sawar rank indicated the number
of cavalrymen required to maintain. • In 1573 Akbar conquered Gujarat, an area
with many ports that dominated India’s
• Every sawar had to maintain at least two
trade with western Asia, and then turned
horses.
east toward Bengal.
• The mansab rank was not hereditary.
• Toward the end of his reign, Akbar
• All appointments and promotions as well embarked on a fresh round of conquests.
as dismissals were directly made by the The Kashmir region was subjugated
emperor. in 1586, Sindh in 1591, and Kandahār
(Afghanistan) in 1595.
HOW MANSABDARI WAS DIFFERENT FROM
IQTADARI? • By 1601 Khandesh, Berar, and part of
• The Iqtadari system was used by the Delhi
Ahmadnagar had been added to Akbar’s
Sultans, while Mansabdari was used by Mughal empire.
rulers.
• While the Iqtadari system was in force, the Art and Culture
whole land of the Empire was divided into two
parts -- one which belonged to Iqtedars and • Besides being a dedicated ruler Akbar
the other which belonged to the emperor. But was also a great patron for art and
in Jagirdari, the whole land belonged to the culture.
Emperor.
• Iqtadar was the officer in charge of the revenue • He enjoyed the company of poets and
collection and distribution. Jagirdar had law singers and all types of artistic people.
and order responsibility in addition to the
revenue collection. • His forts and palaces in and around Delhi

58
 are great masterpieces of unmatched ŠŠ FAIZI (The court Poet)
workmanship. Few amongst those are ŠŠ MAHARAJA MAN SINGH (Army
Fatehpur Sikri, Allahabad Fort, and Agra Consultant)
Fort etc.
ŠŠ FAKIR AZIAO DIN (Sufi Singer)
• He was also a great lover of music
and poetry, his durbar was a unique ŠŠ MULLA DO-PIYAZA (depicted as
amalgamation of great artists, scholars, Birbal's Muslim counterpart)
poets, and singers etc. who kept the aura ŠŠ TODAR MAL (Finance Consultant)
happy. ŠŠ ABDUL RAHIM KHAN I KHANA (Writer
• This love for culture made him collects his of Hindi Couplets).
“Nine Jewels or Naurattans” who excelled
in their fields of art and knowledge, they Literary works during Akbar’s
were as following—
Reign
ŠŠ BIRBAL (Mahesh Das) the court Jester.
• He started a department for translation
ŠŠ MIYAN TANSEN (Tanna Mishra) the of works: Mahabharata, the Ramayana,
court singer. the Atharva –Veda, the Bhagavad Gita
ŠŠ ABUL FAZL (The chronologist) who and the Panchatantra were translated
wrote Ain I Akbari. from Sanskrit to the Persian language.

59
• Ramayana and Singhasan Batisi
were translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir
JAHANGIR (AD 1605-1627)
Badayuni into Persian. • When Akbar died, Prince Salim succeeded
with the title Jahangir in 1605.
• Panchatantra was translated in Persian
by Faizi. • Jahangir’s rule witnessed a spate of
rebellions. His son Khusrau revolted but
• Atharva Veda was translated by Ibrahim was defeated and imprisoned.
Sirhindi.
• Jahangir killed the fifth sikh guru, Guru
• Rajataringini was translated by Maulana Arjun.
Shah Mohammad Shahabadi.
• In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa
• AbulFazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of
Akbar Nama. World).
• Hence, the Akbar period was popularly • He established friendly relations with
known as 'the renaissance of Persian Mewar so finally all rajput kingdoms
literature'. accepted Mughal Sovereignty.
• Mughals permanently lost Kandahar to
Persians during Jahangir's rule.

60
SHAH JAHAN (AD 1627-1658) • Shah Jahan launched a prolonged
campaign in the northwest frontier to
• The French traveller Tavernier paid a visit recover Kandahar and other ancestral
during Shah Jahan’s reign. He described lands but failed.
Shah Jahan as the king who had a
Universal sense of security as well as • His Deccan policy was more successful.
sense of Justice. Since he was a jeweller He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar
by profession, he calculated the cost and annexed it.
of the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan • Shah Jahan carved four Mughal
around 6.5 million sterling. provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh,
• Jahangir died in late 1627 and Shah Berar, Telangana and Daulatabad and
Jahan ascended to the throne in early put them under the control of his son
1628. Upon claiming the throne he set Aurangazeb.
about eliminating his chief rivals and • The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were
imprisoned his step-mother Nur Jahan clouded by a bitter war of succession
who was a powerful political influence among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown
in the Mughal court. He had his own prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal),
brothers and nephews executed so that Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and
he could rule without having to face any Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and
competition. Gujarat).

61
• Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this • Shah Jahan died in 1666 and was buried
struggle and forced Shah Jahan to beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
surrender.

Art and culture AURANGAZEB (AD 1658-1707)

• Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the
• Famed for aesthetics, Shah Jahan was Mughal kings.
a patron of arts. During his reign, the
Mughal Empire was a rich center of arts, • Under him the Mughal Empire reached
crafts and architecture. its greatest extent, although his policies
helped lead to its dissolution.
• The emperor’s love for architecture is
legendary; some of the nation’s most • He adopted the regnal title Alamgir
well-known architectural and artistic (Persian: "Conqueror of the World").
accomplishments were undertaken • Aurangzeb compiled the Fatawa-
during his reign. e-Alamgiri, and was among the few
• The Taj Mahal, the Red Fort and the monarchs to have fully established Sharia
Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the Shalimar law and Islamic economics throughout
Gardens of Lahore are examples of the Indian subcontinent.
Mughal architecture that survive to this
day.

