ECOLOGY

- Is the study of the interaction / interrelationship of living organisms with each other and with their
surroundings .

ECOSYSTEM

- A natural unit;

- consisting of all the living things in a habitat;

- as well as the non-living part of the environment;

- interacting together to produce a stable system. / Is a group of living and non-living organisms which
function together as a unit.

Eg Oceans, Freshwater, Forest, Savannah /Savanna, Lake etc.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

- Natural Ecosystem eg. Land, Freshwater, Estuarines, Marine etc.

- Artificial Ecosystem eg. Farm, Man-made lake, Road etc

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

- Animals;

- Plants;

- Humans,

- Gas;

- Soil;

- Climate

ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS / ECOLOGICAL COMPONENTS

- Biosphere : is the part of the earth and the atmosphere where life exists. It consists of land,Sea,
Freshwater and Air.

- Habitat: is a particular locality within an environment, where an organism can live successfully.

- Population : is a group of organisms of the same species living together in the same environment. Eg
Population of monkeys in a forest habitat.
- Community : is the population of all the different species living together and interacting with each
other in a habitat.

Eg A forest community : population of monkeys, squirrels, parrots, mahogany trees.

Pond community : Spirogyra, Amoeba, Toad and Tilapia

- Communities are named after the dominant species : To only the living part of the ecosystem.

i.e.producers, consumers, decomposers.

- Dominant species has greater number of individuals than all other species of the community. Eg. Cocoa
farm cocoa plant is the most conspicuous. They form the dominant species.

- Biome: is a large region /area on the earth; where vegetation grows; and is characterized by a distinct
climate, soil, plants and animals.

Major biomes of the world :- Tropical rain forest; Savannah /Savanna /Grassland; Desert; Shrub; Afro-
Alpine; swamp; Deciduous forest; Coniferous forest.

- Niche: is the ecological role of an organism in a habitat.

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS / COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

- Biotic factors : plants and animals; living factor.

- Abiotic factors : soil, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, Sunlight; Non-living factor

BIOTIC FACTORS

- Is a factor concerned with the way living organisms interact with one another in a habitat.

Eg * Plants/ producers

* Parasites

* Animals /consumers

* Predators

* Decomposers /Saprophytes / micro organisms

USEFUL BIOTIC FACTORS

- Bacteria and fungi decompose dead organic matter;

- Insects and birds act as agents of pollination;

- Trees provide shade and shelter to animals and other plants;

- Rodents acting as agents of fruit /seed dispersal;

- Nitrogen fixing bacteria improving soil fertility;

- Termites aiding decomposition and aerating the soil.

ABIOTIC FACTORS

- These form the non-living part of the habitat eg wind, temperature, pressure, humidity, rainfall, pH,
degree of salinity, slope of land, altitude, carbon dioxide concentration, concentration of pollutants,
turgidity, light, depth of water etc.

ABIOTIC FACTORS COMMON TO ALL HABITATS

- Light intensity;

- Wind direction;

- Wind speed;

- Temperature;

- Atmosphere pressure;

- Rainfall.

ABIOTIC FACTORS WHICH AFFECT PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN A TERRESTRIAL HABITAT

- Physical factors : Climate - temperature, rainfall, humidity, light intensity, wind, pressure;

-Topographic factors - factors of the surface of the land / nature of land Eg. Mountain, hills, valleys,
altitude, drainage, erosion.

- Edaphic factors is the type of soil, humus Content of soil, water content of soil, degree of acidity or
alkalinity (pH); soil profile, nutrient content of soil.

SIMPLE MEASUREMENT OF ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

TERRESTRIAL HABITAT :

FACTOR MEASUREMENT

Temperature Thermometer

Rainfall Rain gauge

Wind direction Wind vane

Wind speed Anemometer

Light intensity Photometer

Pressure Barometer

Relative humidity Hygrometer

pH pH meter /BDH Universal instrument

Altitude Altimeter

AQUATIC HABITAT

FACTOR MEASUREMENT

Tide Tide gauge

Water depth Depth gauge

Turbidity Secchi disc

Alkalinity /Acidity of water pH meter

Temperature Thermometer

Density of water Hydrometer

Speed of flow of water Float specimen tube containing pebbles or sand.

HOW ABIOTIC FACTORS AFFECT BIOTIC FACTORS / EFFECTS OF ABIOTIC FACTORS

TEMPERATURE:

- High temperature leads to high transpiration rate in plants or aestivation or hibernation in animals;

- High rate of metabolism in organisms;

- A high rate of decay of organic matter;

- A higher rate of growth and shorter length of life cycles in some organisms eg. Housefly or toad.
- At a very low temperature plants roots absorb water at slower rates or reduction in the rate of
transpiration or metabolism of organisms;

- At low temperature, animals Eg Snail may hibernate or birds migrate;

- Temperature affects organisms on land more than that of those in water;

Temperature is measured by thermometer.

RAINFALL :

- Makes water available to organisms -Plants and animals;

- Quantity of rainfall determines type of vegetation in a habitat;

- Vegetation in its turn influences type of of animals that will live there;

- Rainfall /Splash/floods may dislodge organisms;

- Rainfall increases relative humidity which may affect the rate of transpiration and perspiration in plants
and animals respectively;

- Rainfall causes soil erosion which deprives plants of soil nutrients and increase in turbidity;

- Rainfall may form puddles /ponds thereby creating habitat for algae, mosquito larvae and tadpole;

- Termites site colony when it rains.

Rainfall is measured with a rain gauge.

THE USE OF RAIN GAUGE

- To measure the amount of rainfall.

PARTS OF RAIN GAUGE

METHOD OF READING A RAIN GAUGE

- Place the instrument firmly into the ground;

- In an open space rain water is collected into the cylinder;

- through the funnel; every morning the cylinder is emptied into a measuring cylinder to measure the
amount of rain in millimeters for the day / the water in the measuring cylinder is recorded for the day;

Daily /weekly measurements are taken; and the average rainfall for the period is calculated
The depth of rainfall in the soil is then calculated by

Depth of rainfall =d2/D2*h

Where,

D is the diameter of the funnel

d is the internal diameter of the bottle

h is the height of rain water in the bottle

PRECAUTIONS OF USAGE OF RAIN GAUGE

- Instrument should be placed in an open space to collect direct rain water;

- Fix the instrument in the ground to maintain stability;

- The funnel should be well above ground level to avoid splashing of water entering it;

- Raise the mouth / rim of instrument slightly above the ground to prevent spillage /splash water;

- Funnel should be well inserted in the measuring cylinder to ensure accurate measurement of collected
water;

- Place on flat level ground; the measuring cylinder should be dry; place in an open space.

IMPORTANCE OF RAINFALL MEASURED IN:

- Terrestrial habitat :-

* Inadequate rainfall can result in drought; decrease plant growth /yield; and lead to a reduction in
Animal production;

* Excess rainfall may lead to flooding; leading to destruction of habitat;

- Aquatic habitat :-

* Poor / No rainfall may lead to drying up of water bodies; leading to desiccation /death /migration of
organisms;

* Excess rainfall may lead to flooding of water bodies; increased turbidity /visibility;

* Changes in pH /reduced salinity; temperature; death of organisms.

IMPORTANCE OF RAIN TO THE ECOSYSTEM

- Source of water to both plants and animals;

- Determines the type of vegetation in a habitat;

- The vegetation in turn determines the type of animals that live there;

- Certain plants need rain to flower;

- Many terrestrial organism depends on rain /freshwater bodies for survival; and reproduction;

- It reduces the temperature of the environment;

- It increases the amount of water in freshwater bodies;

- Increases the turbidity of aquatic habitats;

- Rain water influences the salinity of aquatic environment;

- Causes erosions/ flooding;

- Affects humidity.

WINDS

- Steady wins increases rate of evaporation / transpiration / desiccation rate for animals;

- Strong winds break off branches of trees / fell trees /bend trees /also force animals out of cover;

- Aids dispersal of organisms;

- Aids pollination;

- Wind velocity and direction influence the flight of animals especially insects and bats;

- Strong winds cause soil erosion, water currents and waves;

- Bring rain if they carry rain- bearing clouds.

Wind direction is measured with Wind vane

Wind speed is measured with Anemometer

METHOD OF READING FOR ANEMOMETER

- When wind blows; it turns the metallic cups of the anemometer / the instrument;

- the metallic cups rotate; at the speed of the wind;

- which is recorded by a meter in the instrument; in meter per second;

- Higher reading / figures indicate greater wind speed of the locality.

LIGHT INTENSITY

- Intensity of Sunlight affects plants by affecting rate of photosynthesis;

- Affect the rate of transpiration / stomata opening;

- Adequate Sunlight promotes growth of many plant species;

- Low light intensity leads to growth of shade -tolerant species;

- Light affects the vision / movement of animals;

- Light affects the distribution of organisms in a habitat;

Light intensity is measured with lightmeter /Photometer.

In aquatic environment, intensity probe is used.

TURBIDITY AND DEPTH OF WATER

-Turbidity / Muddiness of water affects the type of animals and plants that live in a particular area.

- Some organisms require clear water bodies while others are more tolerant of muddy waters;

Turbidity is measured with Secchi disc.

PRESSURE / ALTITUDE

- At high altitude pressure decreases and animals have problems with respiration or blood pressure;

- At high altitude temperature decreases while wind action increases which affects the distribution of
organisms;

- At high altitude only animals with special haemoglobin are found in the environment;

- Altitude may affect speciation( is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise);

- Altitude may affect the behavioural pattern of animals

Pressure is measured with barometer.

HUMIDITY

- Affects rate of transpiration / respiration;

- Affects the activities of Poikilothermic animals;

- Affects the distribution of organisms Eg. Earthworms or Bryophytes Eg liverworts etc.

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Used by organisms /plants and animals to maintain growth and sustain life;

- Oxygen for respiration; carbon dioxide for photosynthesis;

- Nitrogen / Nitrates promote plant growth;

- Water for growth and maintenance of body temperature;

- Phosphate for plant growth.

pH / HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION

- Increases salinity /alkalinity /acidity of soil which affects plants or animals;

- Affects distribution of plants;

- Delays germination in some seeds;

- Enhances growth of grasses and provides food mostly for herbivores;

- Affects turbidity of some plants.

pH is measured with the pH meter / BDH Universal indicator

WILDFIRE /THUNDER AND LIGHTNING

- Destroy organisms /vegetations /animals;

- Displaces organisms /animals from their habitat;

- Breaks a dormancy in seeds /buds /underground stems/rhizomes;

- Enhances growth of grasses and provides food mostly for herbivores;

- Destroys soil nutrients /humus

- Exposes soil to erosion which affects plants/animals.

FOOD WEBS AND TROPHIC LEVELS

Food Web:

- Is a complicated feeding relationship in which a number of food chains are linked together.

KNOWLEDGE OF FOOD WEB

- Identification of organisms eaten by organisms so that more will be introduced;

- Eliminate predators of the organism from the habitat;

- Eliminate organisms that compete with the named organisms for food.

FOOD CHAIN

- Is a feeding relationship; where energy from plants; is passed through a series of organisms; with each
stage feeding on the preceding stage.

Eg. Maize. ........Man

Grass......... Zebra........ Lion

General terms :

- Producers......... Primary Consumers...... Secondary Consumers...... Tertiary Consumers........ Quaternary

Consumers.

Or,

Plant........ Herbivore........ First Order Carnivore....... Second Order Carnivore........ Third Order Carnivore.

ROLE OF ORGANISMS IN A FOODCHAIN

- Green Plants /Producers

* They are the primary producers;

* They manufacture food;

* They serve as food for herbivores

- Herbivores

* They are primary consumers;

* They feed directly on plants

* They form food for carnivores

- Carnivores

* They are secondary consumers

* They feed on herbivores.

TROPHIC LEVEL

- Is the links of transfer of food energy in a food chain / Is the links that consists of a food chain.

* All food chains may consists of two (2) to five (5) links / trophic levels, because little amount of energy
would be available at the last trophic level.

