Abstract :

Plastic pollution is now found everywhere—in our oceans, rivers,

land, and even in the air. When plastic waste is left out in the
environment, it creates serious problems for all living things. The
production and use of plastic have grown rapidly, mainly because
it is used carelessly, not properly recycled, and often ends up in
landfills. In 2019, about 370 million tons of plastic were made
globally, but only 9% was recycled. Around 12% was burned, and
the rest was either dumped in landfills or leaked into nature.This
widespread plastic pollution, especially in the form of
microplastics and nanoplastics, is happening at an alarming rate
and is hard to manage. It’s a challenge for scientists,
governments, everyday people, and communities alike. This
review brings together what we currently know about how plastic
pollution affects nature and what we can do about it. It also
explores how tackling plastic waste ties into global efforts to
create a more sustainable and fair world.The paper looks at
solutions like assessing the full life cycle of plastic products,
promoting the circular economy (where materials are reused
instead of thrown away), and creating policies that support
sustainability. It also points out the gaps in our knowledge and
gives suggestions for how policies can be improved. Examples
from different countries show that involving communities and
considering economic factors can help manage plastic waste
better.Banning certain plastics and raising public awareness are
key ways to reduce pollution. There’s a strong need for innovation
to help reduce, reuse, recycle, and recover plastic, as well as to
develop eco-friendly alternatives. Most importantly, people need
to be educated and encouraged to work together to reduce plastic
use and pollution. Since plastic pollution is a global problem, it
needs a global, united response—and quickly.

Introduction
Plastic is a widely used material that is manufactured by
processing a combination of plastic polymers, additives, and filler
substances. The large-scale commercial production of plastic
began in the 1940s, coinciding with significant industrial
advancements. Since that time, the widespread use and improper
disposal of plastics have led to a growing issue of pollution in both
aquatic and terrestrial environments.There are many types of
plastic materials, each with unique properties and applications.
These include polyethylene terephthalate, high-density
polyethylene, low-density polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride,
polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene, and
polystyrene. Each of these plastic types is engineered to meet
specific needs in a variety of industries.Plastics have become an
essential part of modern life due to their versatility, durability,
and cost effectiveness. They are extensively used across
numerous sectors including packaging, agriculture, construction,
building materials, automotive, electrical and electronics, home
appliances, mechanical engineering, transportation, furniture,
household products, leisure activities, and sports. Their
widespread utility has integrated plastics deeply into daily human
routines and infrastructure.Economically, plastics also play a
significant role in global trade. The international trade of plastic
raw materials is substantial, with an annual market value
estimated in the range of hundreds of billions of dollars. Given
their critical role in so many industries and applications, reducing
the production and use of plastics remains a considerable
challenge. At present, there are no viable large-scale alternatives
that could replace plastics across all these sectors, making it
unlikely that their usage will decline in the near future.
Globally, around 359 million tons of plastic are produced each
year, with Europe contributing to over 17% of that total. A large
portion of this plastic—more than half—is designed for single-use
purposes, and a notable fraction eventually makes its way into
the oceans. As plastic pollution continues to rise, it poses a
serious threat to marine and terrestrial ecosystems.Microplastics,
which are tiny plastic particles measuring 5 millimeters or less,
come from two main sources: primary and secondary. Secondary
microplastics result from the gradual breakdown of larger plastic
items like containers, fishing gear, and tires that end up in the
ocean. Environmental factors such as sunlight, waves, and friction
contribute to the aging and fragmentation of these larger plastics.
Primary microplastics, on the other hand, are manufactured to be
microscopic and are found In products like cosmetics, detergents,
toothpaste, and textiles, which release them directly into the
environment.There is often confusion surrounding the
classification of plastic particles. Generally, plastics are
categorized by size as follows: megaplastics (over 1 meter),
macroplastics (1 meter to 2.5 centimeters), mesoplastics (2.5
centimeters to 5 millimeters), microplastics (5 millimeters to 1
micrometer), and nanoplastics (smaller than 1 micrometer).To
highlight the seriousness of plastic pollution, the topic was
addressed as a major global issue at an international science
summit in 2019. Plastic waste can be transported from land to
water bodies by rain, wind, and surface runoff. The majority of
oceanic plastic waste—about 80%—comes from land-based
sources, mainly via rivers. Every year, 100 to 160 million tons of
plastic waste is generated, making up 8 to 12% of urban solid
waste. For example, large rivers such as the Danube contribute
thousands of tons of plastic into seas annually. Projections
indicate that by 2025, the oceans could accumulate up to 250
million tons of plastic.
As plastics move from land into the ocean, they continue to break
down into micro- and nanoplastics through natural physical,
chemical, and biological processes. Plastic makes up a significant
portion of the litter in oceans—often 60 to 80%—and most of this
consists of microplastics. Studies in various marine regions have
revealed that a large percentage of water and sediment samples
contain plastic particles, with a notable portion being polystyrene,
which is commonly used in food packaging and has the potential
to enter the food chain.Smaller plastic particles pose greater risks
to organisms and the environment. This has led researchers to
focus more on nanoplastics—extremely small plastic particles
generally considered to be under 100 nanometers in size. These
particles form when polymer chains in plastic break apart due to
weak internal bonds, which are easily disrupted by low-energy
forces like friction. Everyday actions, such as handling plastic or
thermal processing activities like cutting polystyrene and using
3D printers, can release nanoplastics directly into the
environment.Despite growing concerns, detecting and measuring
nanoplastics in natural environments remains difficult due to the
lack of practical and reliable techniques. Plastic particles are
found both floating in the water and embedded in sediment, with
sediment often containing much higher concentrations. Their
distribution depends on factors such as water flow, sediment
depth, and proximity to shore. The density of the plastic also
determines its location—lighter plastics float near the surface,
while heavier ones sink to deeper areas of the ocean.
Types of Plastic waste