62
• Aurangzeb was called 'Zinda Pir" due to Persians and Central Asian Turks and less
his simple living and high thinking. so with the Maratha chief Shivaji, who
• When Aurangzeb died after a reign of twice plundered the great port of Surat
nearly 49 years, he left an empire not yet (1664, 1670).
moribund but confronted with a number • Aurangzeb applied his great-grandfather
of menacing problems. The failure of his Akbar’s recipe for conquest: defeat one’s
son’s successors to cope with them led enemies, reconcile them, and place them
to the collapse of the empire in the mid- in imperial service. Thus, Shivaji was
18th century. defeated, called to Agra for reconciliation
(1666), and given an imperial rank.
Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb • The plan broke down, however; Shivaji
• In the first half of his rule, which lasted fled to the Deccan and died, in 1680,
until about 1680, he was a capable as the ruler of an independent Maratha
Muslim monarch of a mixed Hindu- kingdom.
Muslim empire and as such was generally • Then, to contain the spread of the
disliked for his ruthlessness but feared Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade
and respected for his vigour and skill. Bijapur and Golconda in 1686-87.
• During this period he was much occupied • He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur
with safeguarding the northwest from and annexed his kingdom. Then, he

63
 proceeded against Golkonda and • He re-imposed jizya and pilgrim tax.
eliminated the Qutb Shahi dynasty. • He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and
• In fact, the destruction of the Deccan was not tolerant of other Muslim sects
kingdoms was a political blunder on the such as Shia.
part of Aurangazeb. • Aurangzeb did not hesitate to punish the
• The barrier between the Mughals and Sufis because of their liberal religious
the Marathas was removed and there views bordering on pantheism.
ensued a direct confrontation between • He was also against the Sikhs and he
them. executed the ninth Sikh Guru Teg Bahadur.
• In addition, his Deccan campaigns • His religious policy was responsible for
exhausted the Mughal treasury. turning the Rajputs, the jats of Mathura,
the satnamis of Mewars, the Marathas
Religious Policy and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal
• He was a devout Sunni Muslim and a Empire.
champion of Sunni orthodoxy which • Aurangzeb made the colossal mistake
prompted him to strictly enforce the of identifying his personal religion with
Quranic laws according to which, to his the state of which he was the head and
mind, every pious Muslim must carry on that had the ruinous effect of generating
Jihad i.e. holy war against dar- ul-harb a feeling of discontent among different
i.e. the lands of the non-Muslims till they sections of the people which even during
were turned into dar-ul-Islam i.e. realm of his lifetime distracted his energies and
Islam. was the major cause of the decline and
• He created a separate department fall of the Empire.
to enforce moral codes under a high-
powered officer called Muhtasib. THE LATER MUGHALS' (AD
• Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation
and use of bhang and other drugs were 1707-1858)
banned. The disintegration of the mighty Mughal
• Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal empire which Aurangzeb had well
court. He discontinued the practice of established, began upon Aurangzeb's death
Jharokha darshan (addressing the public in 1707. The mughal rulers after Aurangzeb
from the balcony). are known as Later Mughals and these
rulers are –
• He prohibited the practice of inscribing
the Kalima on the coins. Observance of Bahadur Shah (1707-1712)
the Persian New Year’s Day (Nauroj) was
discontinued as, to his mind, it was un- • Mu'azzam ascended the throne in 1707
Islamic. after having killed his brothers in the
battle field, under the title of Bahadur
• At first, he banned the construction of
Shah ( also known as Shah Alam-I).
new Hindu temples and repair of old
temples. Then started destroying Hindu • A person of mild temper, learned and
temples. dignified, was too old.
• The celebrated temples at Mathura and • He released Shahuji, Son of Shambuji,
Benares were reduced to ruins. who was the elder son of Shivaji.

64
• He could not prevent the decline of the two Sayyid brothers, who were the real
empire due to his sudden death in 1712. power in the state.
• His attempt to assert his own power
Jahandar Shah (1712-1713) made his reign agitated and perplexing
• Bahadur Shah's death followed a fresh one, ending in another imperial tragedy.
war of succession among his four sons, • In 1717 he granted a Firman to the English
Jahandar Shah, Azim-us-Shah, Jahan East India Company granting them duty-
Shah and Rafi-is-Shah. free trading rights for Bengal, the Firman
• The last three were killed in the course was repudiated by the notable Murshid
of war and Jahandar Shah managed to Quli Khan.
ascend the throne. • He was deposed, blinded and executed
• The fate did not allow him to rule, and by his own Sayyid ministers.
Azim-us-Shah's son Farrukhsiyar took his
toll and ascended the throne. Rafi-ud-Darajat, Rafi-ud-Dallah
(1719)
Farrukhsiyar (1713-1719)
• The King-makers (the Sayyid Ministers),
• Farrukhsiyar was feeble, cowardly and 'Abdullah and Hussain Ali, raised to the
contemptible. throne two phantom kings, Rafi-Ud-
• He owed his elevation to the throne to Darajat & Rafi-ud-Dallah, sons of Rafi-
us-Shan.