* Producer(s) : is a green plant / autotrophs, that uses light energy to produce food from substances by
photosynthesis.

* Consumer(s) : this is an organism which derives its nutrients, energy and food / heterotrophs, from
eating plants directly or indirectly.

* Decomposer(s) : Are organisms, that breakdown remains of other organisms, thereby converting
complex substances. Eg Fungi, Bacteria.

FOOD CHAINS IN A NAMED HABITAT / ENERGY FLOW

- Forest Habitat

* Palm fruit...... Squirrel...... Man

* Dead wood.......termite....... Toad..... Snake

- Savannah habitat

* Grass..... Grasshopper..... Lizard..... Snake

* Grass..... Antelope........ Tiger

* Grass...... Cow........ Man

- Pond Habitat

* Spirogyra....... Tadpole......... Kingfisher

* Diatom....... Cyclops......... Minnow

- Arboreal Habitat

* Mango fruit...... Butterfly....... Chameleon....... Snake

* Pawpaw........ Sunbird....... Hawk

LESSONS TO BE LEARNT FROM A FOOD CHAIN

- The shorter the food chain, the greater the amount of energy gained by the consumer.

WHAT HAPPENS IN A FOOD CHAIN?

- In any food chain, transfer of energy from are organisms to another occurs;

- Sunlight is the source of this energy and is converted to potential chemical energy in plants by
photosynthesis, making green plant the producers;

- Energy is decreased when transferred from the producer to the consumer as some part are not
eaten ,some undigested and egested as faeces, with decaying and others used to respire.

DESCRIPTION OF FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH GRAZING FOOD CHAIN

- Energy transferred from the producer to the primary consumer is only 10% efficient;

-This is because not all the plant is eaten, some of the food eaten will not be digested, as it will be
egested as faeces;

- Some are used for the metabolic activities like respiration and excretion;

- The transfer of energy from the primary consumer to the secondary consumer is also about 10%
efficient.

METHODS OF DETERMINING FOOD CHAIN AND THEIR LIMITATIONS

- Methods :

* Direct Observation;

* Gut content Examination / Stomach Examination

* Radioactive / Tracer /Labeling Method

DIRECT OBSERVATION :

- Observing the organisms feed on different organisms using the naked eyes / binoculars / cameras.

LIMITATION

- Not all organisms in the food chain may be identified at a particular time.

- Absence of preys that are fed on by the organisms being observed can conceal some information about
their feeding habits.

GUT CONTENTS / STOMACH CONTENTS EXAMINATION

- Organisms are dissected and the contents of their gut examined; to identify food ingested.

LIMITATION :

- Partial digestion of organisms in the gut can make their identification difficult;

- All organisms that are fed on by the sample organisms may not be found in the gut at a specific time.

RADIOACTIVE /TRACER / LABELING METHOD

- A food source is labeled with radioactive substance; and all organisms which feed directly or indirectly
on it are investigated; using a radiation detector / Geiger counter

LIMITATION:

- It is expensive;

- Radioactivity may pollute the environment;

- It increases the rate of mutation of organisms in the habitat

PYRAMID OF ENERGY AND PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

Pyramid of Numbers :

- This is diagrammatic representation of the numbers of organisms at different trophic levels in a food
chain.

In the normal pyramid the base is always broad while the apex is narrow, this is because the number of
organisms reduces progressively as one moves from the base to the top.
Producers take the base, followed by the Primary consumers then the Secondary consumers and the
Tertiary consumers ends it at the top.

The producers are mostly numerous and the least, the tertiary consumers in terms of numbers.

When the producer is very large and it supports a large number of consumers, the pyramid of numbers
become partially or fully inverted.

Bulge in middle, when an organism is fed on by another organism and being fed by the third organism.

DRAWBACK OF PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

- They fail to distinguish between the sizes of organisms;

- It is difficult to distinguish between single individuals when they are grouped together;

- The numbers at each trophic level vary greatly, hence very difficult to choose a proper scale.

BIOMASS

- Is a total mass; of the organism(s) of a species / given type; in a given area.

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

- Is a diagrammatic representation of the living or dry weight of all plants or animals at each level of a
particular food chain.

* It gives the total dry mass of the organisms at each trophic level in a food chain or food web at a
particular point in time;

* Organisms in each trophic level at a particular food chain are collected dried and weighed;

- The lower the trophic level the higher the biomass.

- It usually decreases at each successive level in a food chain due to heat loss;

- It displays the information about the standing crop when dry weighed. The unit is mass per unit area
per unit time at each level;

- Pyramid of biomass of organisms in the ocean show a central bulging pyramid due to the fact that the
producers (phytoplankton) have a biomass than its producers.

DRAWBACKS OF PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

- The rate at which biomass accumulates is not taken into account;

- It does not allow for changes in the biomass at different times of the year, this is because organisms
are killed in the process of heating.

PYRAMIDS OF ENERGY

- Is a diagrammatic representation of how much energy is transferred from are trophic level to the next;

- The transfer of energy from producers to primary consumer is less efficient than between each other
trophic level.

* Pyramid of energy are more informative. They shows the amount of energy needed to support each
trophic level;

* Pyramid of energy do not bulge or becomes inverted due to the fact that only a fraction of energy is
transferred to the next trophic level since more energy is lost as heat.

* The energy value of each organism is determined using a combustion technique. A known mass of
organisms is burnt and the heat produced is measured.

Units : KJM year-1

Energy transferred = KJ x10 M V

DECOMPOSITION IN NATURE

- Micro decomposers Eg Bacteria, Fungi

- Macro decomposers Eg Earthworm, Millipedes, Insect larvae

GASEOUS PRODUCTS OF DECOMPOSITION

- Carbon dioxide

- Hydrogen sulphide

* Heat energy is released during decomposition.

ROLE OF DECOMPOSERS

- Turn nitrogen into ammonia;

- Help reclaim carbon from dead organisms and put it back into the carbon cycle so living organisms can
use it;

- Breakdown dead/ decaying organisms, and in doing so, convert their basic materials into forms more
useful to plants;
- In food chain decomposers play a vital role by giving it a cyclical nature.

ECOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT

BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIONS:-

- Symbiotic Association

- Non-Symbiotic Association

SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION

- Is a close and long -lasting association between two or more organisms belonging to different species.
Eg Mutualism, Parasitism, Epiphytism, Saprophytism, Commensalism

NON SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION

- Is not a close and long -lasting association between two or more organisms belonging to different
species. Eg. Competition, Predation, Scavenging.

PARASITISM

- Is a close relationship between two organisms; in which one, the parasite, lives in or on the body of the
other, the host, deriving benefit from it;and causing harm to it.

The association may be endo-parasite or ecto-parasite.

Eg. Ectoparasites -lice,ticks,mites.

Endoparasites - tapeworms, Ascaria.

TYPE OF PLANT PARASITISM

* Partial Plant Parasitism :

- Involves green plants which are normal plants but do not have roots;

- Plants have green leaves hence photosynthetic ;

- They depend on host plant for water and mineral salts to carry out photosynthesis Eg Association
between the Cola tree, Shea tree, Citrus tree, Cocoa tree and Loranthus (African Mistletoe);

- Loranthus has strong stems and large green leaves;

- It produces haustorial /suckers which grow into a branch of the host plant for absorption of water and
mineral salts;

- Loranthus makes food by photosynthesis.

*Total Plant Parasitism:

- depends completely on the host for food;

- total plant parasites damage the host;

- by feeding on the tissues of the host;

- releasing poisonous substances into the host;

- the host may either die or tolerate the parasite.

Eg. Dodder, Cassytha filiformis /Plant parasite.

SYMBIOSIS:- Is a close and long-lasting relationship between two or more organisms of different species.
Eg. Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism

MUTUALISM

- Is a close relationship between two organisms of different species in which both partners benefit.

Eg. * Association Between Bacteria in the Root Nodules of Plants

- the nitrogen fixing bacterium, Rhizobium radiocicola;

- lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants eg. ground nut, potatoes;

- obtains food (sugar and vitamins);

- shelter from the plant;

- the bacterium converts atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates;

- the plants uses to synthesis proteins; amino acid and nucleic acids;

* Association between the Termite and Flagellated Trichonympha

- Termites feed on dead wood contains cellulose;

- Termites lack Celloluse enzymes;

- Trichonympha provides cellulase for the digestion of wood to render the cellulose useful to the
termite;
- Termite provides food and shelter or protection for the flagellated.

* Association between the Hermit Crab and Sea anemone

- The hermit crab lives with the body coiled inside the abandoned shell of a Whelk;

- The hermit crab allows the Sea anemone to grow on top of the shell;

- As the hermit crab tears up its food, small pieces float away and are picked up by the Sea anemone;

- the tentacles of the Sea anemone have sharp stings which protects the Crab from suspected predators.

* Association between bacteria in the Rumen of ruminants

- The bacteria digest cellulose and produce vitamins B and E for the ruminants;

- The ruminants provide protection and nutrients for the bacteria.

* Association between Algae and Fungus to form Lichen

- The fungus provides shelter, protection, carbon dioxide and mineral salts for the algae;

- The alga provides the fungus with nutrients and oxygen.

COMMENSALISM

- Is a close relationship between two organisms of different species which is beneficial to one,
commensal, but does not affect the other, the host.

Eg. *The association between the Shark and sucker fish, Remora;

- The Remora is a small fish which has a sucker -like dorsal fin;

- The sucker -like fins are used for attachment to the underside of the Shark;

- It is dispersed and protected by the Shark;

- The sucker fish feeds on the scraps of the Shark's food;

- The Shark is not harmed in the association.

* Association between Barnacles usually attach themselves to the skin of Shark and some other large
fishes for protection and dispersal

* Some Tropical Fish live in the cloaca of Sea Cucumber, a large Coelenterates, just for shelter and
protection;

- the fish may dash out to feed and get back;

- the Coelenterates remains indifferent to the presence of the fish.

AMMENSALISM

- Is a form of association in which both organisms involved are each hampered.

SAPROPHYTISM

- Is a type of feeding relationship adopted by some fungi in which they heterotrophically obtain
nourishment by extracellularly digesting and absorbing nutrients from dead and decaying organic
matter.

EPIPHYTISM

- Is a close relationship between two plants species; in which the smaller plant, the host；for supporting
only；

- They live on accumulated leave-litter,airborne moisture and dust particles and in many species have
aerial roots for anchorage.

NON-SYMBIOTIC ASSOCIATION

COMPETITION:

- The interaction that occurs when organisms in the same habitat;

- struggle for limited resources / space /light/ water / food / mate.

TYPES OF COMPETITION

- Inter-species/ interspecific competition

- Intra-species/ intraspecific competition

INTER SPECIES COMPETITION

- Is the type of competition which exists between individuals of different species

Eg Iroke tree and Terminalia in a forest for light;

Competition between a herd of Cattle and herd of antelopes on a grazing land.

INTRA-SPECIES COMPETITION
- Is the type of competition between individuals of the same species /kind.

Eg tomato seedlings in a nursery;

A population of laboratory rats in a cage.

FACTORS LEADING TO COMPETITION

- Overcrowding / limited space / overpopulation;

- Shortage of food / inadequate food;

- Shortage of air;

- Inadequate mates;

- Drought / insufficient water;

- Limited Sunlight;

- Temperature / temperature variation.

PREDATION

- Is a feeding relationship in which usually;

- a secondary consumer kills and eats a smaller organism;

- The larger organism is the predator; and the smaller organism is its prey.

PREDATORS

- Are carnivorous animals which feed only on other living animals / prey.

IMPORTANCE OF PREDATORS

- Maintains ecological balance;

- Check the population of the preys /pests;

- Biological control.

HOW PREDATORS ARE ADAPTED TO CATCHING THEIR PREYS

- Predators are swift Eg. Cat

- Strong eg Lion

- Cunning eg. Fox

- They stall their prey Eg Cat

- Have sharp vision eg Eagle

- Possess effective weapons Eg. Tiger uses its paw;

- Some use traps Eg Spider

- Some have cryptic colouration Eg Chameleon

- Some use camouflage Eg lion.

