UNIT-I

CHAPTER-1

The Internet of Things: An Overview

1) Define Internet of Things (IoT). Explain any 5 Flavours of IoT.
Definition of IoT:
The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical devices, vehicles, appliances, and
other objects embedded with electronics, sensors, actuators, software, and connectivity
that enables these objects to collect, exchange, and act on data. IoT integrates the physical
world with the digital world, leading to automation, improved efficiency, and smarter
decision-making.

Flavours of IoT (Any 5):

1. My Train-Schedule Alarm Clock:
o A smart alarm that checks online train schedules before waking you up.
o If your train is delayed, it lets you sleep longer.
o Key Idea: Time-saving and stress-free travel planning using real-time data.
2. Vitality GlowCap:
o A smart medicine bottle cap with light and sound alerts to remind patients to
take medicine.
o If a dose is missed, it sends online notifications to doctors/caregivers.
o Key Idea: Better healthcare and medication adherence.
3. Umbrella with Weather-Forecasting Handle:
o A connected umbrella that glows if rain is predicted.
o Uses Wi-Fi to check weather forecasts automatically.
o Key Idea: Convenience and preparedness.
4. Nike + Health App:
o Wearable IoT device that tracks running distance, calories, and heart rate.
o Syncs with online platforms to monitor health and fitness progress.
o Key Idea: Encourages fitness and healthy lifestyle using data tracking.
5. Transport for London:
o GPS-enabled buses send real-time location data to displays at bus stops.
o Users see accurate bus arrival times.
o Key Idea: Improves public transport reliability and passenger experience.

2) Explain the Advantages & Disadvantages of IoT.

Advantages of IoT:
1. Improved Customer Engagement:
IoT provides richer, real-time insights into user behaviour, allowing for more
personalized services.
2. Technology Optimization:
Data from IoT devices helps improve performance, efficiency, and user experience of
products.
3. Reduced Waste:
Real-time monitoring identifies inefficiencies, leading to better resource
management.
4. Enhanced Data Collection:
 IoT provides accurate, real-world data for better decision-making and research.

Disadvantages of IoT:
1. Security Risks:
More connected devices mean more entry points for hackers and cyberattacks.
2. Privacy Issues:
IoT collects personal data, sometimes without user consent, creating privacy
concerns.
3. Complexity:
IoT systems involve multiple technologies, making design, deployment, and
maintenance difficult.
4. Flexibility and Compatibility Issues:
Different IoT systems may not integrate well, leading to vendor lock-in.
5. Regulatory Compliance:
Organizations must follow strict data and security regulations, which can be
challenging with IoT.

3) What is Internet of Things? Explain the Applications of IoT.

Internet of Things:
IoT is a network of connected physical objects embedded with sensors and software that
communicate and share data through the internet to enable automation, monitoring, and
decision-making.

Applications of IoT:
1. Smart Homes:
o IoT enables smart lighting, thermostats, voice assistants (Alexa, Google
Home).
o Improves comfort, energy savings, and home security.
2. Healthcare:
o Wearables track heart rate, blood pressure, sleep cycles.
o Remote patient monitoring helps doctors take timely action.
3. Transportation:
o Connected cars and GPS-based traffic monitoring improve route planning.
o Fleet management becomes more efficient.
4. Agriculture:
o IoT sensors measure soil moisture, weather conditions.
o Enables precision farming and reduces wastage of water and fertilizers.
5. Industry & Manufacturing:
o Predictive maintenance using IoT sensors prevents machine failures.
o Smart factories improve production efficiency.
6. Environment Monitoring:
o IoT devices monitor air quality, pollution levels, and natural disasters.
o Helps governments take corrective measures quickly.

4) What are IoT Components? Explain Each in Detail.

IoT is built using four key components:
1. Physical Object (Device):
 o Any object embedded with sensors and connectivity, like appliances, vehicles,
wearables.
o Collects data from its environment.
2. Controllers:
o Hardware or software that controls data flow between devices.
o Acts as a bridge between sensors/actuators and the network.
3. Sensors:
o Detect environmental changes like temperature, motion, light, pressure.
o Convert physical data into electrical signals for processing.
4. Actuators:
o Components that perform physical actions, such as switching on a fan when
temperature rises.
5. Internet (Connectivity):
o The backbone that enables communication between devices and cloud
servers.
o Examples: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LTE, 5G.