65
• But within a few months the Sayyids who ul-mulk, a grandson of the deceased
determined to rule through the Imperial Nizam-ul-mulk of the Deccan who now
puppets thought that a youth of eighteen played the role of King maker.
named Roshan Akhtar, son of Jahan
Shah could be a better docile agent of Alamgir-II (1754 - 1759)
them.
• 'Aziz-ud-din', the son of Jahandar Shah,
was placed on the throne by the new
Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) king maker.
(1719 - 1748) • He adopted the same title as the great
• Roshan Akhtar ascended the throne as Aurangzeb, and called himself 'Alamgir-
Muhammad Shah in 1719. II'.
• The new emperor did not prove to be a • The new ruler was a kind of 'prisoner on
docile agent of Sayyid brothers, Sayyid the throne' in the hand of the king maker.
brothers were soon killed by Muhammad His attempt to free himself resulted in his
Shah. ruin; the emperor was put to death by
• Young and handsome Muhammad Ghazi-ud-din Imad-ul-mulk's orders.
Shah, with all the pleasures, addicted to
inactive life. Shah Alam-II (1759 - 1806)
• Though destiny granted him a long reign, • The son and the successor of Alamgir-
he let affairs drift in their own way, and II, Shah Alam-II had to move as a
soon province after province slipped out wanderer from place to place because
of imperial control. of the hostility of the ambitious and
unscrupulous wazir.
• The Marathas established their power
again, Jats became independent near • He is known to have fought against the
Agra, the Ruhelas founded Ruhelkand, British East India Company during the
Sikhs became active in Punjab. Battle of Buxar
• The invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia hit • Having been blinded by the Afghan
the empire with a greater blow. chief Gulam Qadir, he was saved by the
Maratha Sindhia.
• The mighty Mughal empire ceased to
exist within three decades of Aurangzeb's • After 1803, the year in which the British took
death, and the result was a budding of control of Delhi and this unlucky sovereign
numerous independent states. had to throw himself ultimately on the
protection of the English and live as their
Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748-1754) pensioner till his death in AD 1806.

• The next emperor, Ahmad Shah, son of

Akbar II (1806 - 1837) & Bahadur
Muhammad Shah, was unable to hold
the forces together that had grown so Shah-II (1837 - 1858)
alarming. • With the British control, all that remained
• The empire abruptly reduced to a small by way of an empire for the emperors
district round Delhi. Akbar-II and Bahadur Shah-II was their
shabby residence in Delhi's Red Fort,
• The emperor was deposed and blinded
where they were allotted a home.
in 1754 by the wazir Ghazi-ud-din Imad-

66
• A symbol of the durability of a once
glorious empire, the Great Mughal was
MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
still officially recognized as the potentate. • Mughal administration is called as Persio-
arabic setup in Indian environment.
• British maintained the authority of
the puppet dynasty to legitimize their • The mughal empire was divided into
presence. Subas (Provinces) which were further
subdivided into Sarkar, Pargana, and
• But in 1857, it backfired them, during the Gram.
Sepoy rebellion. In order to counter the
British power, the sepoys proclaimed • Akbar's system of central government
Bahadur Shah-II emperor of Hindustan. was based on the system that had
evolved since the Delhi Sultanate, but the
• But after the mutiny at Meerut, the British functions of various departments were
emerged victorious, and Bahadur Shah-II carefully reorganized by laying down
was accused of disruption, treason and detailed regulations for their functioning.
rebellion. He was condemned to exile in
Burma. The descendants were executed, ŠŠ The revenue department was headed
and the glorious Mughal empire was by a wazir, responsible for all finances
swept away once and for all. and management of jagir and inam
lands.

67
 ŠŠ The head of the military was called the
mir bakshi, appointed from among the
DOWNFALL OF THE
leading nobles of the court. Mir Bakshi MUGHALS: CAUSES
was in charge of intelligence gathering,
and also made recommendations to • Various causes led to the disintegration
the emperor for military appointments and the final collapse of the Mughal
and promotions. Empire. These are –

ŠŠ Mir saman was in charge of the imperial ŠŠ The religious and Deccan policies of
household, including the harems, and Aurangazeb.
supervised the functioning of the court ŠŠ The weak successors and
and royal bodyguard. demoralization of the Mughal army.
ŠŠ The judiciary was a separate ŠŠ The financial difficulties due to
organisation headed by a chief qazi, continuous wars .
who was also responsible for religious ŠŠ Group Rivalry at the Court-The
beliefs and practice weakness of the Later Mughals led to
• Occasionally a dignitary superior to treachery, treason and group politics
the wazir and other ministers was also at the Mughal court.
appointed called the Wakil. He acted as ŠŠ Dr. Satish Chandra was the first
the deputy of the sultanate (naib). among scholars who pointed out that
• Amil and Khakori were the special the failure of Mansabdari or Jagirdari
revenue officials at Pargana level. system was primarily responsible for
• Mansabdari was the feudalistic the downfall of the Empire.
mechanism in Mughals. ŠŠ The neglect of the sea power by the
Mughals.