- Some use sound equipment Eg Insectivorous bats

MECHANISM OF ESCAPE OF PREYS FROM PREDATORS

- Camouflage eg Chameleon / Colour change / Cryptic colouration adapt to the environment Eg.
Grasshoppers / Stick insects;

- Possession of spines Eg Hedgehog / Grasscutter / Porcupine;

- Emission of offensive small; eg some insects / Tiger ants

- Presence of foul tasting /poison glands Eg. Frogs / Toads.

- Acute vision eg. Birds, Snakes

- Electric waves eg Electric fish

- By playing dead/ temporary swelling up Eg Porcupine, Millipedes, Some ant eaters, Grain wax

- Mimicry Eg Swallowtail butterfly, Arymlily

- Colour blending with the environment of green if green-like Praying mantis.

SCAVENGING

- Is when an animal consumes the dead remains of other animal.

Example of animals that do scavenging are Vultures, Hyenas etc.

BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL

- Is a practice of controlling a population of pests; parasites and pathogens by using their enemies;

- The natural enemy is either a specific predators / a parasite of a pest.

METHODS OF BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL

- Ladybird beetle is allowed to feed on aphids and scale insects which pierce and suck fluid from the
phloem of plants such as citrus;

- Fishes like Tilapia are introduced into standing water to prey upon the larvae and pupae of the female
anopheles mosquito which act as a vector of malaria;

- The bacterium ,Bacillus thuringensis, which is parasite for the larvae of moths and butterflies is used to
keep down their population since these insects destroy many economically important plants;

- Introduction of insectivorous fish into the habitat to feed on insect pests to control them.

ADVANTAGES OVER THE USES OF PESTICIDES

- Is very specific and does not affect other useful organisms, unlike pesticides which may kill other useful
organisms in addition to pest and pathogen;

- Does not pollute the environment but pesticides pollute the environment;

- Pest, parasites and pathogens rarely develop resistance to natural enemies but they easily develop
resistance to pesticides.

DISADVANTAGES OVER THE USE OF PESTICIDES

- Control is slow. It has to take time to multiply and spread;

- It tends to be unpredictable;

- It is difficult and expensive to apply

- It requires expert supervision.

OVERCROWDING

- This is a situation in which the population;

- in a given habitat;

- increases beyond that which can be sustained;

- by the available resources;

- resulting in competition for available resources.

ENDANGERED SPECIES

- Are plants and animals facing extinction / numbers are decreasing. / Is a species whose population /
habitat; has become so small; that it may be lost / completely wiped out; if not protected.

ACTIVITIES OF MAN THAT CAN CAUSE SPECIES TO BE ENDANGERED

- Illegal lumbering /deforestation / mining /quarrying;

- Poaching / illegal hunting of wildlife / killing of young animals;

- Bush fires / bush burning;

- Polluting of water bodies / oil spills / fishing with chemicals;

- Urbanization.

REASONS WHY IT IS NOT ADVISABLE TO REMOVE A WILD BIRD FROM ITS NATURAL HABITAT

- The bird may be one of the endangered species that needs to be conserved;

- it could die / be lost / may lose the chance to reproduce / perpetuate /prevent extinction;

- the bird could physically attack / injure human / other animals;

- the bird could transmit diseases;

- food chain could be disrupted.

WILDLIFE

- refers to all undomesticated animals and plants.

IMPORTANCE OF WILDLIFE TO THE ENVIRONMENT

- Wildlife forms part of the food chain / food web / they serve as food for other organisms / they also
feed on other organisms;

- decaying leaf litter / faeces of animals add nutrients to the soil / enrich the soil;

- their bodies can serve as habitat / shelter for other organisms;

- some plants serve as medicine for animals that eat them;

- the root of plants bind soil particles together / check soil erosion;

- the roots of trees make holes in the soil to aerate the soil / aeration provides air for soil organisms;

- trees act as wind breaks to check soil erosion;

- plants transpire / animals respire to release moisture into the atmosphere to form clouds / rains;

- the concentration of oxygen / carbon dioxide is kept balanced in the atmosphere due to
photosynthetic / respiratory activities of wildlife;
- promotes tourism / aesthetic values for income generation / recreational activities;

- wildlife bird / bats / insects aid pollination; dispersal of fruit and seeds;

- wildlife facilitates research;

- transmission of diseases.

REASONS FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION

- Many wild plants have medicinal values;

- Many wild species may be more resistant to diseases;

- Many predatory wild animals keep pests in check;

- For tourists attraction;

- some derive pleasure from hunting and fishing;

- To preserve endangered species

METHODS OF CONSERVING WILDLIFE

- Establishment of Zoological gardens;

- Establishment of game /forest reserves;

- Hunting should be controlled;

- Prohibiting bush burning;

- Prohibiting killing /poaching of animals in game reserves;

- Educating the public on the values of wildlife;

- Discouraging deforestation and encouraging afforestation.

CONSERVATION

- This is the judicious / careful use; preservation; and renewing of natural resources; to ensure its
continuity. /Is the protection and wise use of our natural resources.

REASONS FOR CONSERVATION

- To prevent destruction of natural ecosystems;

- For medicinal purposes;

- To preserve naturally beautiful sceneries for their aesthetic values;

- For research purposes;

- To promote the recycling of some scarce mineral resources / water;

- To prevent destruction of natural environment;

- To allow for continued use of natural resources for man's benefit;

- Preservation of rare and valuable species of plant and animal for future generations / to save them
from extinction.

EFFORTS EMPLOYED IN ENSURING CONSERVATION

- Zoological and botanical gardens are established;

- Promulgation of law prohibiting lumbering and indiscriminate hunting in our forest reserves;

- Prohibiting the use of chemicals for fishing;

- Reaforestation programme by the government through tree planting campaign;

- Establishment of National and District Environmental Protection Agencies;

- Forest / Game reserves are established Eg. Mole, Damango, Kintampo Monkey Sanctuary (Boabeng
Fiama)

METHODS OF CONSERVING FOREST

- Prevention of forest fires;

- Regulation / controlling excessive clearing of forest;

- Planting of new forest where they have been completely destroyed;

- Replanting harvested mature trees by seedlings in plantation;

- Use of pesticides to kill pest and control plant diseases.

CONSERVATION OF AVAILABLE NATURAL RESOURCES IN GENERAL

- To preserve existing natural resources;

- To replace renewable resources ;

- Practicing wise management of all non-renewable and renewable resources.

METHODS OF CONSERVING WATER

- Trapping /Storage of water in tanks /wells;

- Treatment and recycling of used water;

- Damming of rivers to allow more effective management of water;

- Planting of trees to provide vegetation cover which reduces evaporation and promote water retention
in soil / rainfall;

- Saving of water by prompt repairs of burst pipes and turning off taps immediately after use.

COVER CROPPING IN SOIL CONSERVATION

- Growing of certain crops /grasses /sweet potatoes / Crotalaria / groundnuts / leguminous plants / any
named crops;

- their roots to hold / bind the soil particles together; thus reducing soil erosion;

- their leaves prevent rainfall from directly hitting / pelting the soil surface and loosening it;

- their leaves shade the soil from direct Sunlight; thereby reducing evaporation of soil water;

- leguminous plants increase soil fertility / adds nitrogen to the soil; reduce leaching.

SOIL CONSERVATION METHOD

- Contour ploughing / ridges are made along the contour of a slopping land to prevent water running
down the hill / slope / and washing aways soil;

- Strip cultivation / the land is divided into strips along the contours of the slopes / crops are planted in
rows that alternate with the strips planted with cover crops/ grasses;

- Terracing / constriction of terraces which create barriers to hinder rapid water flow down the slope;

- Mulching / materials left after weeding /harvest are left to lie on the soil protecting the soil against
agents of erosion;

- Afforestation / cover cropping / growing grasses /tree / shrubs to cover and protect the soil;

- Crop rotation / Growing crops on a piece of land in sequence / season after season to maintain its
fertility;

- Storm drains / construction of barriers to stop free flow of surface water through farms;

- Application of manure / fertilizers to stabilize the soil;

- Avoid bush burning;

- Avoid overgrazing.

NATURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR CONSERVATION

- RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES :are mainly living things and their products which can be used;
reused or once used can be replaced, if properly managed. Eg Farm crops, forest crops, air, soil, water,
fisheries etc.

WATER AS A RENEWABLE RESOURCE

- Water falls as rain into the soil/ ground water body;

- plants use the water for photosynthesis;

- and then plants through transpiration / evaporation;

- put back moisture / water vapour into the air which condenses back into clouds / precipitates as rain;
animal drink water that comes from rainfall;

- then water evaporates from the bodies of the animals / respire / excrete and finally goes back to form
clouds /rain;

- when the surface of water bodies /soil water evaporates;

- the vapour rises into the sky / condenses /form clouds / precipitates / rains.

NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES : -are those that are Non-living and the products of things that
were once alive; it takes millions of years to form then and once used cannot be replaced. Eg Rocks,
Coal, Minerals, Oil

ACTIVITIES OF MAN RESULT IN DEPLETION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

- Population explosion;

- Air/ water /soil pollution;

- Deforestation

- Desertification

- Poaching of endangered species / indiscriminate hunting of wildlife;

- Increased demand for fuel / mineral resources;

- Poor farming practices/ methods.

DESERTIFICATION

- refers to the condition in which vegetation of an area is lost leading to almost bare soil.

EFFECTS OF MINING IN THE ENVIRONMENT

- Pollution of water bodies / water pollution;

- Degradation of the land;

- Emission of gases into the air / air pollution;

- Destruction of ecosystems;

- Sound pollution;

- Land is polluted by the dumping of soil waste;

- Deforestation;

- Soil infertility;

- Soil erosion.

CONTROL MEASURES OF MINING ACTIVITIES

- Reclaiming of land by afforestation;

- Developing gold pits into fish ponds / alternative livelihood;

- Resettlement of local inhabitants;

- Dumping solid / liquid waste at approved /selected sites only.

BENEFITS OF FOREST

- Employment;

- Induces rainfall;

- Checks erosion / controls erosion;

- Research purposes;

- Source of firewood;

- Source of timber;

- For tourism /foreign exchange / recreation;

- Protect source of water / watershed;

- Source of medicine / herbal plants

- Habitat for organisms / source of game;

- Shade for human / other animals.

- Serves as brakes against strong winds;

- Replenish atmosphere with oxygen / remove carbon dioxide from atmosphere;

- Source of food.

ADAPTATIONS OF ORGANISMS TO HABITATS

Study of Specific Habitats :-

- Aquatic /Water Habitat

- Terrestrial / Land Habitat

AQUATIC HABITATS

There are three (3) main types of aquatic habitat :

- Freshwater habitat

- Marine habitat

- Brackish habitat

Categories depend on salinity level (salt concentration)

* Freshwater -very less salinity;

* Marine - high salinity;

* Brackish - intermediate, fluctuating salinity.

FRESHWATER HABITAT

Two main types :

- Letic/ Running water bodies Eg. Rivers, Streams

- Lentic / Standing water bodies Eg Lakes, Ponds

RIVERS AND STREAMS

- Organisms that live in streams and rivers are similar to the those in ponds and lakes.

- To curb the danger of being carried away by the water current, some of the smaller animals hide
amongst the vegetation near the banks where the water flows slowly / cling close against stones and
rocks.

- Ancylus, a small gastropod has a smooth nearly flat shell over which water flows easily without
sweeping it away;

- Black simulium attaches itself firmly to rocky surface by ring of hooks at its posterior end.

PONDS AND LAKES

- It contains many kinds of organisms;

- Distribution of organisms :

* water surface

* main body

* close to the surface

* bottom

- Surface of water organisms

* microscopic algae such as Diatoms, Desmid and Chlamydomonas, many blue-green bacteria. These
constitute the phytoplankton .

- Free floating organisms :

* Spirogyra and Water plants (hydrophtyes) such as Pistia, Lemna, Salvina (aquatic fern).