5) Explain the Features of IoT.

Key Features:
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI):
Makes devices “smart” using AI algorithms and data analysis.
2. Connectivity:
Creates networks between devices for seamless communication.
3. Sensors:
Form the backbone of IoT by collecting real-world data.
4. Active Engagement:
Promotes real-time interaction between users, devices, and services.
5. Small Devices:
IoT relies on small, cost-effective devices that are energy-efficient and scalable.

6) Explain the Technology of Internet of Things.

Major Technologies Enabling IoT:
 RFID & NFC: For automatic identification and data capture.
 Low-Energy Bluetooth / Zigbee: For short-range wireless communication.
 Wi-Fi Direct & LTE-A: For high-speed, wide-area communication.
 Cloud Computing: For storing, processing, and analyzing data.
 Web Frameworks & APIs: For building connected apps and services.
 Miniaturization of Chips: Makes embedding computing power in small devices
possible.
Supportive Factors:
 Cheaper Connectivity: Wi-Fi and cloud services make IoT accessible.
 Prototyping Tools: Arduino, Raspberry Pi allow quick IoT development.
 Data Analytics & AI: Provide meaningful insights from collected data.

7) What do you mean by Enchanted Objects? Explain.

Meaning:
Coined by David Rose, enchanted objects are ordinary objects with extraordinary abilities,
making them “magical.” They are designed to be intuitive, self-learning, and require minimal
human intervention.
Examples:
 Protection: Magical helmets → Modern security systems.
 Health: Magic potions → Smart healthcare devices.
 Human Connection: Flying carpets → Telephones, social media, connected devices.
 Creative Expression: Magic paintbrush → Digital drawing tablets and music
synthesizers.
Key Idea:
Technology has always been associated with magic because it transforms ordinary life and
gives everyday objects extraordinary powers. IoT continues this tradition by making objects
smarter and context-aware.

8) Who is Making Internet of Things? Justify.

IoT development is a multi-disciplinary effort involving:
1. Craftspersons: Build the physical housing and prototypes.
2. Artists: Contribute creativity and design aesthetics.
3. Designers: Focus on usability and user experience.
4. Engineers: Solve complex technical challenges and ensure scalability.
5. Hackers/Makers: Experiment and create prototypes.
6. Developers: Write the software and manage cloud infrastructure.
Justification:
IoT lies at the intersection of technology, art, and design. It is not just about hardware or
software but about creating an ecosystem of connected, functional, and user-friendly
solutions. Therefore, IoT is being made collaboratively by experts from multiple domains.

Design Principles for Connected Devices

.

9. Explain calm and ambient technology

Definition & origin — Calm and ambient technology come from Mark Weiser’s work on
ubiquitous computing (ubicomp): the idea that computing becomes most useful when it
fades into the background of people’s lives rather than demanding constant attention. A calm
system works in the background and does not seek the user’s attention unless necessary.
Key characteristics
 Runs unobtrusively; information is available but not intrusive.
 Uses everyday affordances (physical artifacts, sounds, lights) rather than forcing users
to monitor screens.
 Alerts humans only on abnormal or important events (minimizes attention spam).
Example — Live Wire (Dangling String)
 Created by artist Natalie Jeremijenko, Live Wire is an electric motor with a long plastic
string mounted so the motor is driven by the electrical activity on an Ethernet line.
When packets are transmitted the string twitches; during heavy network load it
whirls; when no activity occurs it is still. These subtle changes give humans a calm,
 always-on sense of the network’s health without intrusive pop-ups or logs. The device
signals conditions but does so in a peripheral, ambient way, engaging senses other
than just vision.
12. How to keep or maintain privacy of IoT devices?
Principles to follow
1. Data minimization: collect only what is necessary for the feature; don’t return extra
fields “just in case.” (the car-park case returned full license plates and metadata
unnecessarily).
2. Consent & transparency: make it explicit whose data is being collected, how it will be
used, and provide opt-in/opt-out controls. Public-space vs private-property
differences matter (see “Whose data…”).
3. Strong transport encryption: use TLS (HTTPS / secure MQTT with TLS) for all
communications between devices and servers.
4. Authentication & authorization: require device identity (mutual TLS, JWTs, API keys
with limited scope), and enforce least privilege on server APIs.
5. Access controls & logging: limit who can request data, audit accesses, and rate-limit
endpoints to prevent bulk scraping. (the car-park failure allowed bulk download via a
simple web request).
6. Local-first processing where possible: process sensitive signals on the device (edge)
to avoid sending raw data to the cloud when only an aggregate or decision is
required.
7. Default-safe settings: ship devices with privacy-preserving defaults (minimum
telemetry), require deliberate opt-in for data sharing.
8. Threat modeling & security testing: run threat models, pen tests, and third-party
audits before wide deployment.
9. Legal/regulatory compliance & transparency reports: follow relevant regulations
(e.g., data-protection regimes) and publish transparency reports if you operate at
scale.