MUGHAL FOREIGN POLICY ŠŠ The invasions of Nadir Shah and

Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the
• Mughal maintained cordial relations with Mughal state.
Safavid (Iran), Uzbek (central Asia) and
Ottoman Rulers. • The process of disintegration had begun
just after the death of Bahadur Shah I,
• They promoted trade and commerce the successor of Aurangzeb.
by friendly relation with neighbouring
countries • However, the Empire, in name, lingered
on till 1857. After the revolt of 1857, the
• By maintaining Kabul, Kandahar, Ghazni British wiped out its name as well and
border, they also secured the defence of assumed the de jure as well as the de
the country. facto sovereignty of India.
• Their foreign policy was on the basis of
equality.

68
 CHAPTER - 6

THE MARATHAS

69
INTRODUCTION the Adil Shahi dynasty, and carved out a
kingdom with Raigad as his capital.
• The Marathas were a Marathi-speaking
warrior group from the western Deccan • His father, Shahaji had earlier conquered
Plateau (present-day Maharashtra) who Thanjavur which Shivaji's step-brother,
rose to prominence by establishing a Venkoji Rao alias Ekoji inherited and that
Hindavi Swarajya (meaning "self-rule of Kingdom was known as the Thanjavur
Hindu/Indian people"). Maratha kingdom.

• The Maratha Empire or the Maratha • The Marathas are credited to a large
Confederacy was a power that dominated extent for ending Mughal rule over most
a large portion of the Indian subcontinent of the Indian subcontinent.
in the 18th century.
• The empire formally existed from 1674 THE RISE
with the coronation of Shivaji as the • The most important challenge to the
Chhatrapati and ended in 1818 with the decaying Mughal power came from the
defeat of Peshwa Bajirao II at the hands Maratha Kingdom, which was the most
of the British East India Company. powerful of the Succession states. In
• The Marathas became prominent in fact, it alone possessed the strength to
the 17th century under the leadership of fill the political vacuum created by the
Shivaji Maharaj, who revolted against disintegration of the Mughal Empire.

70
 be the founder of the Maratha Empire
with his mother Jijabai was his prominent
Guru.
• Shivaji led a resistance to free the Marathi
people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and
establish Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of
Hindu/Marathi people).
• He created an independent Maratha
kingdom with Raigad as its capital and
successfully
• fought against the Mughals to defend his
kingdom.
• The Maratha Kingdom produced a • He was crowned as Chhatrapati
number of brilliant commanders and (sovereign) of the new Maratha kingdom
statesmen needed for the task. But the in 1674. The state Shivaji founded was
Maratha Sardars lacked unity, and they a Maratha kingdom comprising about
lacked the outlook and program, which 4.1% of the subcontinent but spread over
were necessary for founding an all India large tracts.
empire.
• He adopted the titles of Chhatrapati &
• The Marathas had important positions in Kshatriya Kulavatamsa. He died in 1680.
the administrative and military systems
of Ahmednagar and Bijapur. • After the death of Shivaji, two of Shivaji's
sons, first Shambhaji and then Rajaram,
• Marathas did not have any large, well- ruled briefly and fought with the Mughal
established states; however, a number of army. In 1699, when Rajaram died, one of
influential Maratha families, namely, the his queens, Tarabai, started to rule in the
Mores, the Ghatages, the Nimbalkars, etc., name of her infant son Shivaji II.
exercised local authority in some areas.
• The later Maratha Empire was
• The Maratha ruler Shahji Bhonsle and his Confederacy of 5 big chiefs.
son, Shivaji, consolidated the Maratha
kingdom. Shahji acted as the kingmaker ŠŠ Peshwa of Poona
in Ahmednagar, and defied the Mughals. ŠŠ Gaekwad of Baroda
• Taking advantage of the unsettled ŠŠ Bhonsle of Nagpur
conditions, Shahji tried to set up a semi-
ŠŠ Holkar of Indore
independent principality at Bangalore,
as Mir Jumla, the leading noble of ŠŠ Sindhia/Shinde of Gwalior
Golconda, tried to carve out such a
principality on the Coromandal coast.
Later, Shivaji attempted to carve out a
SHIVAJI AND THE
large principality around Poona. MUGHALS
• In 1657, the Mughal invasion of Bijapur
SHIVAJI saved Shivaji from Bijapur reprisal.
• Shivaji (1627-1680) was a Maratha king Shivaji first entered into negotiations with
of the Bhosle clan who is considered to Aurangzeb and asked him for the grant

71
 of all the Bijapuri territories he held and Shivaji went with full preparation, and
other areas including the port of Dabhol murdered Afzal Khan. Shivaji captured
in the Konkan. Later Shivaji betrayed and all Afzal Khan’s property, including
changed his side. equipment and artillery.
• Shivaji resumed-his career of conquest at • Shivaji soon became a legendary figure.
the expense of Bijapur. He burst into the His name passed from house to house
Konkan, the coastal strip between the and he was credited with magical powers.
Western Ghats and the sea, and seized People flocked to him from the Maratha
the northern part of it. areas to join his army, and even Afghan
• The ruler of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan (one mercenaries who had been previously in
of the premier nobles) along with 10,000 the service of Bijapur, joined his army.
troops. Afzal Khan had been given • Aurangzeb was anxious because of
instructions to capture or kill Shivaji by the rising of the Maratha power near
any possible means. to the Mughal frontiers. Poona and
• In 1659, Afzal Khan sent an invitation to adjacent areas, which had been parts
Shivaji for a personal interview, promising of the Ahmednagar kingdom had been
to get him pardoned from the Bijapuri transferred to Bijapur by the treaty of
court. Convinced that this was a trap, 1636. However, these areas were now
again claimed by the Mughals.