- Features that enables the organisms to stay /survive on top :

* Vacuoles containing gas (bacteria) and oil (diatom);

* Large air spaces in roots and leaves (Pistia, Lemna);

* Stomata on the upper surface, waxy /hair covering the upper surface to prevent water from blocking
the stomata;

* Water repelling bristles for Skating ( Pond Skater).

-JUST BENEATH THE SURFACE

* Zooplanktons, protoctist (Paramecium), Daphnia (Waterflea), Shrimp, Cyclops.

- Submerged Organisms

* Plants eg Ceratophyllum, Vallisneria and Crinum ( Water Spider Lily);

* They tend to attach to submerged materials /substratum;

* Structure for attachment include adventitious roots, rhizoids and thallus;

- Animals :

* Some common insects Notonecta, Corixa(Water boatman), Dyticus (Diving Beetle), Nepa (Water
Scorpion)

* Last pair of legs modified to enable them swim, they are long, flat and lined with bristles.

- How they get atmospheric oxygen

* trap air under wings -water beetles;

* trap air under bristles - Water boatman

- Some Common Pond and Lake fishes are Tilapia, Clarias( Catfish), Snout fish, Tiger fish.

* Possession of gills, streamlined, slimy body and fins and swim bladder which helps them to swim.

* A large number of animals live on the submerged plants / in mud at the bottom of the water.

* Pond snails such as Limnaea, Planorbs crawl and feed on the plants;

* Hydra live attached to vegetation /rock;

* Nymphs of Dragonfly, Mayfly, Caddisfly and various other larvae live around here.

- Have gills to breathe

* Charoborous have two pairs of air sacs to enable it float to the surface to catch its prey.

- Edge of pond

* Plants Cyperus, grasses;

* Animals found feeding and breeding are Toads, Frogs, Crabs;

* Birds such as Herons, Kingfisher and African Spoon bills have interesting adaptations, their legs and
beak for movement and feeding habits.

MARINE HABITAT
The are the oceans and seas.

Major zones in a marine habitat and their characteristics :

- Splash/ Supra tidal zone :

* Exposed and not submerged most of the time;

* Soil is Sandy and well washed by wave action;

* meeting point and terrestrial habitats

- Intertidal zone :

* Alternatively submerged at high tide and exposed at low tide;

* Lacks rooted plants

- Subtidal Zone :

* Always submerged by water and never exposed;

* Rooted plants and sedentary animals are present;

* Forms the shallow part of the Sea .

- Littoral zone :

* Near the land and its water is called neritic water;

* Contains a lot of producer and consumer organisms;

- Oceanic zone :

* includes deepest areas of the Sea and areas beyond the continental shelf;

* Few organisms are found at areas beyond light penetration points;

* Lacks rooted plants.

SEASHORE

- The intertidal zone at the seashore is a marine habitat;

- It is between the water mark at low and high tide and become exposed to the air as the tide goes out;

- Microscopic and free floating organisms here are diatoms, protozoans, Copepods (crustaceans), snails
and larvae of different animals. Animals here are adapted for being completely covered with water and
exposed;
- On Sandy intertidal zone as the tide recedes, some animals dig into the sand whiles others withdraw
into their holes. The starfish burry itself using its tube feet; Donax uses its specialised foot for digging;
Crab, Hippa and annelid Glycera are active burrowers. Ghost crab is also found in many sand shores;

- In rocky seashores, there are various adaptations :

- Withdrawing into a protective shell and enclosing some water with them to avoid drying up. Eg.
Limpets and Barnacles.

- Holding onto rock surface by suction Eg. Limpets.

- Barnacles cement to the surface of rocks;

- Mussels are attached by strong threads;

- Trapped in rock pools at low tides and hiding in crevices Eg Crabs,

* Small fishes, Starfish, Astropecten and the Sea hare, Aplysia may be found in the intertidal pools;

* A number of shore birds may be found including the sand Piper.

* Many thalloid algae Eg. Sargassum and filamentous algae such as Cladophora are found in the
intertidal zone.

BRACKISH HABITAT

They are the Lagoons and Estuaries. It has a salinity in between that of freshwater and Sea water. It is
significant of fluctuating environmental conditions which include:

* variation in salinity;

* tide level;

* The seasons.

- These can be tolerated by a restricted number of organisms.

Example of animals found in brackish water :

* are Crabs including Hermit Crabs, Fishes such as Mudskipper (Periophthalmus) and bivalves such as
Ergeria.

- The plant community is dominated by the mangrove both white mangrove ( Avicennia) and red
mangrove ( Rhizophora).

- Avicennia has pneumatophores for gaseous exchange in the swamp and leaves secrete excess salts
absorbed by the roots;
- Rhizophora has stilt roots which rise out of the water to maintain support and also for respiration and
its seeds germinate while still attached to the parent plant. Seedlings drop to the ground and get firmly
rooted immediately to maintain support.

TERRESTRIAL HABITAT

Vary according to the type of vegetations :

- Forest consist of large trees;

- Grassland (Savannah) consist of more grasses than trees;

- Desert has little vegetation.

The type of vegetation depends on physical factors such as :

* The amount of rainfall;

* The temperature;

* Soil type.

TROPICAL RAINFOREST

Characteristics :

- Tropical rainforest experience heavy rainfall almost throughout the year;

- Temperature is relatively high and uniform with an annual mean around 25C and 35C;

- Relative humidity is normally very high;

- Soil is generally very fertile.

- Majority of the plants are woody;

- The trees are abundant plants and falls under :

* a) A- storey-30m above which forms canopy called emergent;

* b) B- storey - about 30m high;

* c) C- storey - about 15m high.

Hence undergrowth consists of shrubs; fern etc which are known as ground flora.

Examples of forest plants and animals in Tropical rainforest and their adaptation;
- Plants: The trees in the forest include Mahogany, Wawa, Odum, Sapele etc. The epiphytes include fern,
mosses and orchids which grow.

- Adaptation of forest plants :

* Trees have large extensive roots that offer firm anchorage during heavy rains;

* Trees with extensive branches serving as wind-breaks during heavy storms;

* Trees have thin barks, broad and numerous leaves to enhance the rate of transpiration;

* Leaves are large, leathery dark-green and nearly entire margins for photosynthesis even in the shade;

* Epiphytes like ferns posses slender body that enable them to grow on other trees;

- Animals :

Animals in tropical rainforest consist of the Arboreal and mammals.

* Arboreal - Butterflies, Grasshoppers, Spiders, Ants, Lizards, Parrots, Wood Owl etc.

* Mammals- Mona Monkeys, Colobus Monkeys, Bats, Squirrels, Elephants, Leopards etc.

Adaptations of forest Animals :

* Arboreal animals posses wings for flight Eg. Birds,Grasshopper etc

* Arboreal animals like birds have numerous air sacs for efficient respiration;

* Animals like monkeys and chameleons posses opposable and prehensile tail for climbing and moving
on branches. They also posses sticky pads and clawed toes for climbing and perching.

* Reptiles like the snakes have elongated bodies that enable them to twist around branches of trees.

TROPICAL SAVANNA

Characteristics :

- The weather is hot with moderate range of temperature;

- Rainfall is relatively low compared to tropical forest;

- Savanna normally experiences bush fires annually;

- It consists of mainly tall grasses and grass-like vegetation interspersed with trees, many of which are
deciduous;

- Trees are widely space-out / sparsely distributed;

- Trees are usually stunted with thick corky barks;

- Trees have relatively low and compact crown.

EXAMPLES OF SAVANNAH PLANTS AND ANIMALS

- Plant (flora) :

* The grasses grow in thick tufts called tussock which protects the buds inside from damage by fire.
Elephant grass, Andropogon;

- Herbs found in the Savannah are mainly annuals and they bear flowers and also produce seeds only
during the raining season after which they die off . Eg. Pancratium Lily, Aframomum.

- Also some herbaceous plants are perennial which posses underground organs like corms, rhizomes and
bulbs which are not destroyed by fire but grows new shoots during next season.

- The trees in Savannah are commonly the members of pea family.

- Animals ( fauna) :

* Fauna in Savannah are mostly herbivores since the grasses are suitable for grazing and browsing
animals. Eg. Antelopes, Zebra, Elephants, Mice, Rats, Hyenas etc.

* Few are carnivores and these include Lions, Leopards, and Cheetahs. Some common Monkeys present
are Patas Monkeys.

* Insects found here Include Locust, Grasshopper, Flies, Termites and Ants that plays vital role in their
food chain.

* Birds present are bush fowls, Pigeons, Cattle Egrets, Pied Crows and Vultures.

* Reptiles include Spitting Cobra, Puff Adder, Lizards, Geckos, Chameleons and Tortoises.

ADAPTATION OF SAVANNAH PLANTS

- Grasses posses tussock that protects buds on the inside from damage from fire;

- Plants contain the ability to bear flowers and produce seeds during the short raining season which are
able to withstand the dry season;

- The perennial herbaceous plants posses underground organs like rhizomes and corms which are able
to withstand fire;

- Trees being stunted with corky bark enable them to resist the harsh effects of fire;

- Some trees like baobab posses huge water storing trunk.

ADAPTATION OF SAVANNAH ANIMALS

- They have a well sense of smell which helps them to detect their prey;
- They posses powerful claws for apprehending and holding their prey;

- The carnivores are fast-moving animals;

- The mass movement of preys makes it difficult for the predators to easily attack.

TROPICAL DESERT

Characteristics :

The tropical deserts are subjected to most extreme temperature fluctuation, thus during the day they
are exposed to intense Sunlight and the temperature of both the atmosphere and the soil may rise very
high to about 40C or even higher.

ADAPTATION OF DESERT PLANTS

- They posses very small leaves which at times totally reduced into spines which helps in conserving
water.

- Some plants posses the ability to grow and complete their cycle within few weeks;

- Some plants also posses thick cuticle and sunken stomata which enables them to conserve water.

ADAPTATION OF DESERT ANIMALS

- Body covering is dry and impermeable to water this helps to reduce water loss;

- Live in burrows or nocturnal habits to avoid the heat of the day;

- Conserve water by excreting dry urine (uric acid) and egesting dry faeces;

- Have enlarged feet with fringed toes for walking on loose sand;

- Posses elongated legs for hopping, enabling faster movement to escape from predators and find
shelter.

POLLUTION

- Is the release into the environment of substances;

- by man; in quantities, which are harmful to the health / well being of human / other organism / life. Or

- Is the release of toxic /harmful substances;

- into the environment by their natural forces/ man and other animals;

- to an extent that causes biological damage to man and his resources. Or

- Is the introduction of materials /energy into the environment by human directly /indirectly.
TYPES OF POLLUTION

- Air pollution

- Water pollution

- Land pollution

- Noise pollution

HUMANS ACTIVITIES WHICH CAUSE POLLUTION

- Dumping of domestic /farm refuse;

- Release of chemicals from mines;

- Misapplication of agro-chemical / fertilizers;

- Spraying of pesticides and herbicides;

- Dumping of broken bottles / glasses /enamel wares;

- Dumping of plastics;

- Dumping of scrap metals;

- Spillage of crude oil from pipelines /tankers;

- Dumping of untreated sewage;

- Effluent from factories / breweries /laboratories.

AIR POLLUTANTS

- Smoke

- Smog

- Dust

- Soot

- fumes

- Pollen grains

- Harmful gases : Sulphur dioxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen oxide.

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION

- Factory / industrial noise;

- Aeroplane / aviation noise taking off and landing of aeroplanes / air planes;

- Railway engine / locomotive noise;

- Automobile / car horns / sirens;

- High pitched musical sounds from loud speakers / drumming / Electronic sound system;

- Noise from mills /sawmills / grinding mills/ electronic gadgets and generations;

- Pneumatic drills;

- Artillery shots/ Shelling / Canon shots;

- Thunder noise

REDUCTION OF NOISE POLLUTION

- Legislation

- Education / public enlightenment;

- Siting factories/ air field far from residential areas;

- Use of sound proof / silent generators.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION ON MAN

- Loss of hearing / deafening /hard hearing / hearing difficulty;

- Emotional disorders / Anxiety /and lack of concentration;

- High blood pressure / hypertension

- General irritation / short temper.