13. Explain hashes in detail

Note: hashes are a standard cryptographic primitive (this topic is general CS knowledge
rather than from your notes).
What is a hash function?
A (cryptographic) hash function H maps input data of arbitrary length to a fixed-size string
(the hash or digest). Example formats: 256-bit output (SHA-256).
Desirable cryptographic properties
1. Deterministic: same input → same hash.
2. Pre-image resistance: given h it should be computationally infeasible to find any x
with H(x) = h.
3. Second pre-image resistance: given x1, infeasible to find x2 ≠ x1 such that H(x2) =
H(x1).
4. Collision resistance: infeasible to find any two distinct inputs x1, x2 with H(x1) =
H(x2).
5. Avalanche effect: small change in input should radically change output.
Common algorithms
 SHA-2 family (SHA-256, SHA-512) — widely used and secure for most integrity uses.
  SHA-3 — alternative standardized family.
 BLAKE2, BLAKE3 — modern faster hash families.
 Deprecated: MD5 and SHA-1 — not collision-resistant and should not be used for
security-critical tasks.
Uses of hashes
 Integrity checks: verify firmware, files, or messages haven’t been altered (hash +
compare).
 Digital signatures: sign a hash of a message to authenticate origin and integrity.
 Password storage: store hashed passwords rather than plaintext. Important: use
slow, memory-hard password hashing (bcrypt, scrypt, Argon2) with salt and iterations
— plain fast hashes (e.g., SHA-256) are not sufficient for passwords.
 HMACs (Hash-based Message Authentication Codes): keyed hashes to provide
tamper-evidence and authenticity of messages.
 Merkle trees: combining many hashes into a single root for efficient integrity proofs
(useful for logs and large datasets).

13 . Define the following

A. Small Pieces
Design each component to be focused and do one thing well. Small, single-purpose
components are easier to implement, test, reuse, and replace. The Internet succeeded
because it’s made of many small components rather than a single monolithic system.
B. Loosely Joined
Components should not be tightly coupled — they should interact through simple, stable
interfaces and standard protocols so that each piece can evolve independently. Loose joining
increases resilience, reuse, and innovation. Use standard protocols where possible rather
than inventing custom integrations.
C. First-Class Citizens on the Internet
Make IoT devices behave like ordinary Internet citizens: use standard Internet protocols (IP,
HTTP, REST, etc.) and conventions where possible. If constraints (e.g., ultra-low power)
prevent direct use, design new open standards rather than closed, proprietary ones so
devices can interoperate and integrate with the broader web.
D. Graceful Degradation
Because IoT endpoints vary widely in capability, systems should provide a rich experience
when the client/device is capable, but fall back to a less feature-rich yet usable experience on
less-capable clients. Techniques include backward-compatible formats, versioning, feature-
detection, and layered fallbacks (e.g., HTML that ignores unknown tags; HTTP clients
negotiating protocol versions). The goal is to keep service usable across the widest range of
clients.

14 . What do you mean by affordances? Explain.

Affordance (Donald Norman) — an affordance is a perceptual clue about how to operate an
object: e.g., a knob affords turning, a handle affords pulling. When affordances are clear,
users know what to do without instructions; when they are unclear, the design has failed.
Affordances for digitally enhanced objects
 Preserve the object’s original affordances so existing users can still interact with it as
before. If a lamp becomes “smart,” it must still be a lamp that you can switch on with
 the familiar knob.
 Convey new capabilities using familiar signals (e.g., subtle LEDs to show network
status), avoiding overloaded connectors or unexpected behaviours that break mental
models.