72
• Aurangzeb instructed Shaista Khan, the • Unlike Shaista Khan, Jai Singh did not
new Mughal governor of the Deccan (he underestimate the Marathas rather he
was also related to Aurangzeb), to invade made careful diplomatic and military
Shivaji's dominions and Adil Shah, the preparations.
ruler of Bijapur, was asked to cooperate. • Jai Singh planned to strike at the heart
• Adil Shah sent Sidi Jauhar, the Abyssinian of Shivaji's territories i.e. fort Purandar
chief, who invested Shivaji in Panhala. where Shivaji had lodged his family and
Getting trapped, Shivaji escaped and his treasure.
Panhala came under the control of the • In 1665, Jai Singh besieged Purandar
Bijapuri forces. (1665), beating off all Maratha attempts
• Adil Shah took no further interest in the to relieve it. With the fall of the fort
war against Shivaji, and soon came to at sight, and no relief likely from any
a secret understanding with him. This quarter, Shivaji opened negotiations with
agreement freed Shivaji to deal with the Jai Singh.
Mughals. • After hard bargaining with Shivaji, the
• In 1660, Shaista Khan occupied Poona following terms we agreed upon –
and made it his headquarters. He then ŠŠ Out of 35 forts held by Shivaji, 23 forts
sent detachments to seize control of the were surrendered to the Mughals;
Konkan from Shivaji.
ŠŠ Remaining 12 forts were left with Shivaji
• Despite harassing attacks from Shivaji, on condition of service and loyalty to
and the bravery of Maratha defenders, the Mughal throne;
the Mughals secured their control on
north Konkan. ŠŠ Territory worth four lakhs of huns a
year in the Bijapuri Konkan, which
• In 1663, on one night, Shivaji infiltrated Shivaji had already held, was granted
into the camp and attacked on Shaista to him.
Khan, when he was in his harem (in
Poona). He killed his son and one of his ŠŠ The Bijapur territory worth of five lakhs
captains and wounded Khan. This daring of huns a year in the uplands (Balaghat),
attack of Shivaji put Khan into disgrace. which Shivaji had conquered, was also
In anger, Aurangzeb transferred Shaista granted to him. In return for these,
Khan to Bengal, even refused to give him Shivaji was to pay 40 lakhs huns in
an interview at the time of transfer as instalments to the Mughals.
was the custom. ŠŠ Shivaji asked them to be excused from
• In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, which was personal service. Hence, a mansab of
the premier Mughal port, and looted it to 5,000 was granted to his minor son,
his heart's content. Sambhaji.
ŠŠ Shivaji promised, however, to join
personally in any Mughal campaign in
TREATY OF PURANDAR the Deccan.
• After the failure of Shaista Khan, • Jai Singh, later, cleverly threw a bone
Aurangzeb deputed Mirza Raja Jai Singh of contention between Shivaji and the
of Amber, who was one of the most Bijapuri ruler. But the success of Jai
trusted advisers of Aurangzeb, to deal Singh's scheme depended on Mughal
with Shivaji. support to Shivaji in making up from

73
 Bijapur territory worth the amount he shivaji’s administration.
had yielded to the Mughals. • To strengthen the administration Shivaji
• Jai Singh had considered the alliance abolished the Jagir system and began
with Shivaji from the starting point of giving cash salary to his officers. Though
the conquest of Bijapur to the entire he abolished Jagirdari but gave land
Deccan. However, the Mughal-Maratha grants for temples and schools.
expedition against Bijapur failed. Shivaji • In his rule hereditary occupation of post
who had been deputed to capture fort was not allowed.
Panhala was also unsuccessful.
• Shivaji did not encourage the Zamindari
• As the plan failed, Jai Singh persuaded system.
Shivaji to meet with Aurangzeb at Agra.
Jai Singh thought that if Shivaji and
Aurangzeb could be reconciled, then ASHTA PRADHAN
Aurangzeb might be persuaded to give • Ashta Pradhan were the main axis of his
greater resources for a renewed invasion administration. Eight prominent officials
on Bijapur. But Shivaji’s meeting with were collectively known as Asht Pradhan.
Aurangzeb also became futile. They were-
• When Shivaji met Aurangzeb, he kept ŠŠ Peshwa-He was the Prime minister of
him in the category of 5,000 mansabdar the king.
(the rank, which had been granted to his
minor son). Further, the emperor, whose ŠŠ Amatya or Majumdar-He was Finance
birthday was being celebrated, did not Minister.
find time to speak to Shivaji. Therefore, ŠŠ Waq-i-Nawis-He worked as Home
Shivaji walked off angrily and refused Minister.
imperial service. ŠŠ Dabir or Sumant-He looked after the
• Since Shivaji had come to Agra on Jai work of the foreign department.
Singh's assurances, Aurangzeb wrote to ŠŠ Sachiv-He conducted the official
Jai Singh for advice. In return, Jai Singh correspondence.
strongly argued for a lenient treatment
for Shivaji. However, in 1666, before any ŠŠ Pandit Rao-He was a religious officer.
decision could be taken, Shivaji escaped ŠŠ Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati-He used to
from the detention. administer the army affairs.
ŠŠ Nyayadhish-He was the chief justice
ADMINISTRATION UNDER • All ministers, except the pandit rao and
the nyayadish, had to serve in a war
SHIVAJI whenever necessary.
• Maratha Empire under Shivaji extended
to Maharashtra, Carnatic and Tamil Other Aspects
Nadu
• In his departmental duties, each minister
• His empire was divided into two parts: was assisted by a staff of eight clerks:
swaraj (own kingdom) or mulk-i-qadim
ŠŠ Diwan – secretary
(old territory), and an undefined belt of
land legally part of the mughal empire ŠŠ Mujumdar – auditor and accountant
which paid chauth but was not subject to