- Changes in behaviour.

WATER POLLUTION

- Is when harmful substances are released into water;

- usually as a result of human activities;

- in such a high concentration;

- that the water becomes harmful to living things / can affect the quality of life of humans / organisms.
WATER POLLUTANTS

- nitrates /phosphates / fertilizers /chemicals;

- farm waste / silt;

- hot water;

- oil/ crude oil;

- Detergent;

- Effluent from factories /industries /industrial waste;

- Refuse / Sewage.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION ON ORGANISMS

- Destruction / death of valuable aquatic species such as Sea birds, fishes etc.

- Food chains are affected /disrupted;

- Pollutants encourage bacterial growth leading to reduced amounts of dissolved oxgyen / Biological
oxgyen demand /BOD in water. This leads to death of fishes and other organisms.

* BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD) :it is used in measurement of the level of organic pollution in
water. It is used to identify polluted water.

- Causes algae blooms / eutrophication while water is rendered unsafe for domestic, drinking industrial
use /recreation;

- water may be coloured;

- it leads to migration of water animals.

ACTIVITIES OF MAN THAT POLLUTE WATER BODIES

- Dumping of household refuse / organic wastes into water bodies ;

- Oil spillage from drilling / tankers;

- Thermal pollution, hot water from industrial plants and atomic reactors;

- Dumping of agro-chemicals eg fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides etc.

- Dumping of dye from textile factories into water;

- pouring tannis from leather factories into water bodies;

- Radiations / radioactive fall -outs from nuclear plants washed into water bodies;
- Untreated sewage dumped into water bodies;

- Use of dynamites of explosives for fishing;

- Use of chemicals (Gamalin /DDT) in fishing.

MEASURES FOR PREVENTING POLLUTION OF WATER BODIES

- Treatment of raw sewage before discharging into water and prohibition of disposal of human waste
into water bodies;

- Refuse must be burnt / buried and must not be deposited into water bodies;

- Recycling of industrial waste before discharging them into Water;

- Waste should be discharged in controlled amounts;

-Cooling of water from industrial plants before discharging;

- Proper sewage treatment;

- Using biodegradable detergents in controlled amounts;

- Limiting the use of pesticides and fertilizers;

- Spraying oil with detergents to spread it/ cover oil with chalk powder to cause it to sink and speed up
bacteria decomposition /efficient method of preventing oil spillage;

- Proper education of farmers on correct usage of fertilizers to limit run-off into water bodies;

- Enactment / enforcement of laws to prevent the use of explosives and chemicals in fishing.

MEASURES TO CONTROL WATER POLLUTION

- Ban the use of chemicals and dynamites in fishing;

- Raw sewage must be treated before discharge into water bodies;

- Industrial waste must be recycled;

- Hot water must be cooled before discharged;

- Waste must be discharged in controlled amount;

- Biodegradable detergents must be used in controlled amount;

- Farmers must be educated about the correct usage of fertilizer to limit run-off into water bodies;

- Oil leakages must be prevented from tankers;

- The use of organic manure other than pesticides and fertilizers must be encouraged.

EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS

* Effects of Sewage on Aquactic Life :

- Sewage may be toxic to aquatic life;

- It can enrich water with nutrients to promote rapid growth of plants and algae /Eutrophication, which
cuts down light penetration to reduce photosynthesis of aquatic plants;

- Supply of oxygen decreases which results in death of aquactic life;

- The gills of fishes and filters of feeders are clog by particulate matter of sewage.

* Effects of oil spillage on aquactic life :

- Oil is poisonous to sea birds and other aquatic life;

- It causes death of aquatic animals and destroys breeding sites;

- Photosynthesis is affected as oil reduces light penetration and also oiled birds cannot fly to feed/nest;

*Effect of fertilizer on aquatic life :

- Causes eutrophication and destroys aquatic organisms;

- It affects the food chain and pH of the water.

WAYS OF CONTAMINATING DRINKING WATER

- Defaecation / urination in rivers /streams/ lake etc;

- Oil spillage in rivers / streams / lakes etc.

- Dumping of refuse / industrial wastes in rivers / streams / lakes;

- Laundering in water used for drinking;

- Bathing in water used for drinking / washing of animals;

- Seepage of faeces / urine into wells, from nearby pit laterines;

- Uncovered / lidless wells;

- Leaking / burst water pipes;

- Harmful chemicals dumped into water source.

WAYS OF PURIFYING DRINKING WATER

- Boiling

- Filtration

- Sedimentation / Addition of alum

- Chlorination

- decantation.

QUALITIES OF POTABLE WATER

- Tasteless / Insipid

- Colourless

- Odourless

- Free from germs / Suspended particles

STAGES OF WATER TREATMENT FOR PUBLIC CONSUMPTION

- Screening / aeration

- Sedimentation

- Coagulation / Flocculation / addition of alum / Aluminum Sulphate;

- Filtration;

- Sterilization / Chlorination / disinfection;

- Storage.

DISEASES CAUSED BY CONTAMINATED WATER

- Cholera

- Diarrhoea

- Dysentery

- Typhoid

- Schistosomiasis / Bilharzia

- Onchocerciasis / River Blindness

ACTIVITIES OF MAN THAT POLLUTES THE ENVIRONMENT

- Agriculture :

* Chemicals used by fishermen pollute water bodies;

* Run-off from fertilizers pollute the water;

* Pesticides pollute atmosphere and their run-off pollute water

- Industry:

* Radioactivity pollutes air, water and land;

* Scrap metals and plastic containers pollutes the land;

* Oil pollutes water and land;

* Thermal pollution pollutes water;

* Mining industry pollutes air with dust;

- Domestic :

* Refuse pollutes the environment when improperly disposed;

* Sewage pollutes water

* The use of fossil fuels release carbon dioxide, Carbon (II) oxide, Lead oxide, Smoke into the
atmosphere.

SANITATION

- Refers to the measures taken to keep the conditions surrounding the body;

- known as environmental factors, healthy.

IMPORTANCE OF SANITATION AND PROPER SEWAGE DISPOSAL TO MAN

- To prevent spreading of diseases and enhance healthy living;

- To ensure clean environment;

- To reduce pests and vectors

- To reduce pathogens / diseases -causing organisms.

WAYS OF MAINTAINING PROPER SANITATION

- Cleaning and desilting of gutters and draining stagnant water;

- Provision of waste and refuse containers;

- Weeding around houses;

- Proper management of sewage disposal;

- Proper and efficient collection and disposal of refuse;

- Proper siting of refuse dumps;

- Proper siting of places of convenience.

SEWAGE

- Faeces and urine / waste matter / faecal matter / waste matter from industrial / domestic sources; that
is dissolved / suspended in water.

EFFECTS OF SEWAGE ON HUMANS

- Sewage discharged into water bodies / rivers make water unfit for drinking;

- may cause water-borne diseases /cholera / dysentery;

- may kill aquactic organisms / fishes which serve as food to man;

- poisonous substances / chemicals in sewage may alter the food chain and become harmful to man;

- sewage causes discomfort /bad odour to man/ unsightly;

- makes water bodies /rivers unfit for domestic use/ bathing / swimming.

EFFECTS OF RELEASING UNTREATED SEWAGE INTO A STAGNANT WATER BODY

- Spread of water -borne diseases / microbes /pathogens;

- May be toxic /poisonous to aquactic life / organisms / water pollution;

- Makes water unfit for consumption /use;

- Increased decomposition as a result of breakdown by bacteria;

- Increased concentration of nutrients / eutrophication;

- Rapid growth of algae /aquactic plants / algal bloom;

- Depletion of oxygen;

- Suffocation / death of aquactic animals;

- Generates offensive odour / air pollution.

EFFECTS OF REFUSE ON HUMANS

- Refuse dumps are unsightly;

- Offensive odour / causes discomfort;

- Breeding grounds for insects / disease-causing organisms / pathogens;

- Blocked gutters / draining system / streams / rivers.

EFFECTS OF DUST ON HUMANS

- Triggers asthmatic attack / allergies;

- Irritates the lining of respiratory tract;

- Causes respiratory tract diseases / any correctly named diseases;

- Reduces the quality of drinking water;

- Reduces visibility;

- Reduces photosynthesis leading to lower crop yield;

-Injury to eye;

- Causing discomfort.

FACTORS FOR GOOD HOUSING

- Good site Eg not waterlogged / away from refuse dump / noise;

- Solid foundation;

- Good ventilation;

- Good lighting system;

- Suitable soil;

- Nearness to social amenities Eg. Schools, Hospital, Market etc

- Good orientation;

- Quality / building materials;

- Altitude / Hill side.

ADAPTATION
- Is the ability of an organism to survive in a given environment using special features; OR

- Is the possession of special features which enable an organism to live successfully in its habitat.

HOW PLANTS ADAPT TO THEIR HABITAT

- Features In Dry Areas (Terrestrial) :

* Have thick bark for fire resistance;

* Have short life cycles to survive unfavourable conditions;

* Succulent leaves / stem has water storage tissues;

* Presence of thick waxy shiny cuticles / hairs on leaves to reduce water loss;

* Sunken stomata / leaf rolling to reduce water loss ;

* Roots are deep seated for tapping water from soil;

- Leaves are modified into spine /thorns for reduction of water loss / seasonal shedding of leaves to
reduce water loss.

Eg Bryophylum, Acacia, Euphorbia, Baobab, Casuarina, Aloe, Cactus

- Features In Freshwater Area

* Presence of waxy cuticle to repel water droplets;

* Leaves have large surface area for maximum water absorption;

* For the purpose of pollination, flowers are raised above water;

* Plants that are submerged have thin cuticle permeable to water and mineral salts;

- Submerged plants have flexible stem to withstand the action of water currents;

- Leaves roots / stems have large airspace for floatation / buoyancy;

- Floating leaves have on its upper surface stomata for gaseous exchange. Eg Ceratophyllum, Water Lily,
Elodea, Hyacinth, Water lettuce, Lemna.

ADAPTATION OF CRAB TO HABITAT

- Burrow and stays in burrows;

- Possession of gills for oxygen intake in water;

- Possession of lung-like tissues for absorption of atmospheric oxygen;

- Possession of powerful Chelipads for seizing food;

- Presence of exoskeleton to prevent desiccation;

- Body fluid is Isotonic with water to prevent loss of body fluids by osmosis.

ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF SEAWEEDS

- Possession of chloroplasts /photosynthesis;

- Absence of lignified tissues / they are flexible and can withstand wave actions;

- Possession of holdfast for firm attachment to substratum / rocky surface;

- Body covered with mucilage to reduce desiccation during low tide / on exposure;

- Possession of air bladder for buoyancy.

ADAPTATIONS FOR MOVEMENT OF A TOAD / FROG/ BUFO

- Short forelimbs in the four digits for landing;

- Long and muscular hindlimbs for hopping / jumping;

- Webbed digits /toes of the hindlimbs for swimming;

- Streamlined body for movement in water.

ADAPTATION OF TAPEWORM IN GUT OF HUMAN

- Posses hook on the scolex for attachment to gut wall;

- Posses suckers for attachment to gut wall;

- Ribbon -like /flattened /tape-like body to fit in the gut of the host;

- Fast rate of proliferation of proglottides to ensure survival of the organism / ensure perpetuation of
the species;

- Large surface area of the body allows absorption of food from the gut;

- It is an hermaphrodite and this allows successful sexual reproduction;

- Surface of the body is thin and permeable and allows rapid absorption of food;

- Body wall is resistant to digestion by host's digestive enzymes;

- Matured proglottides loaded with eggs detach and are expelled with faeces of the host for dispersal.

PROTECTIVE ADAPTATION FOR ANIMALS AGAINST PREDATION

- Mechanical protection /hard outer covering /shell eg. Giant Snail, Tortoise, Oysters, Barnacles, Battery
of spines in Porcupine, Sea Urchin;

- Chemical protection / poisonous secretions of skin glands Eg Toad

- Concealing colouration / Cryptic adaptation / a close matching in appearance of the animal to its
background Eg Chameleon, Praying Mantis, Green Mumber.