CHAPTER-3
Internet Principles

15) Internet Communication & Protocols

Internet communication is the process of exchanging data between devices connected over
the Internet using well-defined rules called protocols. These protocols handle addressing,
routing, data integrity, and security to ensure reliable communication.
Different Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol): Addressing and routing of packets.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-oriented data transfer.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Fast, connectionless communication for real-time
apps.
 HTTP/HTTPS: Web communication for webpages and APIs.
 FTP: File transfer between systems.
 SMTP/POP3/IMAP: Email sending and receiving.
 MQTT/CoAP: Lightweight IoT messaging protocols

16. Give the brief introduction about Internet Protocol (IP), TCP.
IP (Internet Protocol) handles addressing and routing to send data packets across networks,
while TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) ensures reliable, error-free delivery and
reassembly of these packets at the destination
Internet Protocol (IP)
 Role: IP's main job is to get data to the correct destination.
 How it works: Each device on a network has a unique IP address, which IP uses to find
and route data packets to their target.
 Characteristics: IP itself is a connectionless protocol, meaning it doesn't establish a
formal connection before sending data.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Role:
TCP ensures data is delivered accurately and in the correct order once IP has identified the
destination.
 How it works:
TCP breaks messages into small packets, which are then sent by IP. It uses a three-way
handshake to establish a reliable connection.
 Key features:
 Reliability: TCP uses acknowledgments (ACKs) and checksums to verify data
integrity and requests retransmission of any corrupted or lost packets.
  Order: It reassembles packets at the destination to ensure the message is
received in the correct sequence.

17) IoT Terminology

 A. IP Addresses: Unique numerical identifiers for each device on a network, used for
data delivery (like a postal address).
 B. DNS (Domain Name System): Translates human-readable domain names into IP
addresses so devices can connect easily.
 C. Static IP Assignment: Manual assignment of a permanent IP address to a device —
useful for servers and fixed IoT nodes.
 D. Dynamic IP Assignment: Uses DHCP to automatically provide temporary IP
addresses to devices — efficient for large, changing networks.

18) TCP/IP Protocol Suite (with Diagram)

TCP/IP is a four-layer model that defines how data moves across networks.
Layers:
1. Application Layer: User-facing protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, MQTT).
2. Transport Layer: End-to-end communication (TCP – reliable, UDP – fast).
3. Internet Layer: Logical addressing and routing (IP, ICMP, ARP).
4. Network Access Layer: Physical delivery over hardware (Ethernet, Wi-Fi).

Diagram:
+---------------------------+
| Application Layer | (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS)
+---------------------------+
| Transport Layer | (TCP, UDP)
+---------------------------+
| Internet Layer | (IP, ICMP, ARP)
+---------------------------+
| Network Access Layer | (Ethernet, Wi-Fi)
+---------------------------+

19) Role of UDP and MAC Address in IoT

UDP:
 Lightweight, connectionless protocol, faster than TCP.
 Used for real-time data transfer like sensor readings, video streaming, and VoIP.
 No retransmission delay — suitable where speed is more critical than reliability.
MAC Address:
 Unique hardware identifier for network interface cards.
 Used for communication within a local network before IP addressing is applied.
 Helps routers and switches deliver data to the correct IoT device.

20. What is the use of IPv6 in IOT? Explain its Power and Conclusion
IPv6 is crucial for the Internet of Things (IoT) due to its vast address space, which supports a
virtually unlimited number of interconnected devices, and its enhanced security features,
including end-to-end encryption and simplified authentication.
Power of IPv6 in IoT
 Foundational for the Future:
IPv6 provides the necessary infrastructure to support the projected explosion of connected
devices, making it an indispensable component for the growth of IoT.
 Enabling Innovation:
By providing a stable, secure, and scalable foundation, IPv6 fosters innovation in IoT, allowing
for the development of more sophisticated and complex connected solutions.
 Real-World Applications:
Its ability to handle a massive number of devices with low latency and high security is critical
for real-time IoT applications such as smart cities, industrial automation, and connected
vehicles.
Conclusion
IPv6 is a critical and foundational technology for the Internet of Things. Its scalability, built-in
security, and efficient features like autoconfiguration overcome the limitations of IPv4 and
provide the necessary capabilities to connect billions of devices, paving the way for a more
interconnected and intelligent world.

