Cell Structure and Function
Cells are the basic unit of life. Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus, while eukaryotic cells have a
well-defined nucleus. Organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, and
Golgi apparatus perform specialized functions.
DNA and Genetics
DNA carries genetic information in the form of sequences of nucleotides. Genes are specific
sequences that code for proteins. Gregor Mendel’s experiments established the basic laws of
inheritance: dominance, segregation, and independent assortment.
Evolution and Natural Selection
Charles Darwin proposed that evolution occurs through natural selection, where organisms better
adapted to their environment survive and reproduce. Over generations, favorable traits become
more common in populations.
Human Anatomy – Circulatory System
The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The heart pumps
oxygenated blood through arteries and receives deoxygenated blood via veins. Capillaries facilitate
the exchange of gases and nutrients.
Human Anatomy – Nervous System
The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous
system (PNS). Neurons transmit electrical signals, while the brain processes and coordinates
responses.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into
glucose and oxygen. It occurs in chloroplasts using chlorophyll. The general equation is: 6CO2 +
6H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2.
Respiration
Respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to release energy. Aerobic respiration requires
oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Anaerobic respiration occurs without
oxygen, producing less energy and sometimes lactic acid or ethanol.
Ecology and Ecosystems
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. Ecosystems consist
of producers, consumers, and decomposers. Energy flows through food chains and food webs,
while nutrients cycle through biogeochemical cycles.
Human Anatomy – Digestive System
The digestive system includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas. It
breaks down food into nutrients that the body can absorb. Mechanical and chemical digestion
ensure the release of essential nutrients.
Biotechnology and Applications
Biotechnology involves using living organisms and systems to develop products. Applications
include genetic engineering, cloning, CRISPR technology, and the production of medicines like
insulin through recombinant DNA technology.