- Specialised toxic glands/ hairs linked to toxic glands / hairs that penetrate skin of predators / toxin
secreted to cause intense irritation Eg.Larvae of Lepidoptera

- Mimicry of insects such as Praying Mantis, Sticks insects, Moth.

- Rolling the body into a ball Eg Pangolin, Millipedes, Porcupine

- Fast movement to escape from enemies Eg Antelopes, Deer

- Secretion of offensive smell Eg Shrews, Zonocerus

- Stings /injection of painful chemicals Eg Bees, Wasps, Scorpion, Electric fish

- Offensive structures / horns /hooves Eg Antelope, Buffalo, Gazelle

- Movement in groups to frighten predators Eg Monkey, Baboons, Small Angulates

- Detachment /dropping of parts of the body to escape Eg Lizards, wall geckos

- Secretion of ink/ coloured substance to impair vision of predators / create a screen Eg Squid

- Inflation of the body to frighten predator Eg Chameleons, Octopus, Cats.

ADAPTATION OF HYDROPHYTES

- Some hydrophtyes have reduced roots / root hairs / root caps; do not need firm anchorage in water /
wetland;

- presence of large air space /aerenchyma in roots / leaves; for buoyancy;

- Presence of hairs on the leaves; to prevent blockage of the stomata;

- Stomatal pores; occur only at the upper epidermis of the leaves to aid transpiration /loss of water;

-numerous adventitious roots and root hairs; aid the absorption of water / mineral salts;

- Small size of the plant; for buoyancy /floating in water;

- waxy upper surface of the leaf; to prevent clogging of the stomata by water;

- long petiole / leaf stalk; to support / expose the broad lamina for photosynthesis;
- long flower stalk /pedicel; to expose flpower for pollination /pollinating agents;

- presence of breathing roots / pneumatophores; for breathing / gaseous exchange.

ADAPTATIONS OF XEROPHYTES

- possession of thick succulent leaves / stem; for storing water;

- reduction of leaves to spines; to reduce water loss/ rate of transpiration;

- thick waxy cuticle on epidermis; to reduce water-loss / transpiration;

- possession of long tap root system; to obtain water from great depth of soil;

- presence of sunken stomata; to reduce water loss;

- reduced number of stomata; to prevent excessive water loss;

- possession of multiple epidermal layers; for water conservation / to reduce water.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

- Is the progressive natural development of vegetation towards a climax;

- during which one community is gradually replaced by others.

TYPES OF SUCCESSION

- Primary succession

- Secondary succession

PRIMARY SUCCESSION

- starts on sites (e.g sand dunes, lava flows) which have not previously borne vegetation;

SECONDARY SUCCESSION

- Is one which follows the destruction of the original vegetation of an areas;

- the one time barren habitat is eventually occupied by a community.

OUTLINE ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION IN PLANTS

-This is the orderly series of changes occurring in plant communities;

- over a given period of time, until a stable / climax community is established;

- it usually commences in a newly formed /open /barren habitat / abandoned farmland, which is usually
as a result of human activities / natural disaster /catastrophes;

- the pioneer / primary colonizers have short life cycle /span which get replaced by other plants thus
derive nutrients from their remains, these latter / secondary colonizers have longer life cycle span;

- the initial pace of a succession is rapid but it gradually slows down until a final / stable / climax
community is reached.

ECOLOGY OF POPULATION

Population Growth :

- Is said to show an exponential / geometrical growth if it doubles in size in a constant time period.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION SIZE

- Natality / birth rate;

-Mortality /death rate;

- Immigration

- Emigration

- Overcrowding /overpopulation

- Predation

- Competition

- Diseases / Natural disasters

FACTORS THAT AFFECT POPULATION SIZE OF WEEDS

- water / humidity

- Sunlight / light intensity

- Food availability/ soil nutrients / Edaphic factors

- Rainfall

- Diseases / pests/biotic factors

-Temperature

- Wind.
DENSITY - DEPENDENT FACTORS

- Predation

- Diseases

- Parasitism

- Competition

- Starvation

- War

DENSITY - INDEPENDENT FACTORS

* Natural disasters :

- floods

- earthquakes

- Volcanic eruptions

- extremes of weather

SIGMOID GROWTH CURVE / PHASES OF POPULATION GROWTH

- This is an 'S' shaped curve; used to denote growth in a population with time;

- The curve shows four phases of growth;

- the lag phase; exponential /log phase; stationary phase; decline phase.

- the lag phase involves the gradual growth of few individuals;

- the exponential phase involves the maximum growth rate under ideal/ favourable conditions;

- and the stationary phase sets in as the food / water / available space become limited;

- then the decline phase which involves the death of organisms / survival of a few.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE PHASES OF POPULATION GROWTH

- Lag phase: few organisms; enough space / food /growth resources;

- Exponential phase : increased / high birth rate; decreased /low mortality rate; sufficient / available
resources; predators are rare;
- Stationary phase : available resources reaching gradual exhaustion; population size is at its carrying
capacity; birth rate and death rate in equilibrium;

- Decline phase : increase in death rate; decrease in birth rate; increased predation / compedition is
high; depleted /limited resources.

CARRYING CAPACITY

- Is the limit to which any habitat can support a population. There is no increase / decrease in
population.

EVENTS THAT OCCUR WHEN CARRYING CAPACITY IS EXCEEDED

- There is overcrowding, leading to rapid spread of disease within the population;

- There will be increased predation to reduce the population density;

- There may be intraspecific competition for food, shelter, oxygen etc.

SIMILARITIES IN GROWTH OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

- Increasse in protoplasm /enlargement / mass/size /height;

- Occurs by cell division / mitosis;

- Controlled by hormone;

- Sigmoid growth curve is exhibited in both;

- Both required food /nutrients / water;

- Growth is irreversible in both.

CHANGES IN POPULATION SIZE

- Organisms enter a population either by birth /immigration. They leave population by death / by
emigration.

POPULATION DYNAMICS

- Is the study of the changes in the numbers of population and of the factors influencing these changes.

CAUSES OF CHANGES

- Effects of temperature and moisture;

- Effects of quantity of food supply;

- Competition for food and shelter;

- Predation

- Diseases

POPULATION DENSITY

- Is the average number / mean number of individuals of the same species per unit area / volume of
habitat ; at a particular time; / Average /mean number of individual of particular species per time.

* Population Density = Average Number of organisms / Unit Area of Habitat

* Population Average = Frequency / Number of tosses of quadrat.

* Population Size = Population density X Total Area.

BAR CHART

- Correct labelled axis ( horizontal and vertical);

- Correct bars for each plant population;

- Title of Bar Chart :

'Bar Chart Showing the Distribution of Weeds in a farmland. /Population of different Weeds on a
farmland'.

- Plant with greatest occurrence - Tridax.

- Plant with least occurrence - Imperata.

- Population density = Average Number of Tridax /Unit Area

- Frequency of Tridax = 33

- Number of Tosses =

- Average number of Tridax 33/10

= 3.3 Tridax

- Unit Area = 1m2

Population density = 3.3/1m2X Tridax

= 3.3Tridax m-2
- Population size =Population density X Total Area

Area = 50X 12= 600m2

Population size = 3.3 x 600= 1980 Tridax plants

- Other Method of Population Sampling

* Plants = Line transect / belt transect

* Animals = Capture recapture

FACTORS DIRECTLY INFLUENCING POPULATION DENSITY

- Birth rate

- Death rate

- Emigration

- Immigration

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE POPULATION DENSITY OF AN AREA

- Availability of water;

- Rate of reproduction

- Rate at which individuals die

- Climatic conditions

- Diseases

- Migration

- Fertility

- Availability of food

- Predators

RURAL-URBAN CONTROL

- Provision of good roads;

- Provision of Schools;

- Easy access to loans for Agriculture activities;

- Improve basic social amenities Eg electricity

- Establishment of more income generating jobs in the rural areas.

CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGE

- Overpopulation;

- Poor rainfall /drought;

- Non-availability of fertilizers;

- Infertility of the soil;

- Floods / erosion;

- Plant diseases /pests;

- Poor food preservation methods;

- Subsistence farming / lack of mechanized farming methods;

- Poor feeder roads to farming sites;

- Natural disasters / bushfires.

IMMIGRATION

- Is the movement of individuals;

- into a population.

CAUSES OF IMMIGRATION

- Good economy;

- Abundant food supply;

- Employment opportunities;

- Suitable breeding;

- To find mating partners.

EMIGRATION

- Is the movement of individuals out of population.

CAUSES OF EMIGRATION
- Bad economy

- Shortage of food

- Unemployment

- War

- Unsuitable breeding sites

- Climatic condition changes eg. Water

- To find mating partners

- Stress

BIRTH RATE

- Is the rate at which new individuals are added to the population.

Natality = Numbers of births /Numbers of adults in the population.

CAUSES OF INCREASING BIRTH RATE

- Abundant food supply

- Good health

- Better standard of living

- Increase in the number of marriages

- Availability of space.

DEATH RATE :

- Gives an indication of the relative health of the population;

- Human death rate has declined due to improve hygiene, sanitation, diet, disease control and medical
care.

Mortality = Number of deaths /Number of adults in the population

CAUSES OF INCREASING DEATH RATE

- Shortage of food

- Poor health conditions / Poor sanitation

- Lower and poor standard of living

- Decrease in number of marriage

- Diseases Eg AIDS.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

- Is the pattern of occurrence of individuals in space.

Population Distribution Patterns:

- Clumped Distribution Pattern :herds of animals / groups of plants and animals that have specific
resource requirements always remain together in areas where those resources are found Eg a herd of
elephants.

- Uniform Distribution Pattern : occurs when resources are thinly but evenly spread. Individual species
are antagonistic to each other. Eg. Hawks and lizards.

- Random Dispersal Patterns : These are the result of plentiful resources and no antagonism.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT RAPID HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH

- fertility

- desire to have a male /female child

- efficient health services

- ignorance about family planning and contraceptives

- high immigration rate

- ignorance about the need to control rapid human population growth.

EFFECTS:

- places pressure on demand for good and services and makes them expensive

- can be controlled by family planning.

POPULATION SAMPLING TOOLS

- Quadrats

- Traps (Pitfall)

- Nets (Butterfly, Sweep, Plankton)

- Pooter / Aspirator

- Tullgren funnel
POPULATION SAMPLING METHODS

- Line transect

- Belt transect

- Direct counting

- Total counting

- Capture recapture

- Removal method

- Capture - mark - release -recapture

POPULATION STUDY

- Terrestrial Habitats

APPARATUS USE

Pooter / Aspirator To collect small insects and other invertebrates

from leaf litter, tree trunks, rocks.

Sweep net To collect flying insects

Forceps To transport hard bodied animals to containers

Butterfly net To catch insects

Specimen tube To collect specimen

Felt tip pen To write on specimen tubes

Hand lens To magnify minute organisms

Field Notebook To record observation and data

Metre rule To measure height and distance

Stop watch /Clock For timing

Bird trap For catching birds

Quadrat For sampling habitats, population studies

Pitfall trap To collect small insects

- Aquatic Habitat :

Forceps To transfer hard bodied organisms to container

Plankton To collect micro-organisms

Bulb pipette To transfer small aquactic animals to containers

Kitchen Sieve To sift mud / water for small animals

Tow net For collection of specimens from ponds and

streams

Drag net To collect specimens from ponds

Wicker -work trap To collect specimen from ponds

Field notebook To record observation and data

Metre rule To measure height and distance

METHODS OF MEASURING POPULATION

Method of Determining Density of a Named Plant Species :

- Name of plant species

* Tridax sp / Sida acuta

* determine the area to be surveyed;

* Use the quadrat;

* toss it over the shoulder;

* randomly;

* several times;

* wherever the quadrat lands the number of species within there, is counted;

* and recorded;
* plants only partly enclosed are counted as half;

* the density of the named species is calculated by dividing the total number of times the species occurs
within the quadrat;

* by the area of the quadrat.