74
 ŠŠ Fadnis – deputy auditor unwelcome presence of the maratha
ŠŠ Sabnis or Daftardar – office in-charge soldiers and civil underlings; it did not
impose on shivaji any corresponding
ŠŠ Karkhanis – commissary obligation to guard the district from
ŠŠ Chitins – correspondence clerk foreign invasion or internal disorder.
ŠŠ Jamdar – treasurer • The sardeshmukhi was an additional levy
ŠŠ Potnis – cashier of 10% which shivaji demanded on the
basis of a legal fiction that he was the
• There were 18 depts in the state which hereditary sardeshmukh (chief headman)
were looked after by the ministers under or the head of all Deshmukhs.
the guidance of the king.
• The swaraj territory, which was directly Shahuji Bhonsle (1708–1749)
under the rule of shivaji, was divided into
• He was the grandson of Shivaji, also known
a number of prants (group of districts)
as Chattrapati Shahu. He was Prisoner in
which were all aggregated into three
hands of Aurangzeb since 1689 and was
provinces, each being placed under a
released in 1707 (Aurangzeb’s death) by
viceroy.
Bahadur Shah I.
Judicial System • Why did the Civil war break out between
Shahu and his aunt Tarabai?
• Shivaji's judiciary was based upon the
ancient Hindu laws. In the villages, the ŠŠ Both wanted supremacy over the
Panchayats settled the disputes. Maratha kingdom.
ŠŠ Tarabai had carried out an anti-Mughal
Military struggle at Kolhapur, since 1700 in the
name of her son Shivaji II after the
• The regular army consisted of about death of her husband Rajaram.
30000 to 40000 cavalry and they were
given fixed salaries. Shivaji set up the • As what happened in the Mughal Empire
Maratha navy in 1659. The most famous like the rise of nobles in the Mughal
Maratha admiral was Kanhoji Angre politics, the same thing started in Maratha
(1669-1729). empire. Maratha Sardar started to take
sides by bargaining; they increased their
power and influence even conspired
Taxation System: Chauth and
against them with Mughal viceroys
Sardeshmukhi
• This conflict aroused a new system of
• The two most important taxes in the Maratha government which evolved
maratha taxation system are chauth and under the leadership of Balaji Vishwanath,
sardeshmukhi. the Peshwa of King Shahu.
• Chauth was 1/4 of the total revenue and it • With this change began the second
was an annual tax. Chauth was a military period—the period of Peshwa domination
contribution in lieu of protection against in Maratha history in which the Maratha
the invasion of a third power. state was transformed into an Empire.
• But jadunath sarkar doesn’t agree with • Peshwa - the office of chief minister
this view. He says that the payment of among the Maratha people of India.
chauth merely saved a place from the The peshwa, also known as the Mukhya

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 Pradhan, originally headed the advisory hardly 20, was appointed the peshwa by
council of the Raja Sivaji (reigned c. sahu.
1659–80). • He formulated the policy of northward
• After Sivaji’s death, the council broke expansion of the Marathas, so that “the
up and the office lost its primacy, but maratha flag shall fly from Krishna to
it was revived when Sivaji’s grandson attock”.
Shahu appointed Balaji Visvanāth Bhat, • The treaty of Delhi (Feb 1719) which balaji
a Chitpavan Brahman, as peshwa in vishwanath had entered into with the
1714. Balaji ‘s son Baji Rao I secured the Mughals.
hereditary succession to the peshwaship.
• Baji rao, after setting his own house
in order, finally defeated the nizam
BALAJI VISHWANATH (1713- near Bhopal and, by the convention of
durai sarai (January 1738), compelled
1720) the nizam to agree to surrender to the
• Balaji Vishwanath, a Brahmin, started life peshwa the whole of Malwa, together
as a petty revenue official and then rose with the complete sovereignty of the
step by step as an official. He had helped territory between the Narmada and the
Shahu to suppress his enemies. Chambal rivers and to pay rates 50 lakh
as war indemnity.
• He excelled in diplomacy and won over
many of the big Maratha Sardars. In • He conquered Malwa, Bundelkhand,
1713 – Shahu made Balaji as Peshwa or Bassein and Gujarat and reached upto
Mukhya Pradhan. Gujarat in 1737.
• He consolidated his and Shahu’s hold • The fall of Bassein marked the end of
over most of Maratha sardars and Portuguese rule in the north Konkan.
Maharashtra except region of Kolhapur • He also severely crippled the power of
(Rajaram’s descendent ruled there). the siddis of janjira.
• He had increased Maratha power by • He made Poona the centre of his activities
taking advantage of internal conflicts and it soon came to be known as the seat
of Mughal officials. He Induced Zulfiqar of the peshwas.
Khan to pay Chauth and Sardeshmukhi
• His policy of northward expansion
of Deccan. Agreement with Shahu in
however, landed the Marathas into the
later years. Allowed them to collect
ruinous third battle of Panipat.
sardeshmukhi and chauth in 6 provinces
of Deccan. • During this period Ranoji scindia was the
founder of the scindia dynasty of malwa
• In return Shahu agreed to place a body
with his headquarters at ujjain.
of 15000 cavalry troops at emperor
service and annual tribute of 10 lakh • Malahar rao holker also given a part of
rupees. Helped the Sayyid brothers in malwa, who became the founder of the
overthrowing Farrukh Siyar. holker house of indore.
• The gaikwars established themselves in
PESHWA BAJI RAO I (1720-40) the Gujarat with headquarters at Baroda.