21. What do you mean by HTTP ports? List out other common ports.
What are HTTP ports?
HTTP ports are a specific set of network communication channels used by the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol to send and receive information on the internet.
 Port 80:
The default port for unencrypted HTTP traffic, which is used for standard web browsing.
 Port 443:
Used for HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure), which encrypts web traffic for
enhanced security.
Other common ports:
 21: File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for file transfers.
 22: Secure Shell (SSH) for secure remote access and file transfers.
 25: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) for sending emails.
 53: Domain Name System (DNS) for resolving domain names into IP addresses.

22. what is sketching and explain the role in prototyping?

Sketching is a freehand drawing technique used to quickly visualize and communicate design
ideas. It involves creating rough, informal drawings to explore and develop concepts.
Sketches are often used as a starting point in the design process to convey initial ideas and
iterate on them before moving to more detailed design stages.
Role of Sketching in Prototyping
Sketching plays a crucial role in prototyping by allowing designers to:
 Explore Ideas: Sketching enables designers to brainstorm and explore various design
possibilities quickly and without the constraints of digital tools.
 Communicate Concepts: It helps in conveying design concepts to team members,
stakeholders, and clients in a simple and accessible manner.
  Iterate Rapidly: Sketches facilitate quick iterations and refinements of design ideas,
helping to identify the most promising concepts early in the design process.
 Save Time and Resources: By allowing for rapid visualization and modification of
ideas, sketching can save time and resources by avoiding the need for detailed digital
prototypes until the concept is more fully developed.
 Encourage Creativity: Sketching encourages creativity and spontaneity, allowing
designers to think freely and generate a wide range of design solutions.

23. explain the 7 design principles of IOT

1. Focus on Value for Users:
 Design solutions that provide tangible benefits and solve specific problems for
users, rather than focusing on technology for its own sake.
 Understand user needs, preferences, and behaviors to create intuitive and
valuable interactions.
2. Holistic System Design:
 Consider the entire IoT system, from the physical devices and networks to the
user interface and cloud services, to ensure seamless integration.
 This approach ensures that all components work together effectively to deliver
a complete and cohesive user experience.
3. Prioritize Safety and Security:
 Incorporate robust security measures from the initial design phase to protect
data and devices from threats.
 Address privacy concerns by implementing clear data collection policies and
providing users with control over their information to build trust.
4. Design for Different Contexts:
 Account for various environments, users, and operational conditions when
designing IoT solutions.
 This involves creating systems that can adapt to different contexts, ensuring
functionality and reliability in diverse scenarios.
5. Build a Strong Brand:
 Focus on creating a consistent and positive brand experience throughout the
IoT ecosystem.
 This involves considering the visual appearance, functionality, and overall user
perception of the connected devices and services.
6. Prototype Early and Often:
 Engage in rapid prototyping and iteration to quickly test and refine the design
of both hardware and software.
 This iterative process helps to identify and resolve potential issues early in the
development cycle, leading to a more robust final product.
7. Use Data Responsibly for Actionable Insights:
 Collect and analyze data in a responsible manner to extract meaningful
insights that benefit users and improve services.

24.Difference between open source technology and closed source technology

Open Source Technology
 Source Code: Publicly accessible.
 Licensing: Allows users to copy, modify, and redistribute the software.
 Cost: Often free of cost for the core software, though costs may apply for support or
added features.
 Community: Driven by a large, collaborative community of developers who contribute
to improvements.
 Customization: High degree of flexibility to tailor the software to specific needs.
 Examples: Firefox, Linux, Android, GIMP.
Closed Source Technology
 Source Code: Privately held by the owner and not shared with the public.
 Licensing: Restricted use, modification, and distribution, often requiring a license or
purchase.
 Cost: Usually involves an upfront cost or subscription for the right to use the
software.
 Community: Support and development are provided by the original vendor or
company.
 Customization: Limited, as users cannot directly modify the code.
 Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS, Microsoft Office, Adobe products