PRECAUTIONS

* the quadrat should be thrown at random;

* plants partially enclosed in the quadrat are usually counted as half;

* random sampling /throws of device / quadrat should be repeated several times

* size of quadrat is always 1/2 m2-1m2.

USE OF QUADRAT

- After choosing an area under study;

- the quadrat is tossed randomly for a number of times;

- upon landing the number of Tridax plants /plants enclosed within the quadrat is counted for each toss
and recorded;

- the average number of Tridax plant is then calculated;

- which is used to calculate the density of Tridax plant in the area under study.

DESCRIPTION OF THE USAGE OF SWEEP NET / BUTTERFLY NET

- The handle is held;

- the net is swept;

- through the habitat / grass / bushes;

- to collect the flying / resting insect / grasshopper /locust.

CAPTURE -MARK-RELEASE - RECAPTURE METHOD OF POPULATION SAMPLING

- Identify the area / place to be used in the study;

- Animals / named animals are captured with a device/ sweep net / trap;

- counted and marked / tagged;

- the count is recorded as first capture;

- The animals are released into the same habitat;

- And given enough time to mix randomly;

- The animals are captured the second time;

- counted and recorded as second capture;

- The number of marked animals in the second capture are recorded as recaptured;

The population is determined by the formula :first capture X second capture /Recaptured .

USES OF CAPTURE RELEASE RECAPTURE METHOD

- Population density of fast moving animals can be measured by Capture release recapture method;

- The assumption made when using the capture -mark-release recapture method in sampling population
is the rate of migration is equal to the rate of emigration;

- The capture - mark-release recapture method can be used for sampling fish in a pond.

LIMITATIONS IN CAPTURE - AND - RELEASE METHOD

- Animals may be killed in the process;

- some animals once caught may be difficult to catch a second time;

- there may be migrations in and out of the population during the internal;

- there may be births and death during the interval.

LINE TRANSECT : is normally used in sampling grass in the Savanna.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF TULLGREN FUNNEL

- Electric bulb : produces heat that dries up the soil; to reflect the heat downwards / drives animals
downwards / holds the bulbs;

- Funnel :support the gauze / produce passage way for the animals into the collecting vessels;

- Water /ethanol /alcohol : to preserve /collect/ trap the organism;

- Gauze: holds the soil / passage way for the organism.

DESCRIPTION OF THE USE OF TULLGREN FUNNEL

- Use to collect small invertebrates / organisms;

- a sample of soil / leaf litter;

- is placed on a coarse sieve / gauze;

- a light bulb is suspended over the sample;

- the invertebrates move downwards through the sieve away from the heat / light;

- and fall into a collecting vessel;

- which contain ethanol / water;

- and are counted.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ORGANISM FOR WHICH TULLGREN FUNNEL IS USED

- They are organisms that live in moist soil;

- avoid light; they are small in size; love cool places / avoid heat;

PRESERVATION AND STORAGE OF FOODS

Food Preservation :

- Is the process of eliminating the activities of Micro- organisms in food to prevent it from spoilage.

METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

- Salting

- Canning

- Radiation / X-ray

- Drying

- Smoking

- Refrigeration

- Boiling

- Irridiation

- Frying

- Pasteurization

LOCAL METHODS OF FOOD PRESERVATION

- Drying
- Salting

- Smoking

PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING SALTING

- Salting removes water from the food thereby preventing the growth and activities of micro-organisms
which may cause food spoilage.

PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING CANNING

- Canning prevents the entry of new micro - organisms and kills micro-organisms gradually in the food
leading to cessation of growth and activities of the micro-organisms which may cause food spoilage.

HOW FOOD SPOILAGE OCCURS

- Microbes lands on the food to become active and multiply;

- Extra -cellular digestion of food substance begins and secretion cause food substances to decay.

WORM INFESTATION IN ANIMALS

- Worms that infest farm animals are :

- Tapeworm

- Roundworm

- Liverfluke

- Hookworm

PRECAUTIONS TO REDUCE WORM INFESTATION

- Deworm animals regularly;

- Put feed and water in clean troughs

- Avoid overstocking pens and pasture to prevent the build up of worms

- Practice rotational grazing starting with young stock followed by adult;

- Early weaning;

- Ensure good sanitation;

- Prevent animals from grazing near water pools.

DRENCHING
- Involves the pouring of liquid drugs down the throat of farm animals with the aim of killing internal
parasites.

IMPORTANCE OF DRENCHING IN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

- Prevention of diseases

- Control of Endoparasites

- Assist animals to have normal appetite

- Improvement in quality and yield of milk /meat

- Avoidance of fever and vomiting associated with worm infestation.

HEALTH AND DISEASES

HEALTH

- Is a state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely the absence of disease /
infirmity.

DISEASE

- Is any disorder, which interferes negatively with normal functioning of the body of an organism.

SYMPTOMS

- Are signs of a disease through which the disease is recognized / detected.

PATHOGEN

- Is a disease -causing micro-organism eg. Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi, Protozoa and worms.

VECTOR

- Is an agent / a pest responsible for the transmission of pathogens from an infected species to an
unaffected one.

HOST : Is an organism which harbours a parasite.

PARASITES : Are living organisms that cause damage to other organisms and establish a physiological
relationship with their host.

MODE OF TRANSMISSION FROM PERSON TO PERSON

- Through a vector

- By a direct contact with an infected person

- By sharing an infected material

- Through contaminated food / drink

- Through air by droplets infection.

Vector Disease Causative organism

Female Anopheles mosquito Malaria Plasmodium

Blackfly / Simulium fly River blindness /Onchocerciasis Onchocerca volvulus

Aedes mosquito Yellow fever virus

Tsetsefly Sleeping sickness Trypanosoma

Housefly Amoebiasis /Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba

Cyclop Guinea worm Histolytica

Water Snail Bilharzia Filaria worm

SPREAD OF PLASMODIUM

- Is transmitted when female anopheles mosquito bites a person with the parasite in his /her blood and
then bites a healthy person.

TYPES AND CAUSES OF DISEASE

- Pathogens / Pathogenic disease

- Nutritional / Metabolic disorders / Non-pathogenic disease.

PATHOGENIC DISEASES

- Are caused by pathogens

CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOGENIC DISEASES

- Communicable / Infectious disease

- Contagious disease

- Zoonotic disease

- Epizootic disease

- Endemic disease
INFECTIOUS DISEASES

- Are those caused by pathogens that are transmitted from one individual to another. Eg. measles,
chicken pox, Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Whooping cough, AIDS etc

* INFECTION : is the condition in which the whole body /part of it is invaded by pathogens.

- NON-INFECTIOUS DISEASE : are not caused by pathogens and cannot be transmitted from one
individual to another.

Eg. deficiency diseases resulting from mal-nutrition, - rickets, Kwashiorkor, Anaemia

- Hereditary diseases eg haemophilia, Colour blindness, Sickle Sex anaemia

- Allergies resulting from chemical poison, pollution, industrial accidents Eg asthma, pneumonia

- Mental illness / Madness eg neurosis, psychosis

- Degenerative diseases result from old age Eg loss of vision, arthritis -ageing of the joints and bone
tissues; Arteriosclerosis -hardening of the arteries.

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES

- transmitted /passed on through contact with an organism / an infected person Eg. Measles, rubella,
mumps, swine fever, influenza, colds, chicken pox etc

ZOONOTIC DISEASES

- affect both humans and livestock Eg. Rabies, Anthrax, Bird flu.

EPIZOOTIC DISEASES

- diseases prevalent temporarily Eg. Red water, Heart -water

ENDEMIC DISEASES

- diseases prevalent in a particular community, area, geographical region on regular basis. Eg.
Trypanosomiasis, buruli ulcer.

NON - COMMUNICABLE / CHRONIC DISEASES

- Are diseases of long duration and generally slow progression. Not passed from person to person Eg.
Cardiovascular / Heart attack and stroke, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases / asthma, chronic kidney
disease, chronic lung disease, diabetes, cataract.

MICROBES

- Are organisms that can be seen with the aid of the microscope. / Are microscopic organisms.
BENEFITS OF MICROBES TO MAN

- increase soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen

- Useful in food processing for making butter

- Useful in some industries for bread making

- In the manufacture of certain drugs

- In modern sewage disposal

- Cause the decomposition of dead remains of organic matter and waste products of other organisms.

MICROBE IMPORTANCE

Bacteria -Production of cheese, yoghurt,and butter ;-

Nitrogen fixation

Penicillium - Production of antibiotics

Yeast - Alcohol production

- Fermentation of cocoa beans

PATHOGENIC MICRO-ORGANISMS

- Are disease -causing micro-organism eg bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoan, worms etc.

BACTERIAL DISEASES

-Animals :- Cholera, Tuberculosis, Typhoid, Anthrax, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Cerebrospinal meningitis

(CSM), Diphtheria, Tetanus, Whooping cough, Pneumonia, Boils, Leprosy

- Plants : Cotton blight, Cassava wilt, Tomato root, Onion rot.

VIRAL DISEASES

- Animals :- Poliomyelitis, Measles, Small pox, Chicken pox, Cow pox, Hepatitis, Rabies, Newcastle of
poultry, Rinderpest of cattle, Yellow fever, Dengue fever, Influenza etc

- Plants:- Swollen shoot of cocoa, Cassava mosaic, Tobacco mosaic

FUNGAL DISEASES

- Animal :- Tinia(Thrash)

- Plant:- Maize rust, Corn shut, Black pod of cocoa.

PROTOZOAN DISEASES

-Schistosomiasis,

- Onchocerciasis

- Coccidiosis

- Amoebic dysentery

- Malaria

BACTERIAL DISEASES

Disease Causative Agent Mode of Symptoms Control and Treatment

Transmission Prevention

Cholera Vibrio Taking in Incubation Vaccination Injection of

cholerae(bacterium) contaminated period 3-6 (3-12 saline solution;
(water food and days; months) giving saline
borne) water; protection; drip to replace
through Inflammation isolation of water and salts;
contact with of the patients; drugs Eg
faeces, urine, alimentary washing tetracycline,
sputum of an tract; severe hands with chloramphenico
infected diarrhoea soap before l and
person /watery eating; sulphadiazine
stools; severe washing
dehydration hands after
/loss of water toilet;
and mineral washing
salts; patient hands before
becomes cooking;
unconscious, eating food
collapses and hot; avoid
eventually cold foods;
dies. purification
of water and
treatment of
sewage.

Tuberculosis bacterium - Droplet Incubation :m Detection by Antibiotics eg.

(Mycobacterium infection; any years; mass Streptomycin.
(air borne ) tuberculosis;Tubercl drinking intense and radiography;
e bacillus) unpasteurize persistent vaccination
 d milk of an cough; slight with BCG
infected cow; afternoon (Bacille
using an fever; initially, Calmett
infected dry cough / Guerin);
person's absence of eradication
eating blood in of cattle TB;
utensils sputum, but pasteurizatio
later blood in n of milk
sputum; before
general drinking;
weight loss; isolation of
sweating of infected
night person;
maintenance
of proper
ventilation of
houses;
proper
disposal of
discharges.

Cerebrospin Bacterium Droplet Incubation Avoid Antibiotics eg

al meningitis (Neisseria infection period 1-5 overcrowdin Penicillin and
(CSM) meningitides) days; attack g; isolation of Sulphoamide
children and infected
(spotted young adults person.
fever) in dry season;
high fevers;
severe
headache;
vomiting; stiff
neck, the back
too stiff to put
the head
between
knees;
sometimes,
there are fits /
convulsions;
patient often
gets worse
and worse
 until patient
loses
consciousness
and falls into
comma.