• After the death of balaji vishwanath, • Two other regional kingdoms Kolhapur
his eldest son Baji Rao, a young man of was ruled by the junior branch of shivaji’s

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 family and Bhonsle’s of Nagpur claimed of the empire by exercising careful
close kinship with the maratha king sahu. supervision over all financial transactions.
• Baji rao founded the maratha empire • He later discussed the affairs of north
through his conquest, but he didn’t India with holker and sindhia and in April
consolidate it through administrative 1742 marched northward to consolidate
organisation. the maratha authority in Bundelkhand.
• In 1743, he undertook the second
PESHWA BALAJI BAJI RAO expedition to the north to help Alivardi
khan (in Bengal) whose territories had
OR NANA SAHIB (1740-61) been ravaged by raghuji bhonsle.
• Peshwa Baji rao died at the young age • The peshwa reached murshidabad and
of 40 and was succeeded by his son met Alivardi khan who agreed to pay
balaji baji rao (popularly called nana sahu the chauth for Bengal and Rs. 22
saheb) who, throughout his peshwaship, lakhs to peshwa for the expenses of his
remained dependent on the advice and expedition.
guidance of his cousin Sadashiv Rao • By this arrangement the peshwa freed
Bhau. Alivardi khan’s territories from the
• One of the earliest achievements of nana ravages of raghuji’s troops.
sahib was better financial management

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• On December 15, 1749 sahu died childless. • The forces led by Ahmad Shah Durrani
Before his death he had nominated came out victorious after destroying
Rama Raja, a grandson of tarabai, as his several Maratha flanks.
successor. • At Panipat the two rival armies stood
entrenched, face to face, for more than
THIRD BATTLE OF PANIPAT two months. There were skirmishes and
minor battles. The afghan cavalry patrols
(1761) dominated the environs of the Marathas
camp and cut off its communication as
• The Third Battle of Panipat took place
also food supply.
on 14 January 1761 at Panipat, between
the Maratha Empire and the invading • Vishwas rao was shot dead at quarter
Afghan army of (Ahmad Shah Durrani), past two. Soon after the bhau was also
supported by three Indian allies—the killed. Among the leading chiefs who met
Rohilla (Najib-ud-daulah), Afghans of the death for jankoji sindhia, Tukoji Sindhia
Doab region, and Shuja-ud-Daula (the and Ibrahim khan gardi. Mahadaji
Nawab of Awadh). sindhia received wounds, which lamed
him for life.
• The Maratha army was led by Sadashivrao
Bhau who was third in authority after • About 50,000 men and women were
the Chhatrapati (Maratha King) and the saved by the kindness and hospitality of
Peshwa (Maratha Prime Minister). Surajmal.

78
Reasons for the defeat of the capital of his ancestors (1772).
Marathas • The Mahadji Sindhia occupied Delhi
in 1788, and it was from his successors
• Numerically the Afghans had Daulat rao Sindhia that the English
considerable superiority. wrested the imperial capital in 1803.
• Against 60,000 Afghans and their • In south India the Marathas secured
Indian allies actually present in the field, victories against Haider ali and the
supported by 80,000 behind the fighting nizam.
line, the bhau had 45,000 troops in the
field and 15,000 pindaris in the rear. • Peshwa balaji baji rao could not bear
this shock of the awful catastrophe at
• The afghan had better training and Panipat and died six months after the
discipline, and it was better organized. battle (June 1761).
• Abdali had superiority in artillery, he • In the words of kashiraj pandit, who
employed “the most efficient mobile was an eyewitness to the third battle of
artillery known in that age”. Panipat, “it was verily doomsday for the
• Abdali was a far greater military leader maratha people”.
and strategist than the bhau.
• The defeat became virtually inevitable PESHWA MADHAVA RAO I
after the bhau’s postponement of battle
for 2 and a half month. (1761-72)
• From the political point of view the defeat • After the death of Balaji Baji Rao, his
was due largely to the alienation of the younger son Madhava rao was placed on
Rajput’s and the jats and the failure to the peshwa’s gaddi.
neutralize shuja-ud-daula and najib-ud-
• Since the new peshwa was only 17 years
daula.
old, his uncle Raghunatha Rao, the eldest
• While half of the Abdali’s army was surviving member of the peshwa’s family,
composed of troops furnished by his became his regent and the de facto ruler
Indian allies, the valiant Rajput’s and the of the state.
jats didn’t fight on the maratha side.
• During this period, serious differences
broke out between the peshwa and his
Aftermath uncle, leading to war between two in
• Abdali made unsuccessful attempts to 1762, in which the peshwa’s army was
conclude peace with the peshwa and defeated.
Suraj mal, and in the following years he • In 1765, raghunatha rao demanded the
failed to crush the Sikhs in the Punjab. partition of the maratha state between
• There was a revival of maratha power in himself and the peshwa.
north India under peshwa Madhava Rao • Haider Ali of Mysore ravaged the
I (1761-72). Maratha territories in Karnataka; but the
• After the death of Najeeb-ud-daula (1770) first Anglo-Mysore war involved Haider
who administered Delhi as Abdali’s agent Ali in a greater crisis.
after Panipat, the Marathas restored • During this period the maraths tried to
the mughal emperor shah alam II to the restore their lost position in north India.

79
• In January 1771, Mahadji sindhia occupied • Organized a powerful army with French
Delhi and succeeded in exacting money officers’ help and established control
from the leading rajput princes; but over Emperor Shah Alam in 1784.
the premature death of Madhava rao • From the Emperor he secured the
in November 1772 placed the maratha appointment of the Peshwa as the
dominion in a deep crisis. Emperor’s Deputy (Natb-i-Munaib) on
• After Madhava Rao’s death the fortunes the condition that Mahadji would act on
of maratha kingdom and the prestige of behalf of the Peshwa.
peshwas under Narayana rao (1772-74), • But he spent his energies in intriguing
Madhava rao Narayan (1774-95), and baji against Nana Phadnis.
rao II (1796-1818) rapidly declined.
• He was a bitter enemy of Holkar of Indore.
• The last peshwa surrendered to the He died in 1794. He and Nana Phadnis,
English and the peshwaship was who died in 1800, were the last of the
abolished (1818). great soldiers and statesmen.

MAHADJI SINDHIA BAJI RAO II (1796-1818)

• Amongst the most important Maratha • Baji Rao II, son of Raghunath Rao
rulers in the North. succeeded Sawai Madhav Rao.

80
• Challenge to British supremacy in India
i.e. Marathas were overpowered in 2nd
CAUSES FOR THE
and 3rd Anglo Maratha wars through DOWNFALL OF MARATHA
clever diplomacy.
• House of Peshwas was extinguished EMPIRE
while other Maratha states remained as • Military Losses: In the crucial Third Battle
subsidiary states. of Panipat, enormous loss of men and
money for the Marathas occurred. They
lost their best leaders in this war. The
IMPORTANT TERMS AND Maratha kingdom was shaken. Soon,
THEIR MEANING Marathas had to fight wars with the East
India Company to retain their dominions.
Swarajya Shivaji’s Kingdom/Self rule This too drained their coffers.
Raj Vyavahar Sanskrit dictionary compiled at • Political structure: The other reason for
Kosh the instance of Shivaji the downfall of the Maratha empire was
The levy on the neighbouring its own structure. Its nature was that of
Chautai/
territories which was ¼ of the a confederacy where power was shared
Chauth
land revenue. among the chiefs or sardars (Bhonsle,
Shivaji’s Biography by Sabhasad Holker etc).
Bakhar
written in 1677
• Weak Revenue Administration
Mirasis Resident owner cultivator
ŠŠ Marathas depended on the collection
Watandars Local landed elements of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi and on
Ashtapradhan Council of eight ministers their exploits from plunder and loot.
They failed to develop an efficient
Chitnis Secretary
system of revenue administration.
Mauza Lowest unit of the country
ŠŠ New territories were conquered
Tarfs- Second lowest unit of the country but much less focus was on the
Prants Provinces administration. Rulers were mainly
Equivalent to chaudhuris (village interested in raising revenue from
Deshmukh headman) of North India and peasantry through taxation.
desais of Gujarat.
• Weak Diplomacy
Subedar of small provinces
Kamavisdar
under the Peshwas
ŠŠ Marathas did not take the trouble
to find out what was happening
Subedar of bigger provinces elsewhere and what their enemies
Mamlatdar
under the Peshwas
were doing. There was no far-sighted
Watan Hereditary land holdings statesmanship or effective strategy.
Mirasdars Petty zamindars They failed to cultivate alliances with
Moksha Mahal Land grants
forces around them.

1/10 of produce taken by Shivaji

ŠŠ Because of their actions and political
Sardeshmukhi being Sardeshmukh, head of ambitions in the past Marathas did
Deshmukhs. not get the support from Northern
Regional Powers. As they interfered in
internal affairs and levied huge fines

81
 and tributes upon Rajputana states. land-grant system continued. As a result,
ŠŠ In the case of Awadh, they made large Marathas eventually lost to the British
territorial and monetary claims. Further who were more advanced politically as
they levied heavy fines on jat chiefs well as militarily.
and also angered the Sikh chiefs. • In 1802, Peshwa Baji Rao II accepted
• Military expansion minus consolidation: subsidiary alliance by signing Treaty of
Despite having made rapid territorial Bassein. This marked the downfall of the
advances, Marathas did not consolidate Maratha empire. By 1818 the Maratha
themselves in the vast areas in northern power was finally crushed and the great
and central India. chiefs that represented it in central India
submitted and accepted the over lordship
• No progressivism: Maratha system of of the East India Company.
administration was along the lines of their
predecessors. For instance feudal levies,

82
 REFERENCES
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CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 1
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CHAPTER 4
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CHAPTER 5
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CHAPTER 2
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CHAPTER 6 scribd.com
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Image 6.2

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 LET’S CRACK IT!

UPSC | Medieval India

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