Typhoid bacillus (Salmone Contaminate Incubation Vaccination; Antibiotics eg.

typhi ) d water and period : 6-7 pasteurizatio Chloramphenic
food days; mild n of milk; ol
fever; severe drinking noroxin,peflacin
frontal clean water
headache;
abdominal
pain followed
by blooded
stools

Diphtheria Bacterium Contaminate Incubation Vaccination -

d food; period :6-7
droplet days; sore
infection throat; high
fever;
inflammation
of heart;
damage to
kidneys;
nerve cells
and adrenal
glands.

- Whooping bacterium Droplet Incubation - Vaccination -

cough infection period : 2
weeks; severe
- Tetanus coughing
(lockjaw) bacterium
(Clostridium tetani.) Contaminatio bouts which
n of wound end in
with dirth dragging; red
containing eye.
the bacteria Muscular
spasms / -
strong Immunizatio
contractions; n with
 locked jaw; tetanus
aches in toxoid, after
limbs; painful getting
breathing wound

VIRAL DISEASES

Disease Causative Mode of Symptoms Control and Treatment

agent Transmission Prevention

Poliomyelitis virus contact with Incubation Vaccination;

discharges of period :7-21 hygienic
(infantile infected days; fever, preparation of
paralysis) person Eg sore throat, food and clean
faeces, urine, nasal water supply;
phlegm; congestion; avoid contact
droplet headache; with infected
infection; severe pains in persons;
eating the neck; back health
contaminated and limbs; education.
food; drinking stiffness in
contaminated neck and other
water muscles of the
body; in severe
cases, paralysis
of certain parts
of the body Eg
legs, chest,
body muscles.

Measles virus Droplet incubation vaccination; Antibiotics eg

(occurs in infection; period :2 isolation of Ampicillin
children) contact with weeks; fever, patient;
infected sore throat, avoidance of
person or nasal overcrowding
infected congestion;
articles. coughing and
sneezing;
rashes;
inflammation
of tongue and
 mouth

Hepatitis (mild virus direct contact fever; loss of Drinking water

in children with infected appetite; should be
severe in person; nausea and treated to
adults) contaminated vomiting; destroy any
water and jaundice; dark viruses;proper
food; affect and frothy disposal of
the liver urine sewage;
isolation of
patient.

Yellow fever virus through the incubation destruction of

bite of Aedes period :2-4 mosquito
mosquito days; high breeding
fever; severe places;
headache, spraying
general body insecticides to
pains; nausea; kill adult
three days mosquitoes;
later : swollen sleeping under
eyes; bleeding mosquito nets
gums; vomiting to avoid
and jaundice; contact with
severe liver the adult;
damage; eyes vaccination
become with mutated
yellow; faeces virus.
coloured black
due to
digested
blood.

AIDS HIV sexual feeling of Avoid causal

intercourse tiredness at all sex/
with an times; indiscriminate
infected prolonged sex; sexual
person; fever for over abstinence;
transfusion one month; use of
with blood; prolonged condom during
cuts with diarrhoea for sex; use of
unsterilised over month; Antiretroviral
 instruments eg excessive loss drugs to
blades, knives; of weight; hard enhance
injection by and dark skin immune
means of lumps (kaposis system of the
unsterilised sarcoma); infected
needles and white spots in person; avoid
syringes; mouth (oral infected breast
through candidiasis); milk.
placenta at plenty vaginal
birth, breast discharge;
milk during shingles;
suckling. Tuberculosis;
breakdown of
immune
system;
repeated
attacks of
shingles
/swellings on
parts of body;
patient grows
learner and
learner;
reduced
resistance to
common
infections.

FUNGAL DISEASES

Disease causative Mode of Symptoms Control and Treatment

agent Transmission Prevention

Tinia / fungus (Tinea Direct contact Red round frequent

Ringworm capitis) with infected patches on the bathing;
person; skin which avoiding
indirect spread; round infected
contact by patches on person's
using infected scalp where clothing
person's towel, hair falls off
comb, Sponge
 etc

Thrush / Candida fungus present Infection in Low intake of Amphoterricin

Candidiasis albicans in mouth and dry/ inflamed sugar, alcohol, use as lotion
faeces; skin in the teeth brushing, /cream.
infection arises mouth / oral gargle help in
due to thrush; in the reducing
reduction in vagina / Candida
resistance of vaginal thrush; exposure.
body. fluffy white
patches with
red inflamed
skin
underneath;
infection of
throat;
intestines

Athlete's foot Tinea pedis Contact with fluid-filled Disinfection of

infected blisters; communal
person / presence of baths and
contaminated sudden peeling floors;
baths and and cracked Exclusion of
floors; skin between infected
communal toes. individuals;
washing oral antibiotics
facilities (Griscofolium
for treatment);
avoid contact
with infected
persons;
personal
cleanliness;
Anti fungal
drugs (Sulphur
based drugs)

PROTOZOAN DISEASES

Disease causative agent Mode of Symptoms Control and Treatment

 Transmission Prevention

Malaria Plasmodium sp Bite of fever, chills Use of drugs Treatment

infected and to destroy the using curative
female shivering; parasites; drugs Eg
Anopheles sweating; destruction of Nivaquine,
mosquito; high larvae by Chloroquine,
bites an temperature; pouring oil on Malarex,
infected headache; stagnant water Camoquine,
person / a pains in the / spraying Resochin by
person with joints and chemical on individuals
the parasites general body stagnant already
in his /her weakness; water; contracted the
blood; and vomiting; destruction of disease; taking
then bites a anaemia; adult prophylactics
healthy enlargement mosquitoes eg. Daraprim,
persons of liver and using Prophylactics
spleen insecticides; are taken
living in within a
mosquito certain space
proof houses; of time as a
introduction of preventive
fish in water drugs;
bodies to feed Antesunate
on larvae; amodaiquin.
destruction of
breeding
places of
mosquitoes
/clearing of
stagnant water
/ Proper
disposal of
empty cans;
destruction of
hiding places
of
mosquitoes /
clearing of
bushes;
sleeping in
mosquitoes
 net.

Bilharzia Parasitic Blood flukes in Blood in Avoid Drugs :Ambilh

flatworms : bladder and urine /stool; defecation ar
(water borne) Schistosoma eg intestines of severe urination into
haematobium; man leave the abdominal water bodies
mansoni; body through pain; skin by infected
japonicum faeces / urine itching persons;
in form of health
eggs; eggs education to
hatch into avoid contact
larvae in infected
(miracidia) water bodies;
into diluted store
water; gets untreated
into secondary water for 2-3
host, water days before
snail; develop drinking /
into worms washing;
(cercariae); maintenance
found primary of proper
host man sanitation and
within 48 disposal of
hours; Primary sewage;
host become eliminate snail
infected when by applying
he molluscides to
wades ,baths / water Eg.
swine in CuSO4; Boil
infected water water before
contaminated drinking;
with cercariae. eliminate snail
by Biological
control
method eg
ducks into
rivers to feed
snails; snail
species
(Marisa) into
pond to feed
on the snail;
 insect
(Limnogeton)
(bug) sucks
snail soft part;
physical
removal of
aquatic weeds
to prevent
snails.

River filarial - Vector :Black severe skin Breeding sites

Blindness worm fly / Simulium irritation sprayed with
/Onchocerciasis /Onchocerus fly; fly rears /itching; DDT; use of
volvulus larvae in fibrous lumps smoke -bombs
running water; (nodules) to kill flies;
vector swallow occur under protect
larvae when the skin; coating;
feeding on blindness repellents are
infected follow finally. used to
person; larvae prevent flies
develop into into contact
tiny worms; with the body;
worms are set larvicides to
free when fly water to kill
bites larvae;
uninfected reduction of
person; worms the rate of
penetrate eye flow of river to
and skin reduce the
tissues. oxygen
content of the
water body.

Guinea worm/ Dracunculus Drinking wound in the Boiling /

Dracunculiasis medinensis infected water leg through a filtering
(water borne ) containing long worm contaminated
infected emerges water to
Cyclop destroy
(crustacean) ;l cyclops; avoid
arvae released washing
from Cyclop to /bathing /
reach layer drinking
 beneath the contaminated
skin; female water
worm lays
eggs forming
blisters on
skin; when
skin bathed in
water eggs are
released and
hatch and
infect cyclops.

Ascariasis Ascaris Eggs in soil Loss of Dewormer;

(Roundworm) introduced weight; personal
into the mouth vomiting; hygiene;
by dirty nausea; hygienic
fingers; eggs constipation preparation of
pass from (worms may food; clean
infected obstruct water
person's stool intestinal
to another movement)
person's
mouth;
contaminated
water and
food

Dysentery Amoeba/ contaminated diarrhoea; proper

bacterium food and stools with cooking of
water mucus food; drinking
stained with treated water;
blood; maintenance
abdominal of good
pains personal
hygiene.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Disease causative Mode of Symptoms control and treatment

agent transmission prevention
Gonorrhea bacterium sexual incubation Avoid causal
intercourse period :1 week sex; avoid oral
(veneral Neisseria with infected contact with
disease) gonorrhea person; from symptoms in an infected
infected man : burning person; use
mother to sensation condom during
baby during during sex; use of
birth through urination; antibiotics for
infected vagina yellowish treatment.
/whitish
discharge from
the genital
organs;
swelling of the
epididymis,
testacles ,prost
rate gland;
narrowing of
urethra
resulting
difficult
urination;
itching around
the genitals

symptoms in
women :
unnoticed;
yellow /whitish
discharge but
normal vaginal
secretions
overshadow it;
not treated on
time, disease
spread from
urethra and
vagina to the
uterus and
Fallopian tubes
to cause
sterility; eyes
 of babies at
birth will be
seriously
damaged by
the pathogens
to result in
blindness

Syphilis bacterium sex with three phases : Health Antibiotics Eg

infected education; use Togamycin,
Treponema person; from primary phase of condoms; Penicillin,
pallidum infected incubation avoid sexual Sulphonamide
mother to period 10-30 intercourse
foetus days; one with infected
(congenital /more painless person; avoid
syphilis) sores indiscriminate
(chancres) sex Eg
form on any prostitute;
part of the treatment of
body in males, infected
(on genitalia); person
occur on cervix
/inside vagina;
sores heal
without
treatment.

secondary
phase :3-14
weeks after
chancres :
slight fever,
sore throat,
swollen lymph
glands, rashes
on body, may
last for next
two years,
then
disappear. In
the latent
period, lasts
for several
 years many
organs and
tissues of body
may be
damaged.

Tertiary
phase : heart
failure,
blindness,
insanity,
paralysis and
death.

COMMON SYMPTOMS OF SEXALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

- Abdominal discharge from genitals;

- Pain on passing urine in males;

- Blisters / sores on /around genitals;

- Itching around / in genitals;

- Lower abdominal pains.

PREVENTIVE MEASURES OF SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

- Keeping solely to one sexual partner;

- Avoid causal sex;

- Avoiding contact with / exchange of body fluids;

- Practice of good personal hygiene;

- Abstinence;

- Use of condoms;

- Avoid sharing / exchange of sharp instrument.

WAYS IN WHICH THE HUMAN BODY DEFENDS ITSELF AGAINST DISEASE-CAUSING MICRO-ORGANISMS
- The skin prevents disease-causing organisms from entering the body;

- The white blood cells engulfs germs that invades the body;

- The body produces antibodies which destroy the effect of the toxins produced by pathogens;

- Hydrochloric acid in the stomach kills bacteria in the food;

- Cilia and mucus in the nasal passages trap dust particles which contain pathogens.

DISEASE CAUSATIVE ORGANISM PART OF THE BODY AFFECTED

Malaria Plasmodium Blood /Red blood cells /liver cells

Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis Respiratory tract / lungs

Poliomyelitis Polio virus Spinal cord / Nervous system

/limbs

IMMUNITY

- Is the ability of an organism / the body to resist and overcome diseases;

- Is the body's ability to resist infection by producing antibodies to fight against a particular disease
condition

WAYS OF ACQUIRY IMMUNITY

- Antibodies are acquired as a result of the person having had the disease;

- A weakened micro-organism can be injected into the body of the person so that the body makes its
own antibodies. This is called immunization.

- Injection of antibodies from a person into another person

- Through inheritance.