Plastic waste varies greatly in size, ranging from large, visible

debris to tiny, almost invisible particles. It is generally classified
into three categories: (i) macro-plastics, which are larger than 200
mm and include items like plastic bags and sheets; (ii) meso-
plastics, ranging from 5 mm to 200 mm, such as plastic bottles
and packaging materials; and (iii) microplastics, which are smaller
than 5 mm and include plastic pellets used in products like
cosmetics and toothpaste. Microplastics are particularly
widespread in marine environments, with the highest
concentrations found along coastlines and in oceanic gyres.In
terms of global plastic pollution by weight, macro-plastics make
up approximately 75.4%, meso-plastics account for 11.4%, large
microplastics constitute 10.6%, and small microplastics contribute
about 2.6%.Marine plastic waste originates from both land-based
and maritime sources, with land-based sources contributing
nearly 80% of the total. These include coastal landfills, river-borne
waste, untreated municipal discharge, stormwater runoff,
industrial waste, and littering along coastlines. Some rivers, like
the Ganges, contribute significantly to marine plastic waste, with
the highest discharge typically occurring in August each year. In
general, urbanised and economically developed areas tend to
produce more plastic waste.
No Plastic waste in marine environments behaves like a public
nuisance and tends to accumulate in areas based on water
current patterns. In regions like the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
and Lakshadweep, plastic waste makes up 40% to 47% of marine
debris, compared to around 14% in mainland India. Much of this
debris appears to originate from nearby countries such as Sri
Lanka, Malaysia, and Indonesia, as suggested by identifying tags
found on the waste.Maritime sources of marine plastic include
waste discarded by fishing vessels, cargo ships, ferries, boats, and
marine tourism activities. Despite international regulations
banning the dumping of plastics at sea, such as those outlined in
the MARPOL convention, illegal disposal still occurs. For example,
microplastic pellets found along the coast of Goa are mainly
observed during the southwest monsoon season, likely originating
from spills by passing vessels or from neighboring countries along
shipping routes.
Sources of Marine Plastic Pollution

3.1 Land-based Sources

The primary land-based contributors to marine plastic pollution
include coastal municipal landfills, river-borne waste transported
to the sea, untreated sewage discharges, stormwater runoff, and
industrial waste from plastic and related sectors. Additionally,
littering of plastic items such as bottles, shopping bags, and
packaging materials by tourists plays a significant role. These
discarded plastics are often carried by currents into the deeper
marine environment.

Plastic waste entering the ocean from areas within 50 kilometers

of the coastline is estimated to be between 4.8 and 12 million
tons annually. Furthermore, rivers contribute an estimated 1.15 to
2.41 million tons of plastic waste to the sea each year. The
majority of this riverine plastic pollution comes from the top 20
most polluting rivers, most of which are in Asia, and nearly three-
quarters of it occurs during the monsoon season. Among these,
the Ganges is considered the second most polluting river globally,
after China’s Yangtze, with its contribution ranging from 0.10 to
0.17 million tons per year. The highest discharge of plastic waste
from the
While pollution caused by human activity is typically concentrated
near its source, the distribution of marine debris is heavily
influenced by the movement of ocean currents. As a result, even
remote and uninhabited areas can experience significant
accumulation of marine litter. In India, the coastal and shoreline
regions of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the
Lakshadweep Islands exhibit higher levels of plastic pollution
compared to mainland coastal states. This suggests that a
considerable portion of the marine debris in these areas
originates from neighboring countries such as Sri Lanka, Maldives,
Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, and other East Asian nations. The
proportion of plastic in the overall marine debris is notably high in
these islands—around 40 percent in Lakshadweep and 47 percent
in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands—while the national average
is approximately 14 percent.

Impacts of Marine Plastic Pollution

Plastic Pollution can impact in a number of ways and effects are

far reaching. Along with Serious impact on marine biodiversity,
human society also suffers tremendously. The impacts Of marine
debris are discussed below at length .
2.1 Entanglement
Marine animals often become entangled in items such as ropes,
nets, traps, and monofilament lines from abandoned, lost, or
discarded fishing gear. This entanglement can lead to
strangulation, injuries, restricted movement, and in many cases,
death. Seabirds sometimes incorporate marine debris into their
nests, which can trap both adults and chicks. In some regions,
such as Oahu, Hawaii, fishing lines have entangled up to 65% of
coral colonies, with 24% to 80% of these colonies found either
partially or completely dead. Even in remote areas like the Arctic
deep sea, plastic entanglement affects up to 20% of sponge
colonies, and such occurrences have been observed to increase
over time.
Ingestion
Marine organisms across all levels of the food chain—from
plankton to apex predators—are known to ingest plastics. This can
lead to serious health consequences, such as a false sense of
fullness, digestive blockages, internal injuries, and even death.
Consuming plastics can reduce an animal's ability to absorb
nutrients, leading to stunted growth and impaired health.
Laboratory studies have shown that fish exposed to high levels of
microplastics in their diet exhibit reduced growth rates. In
extreme cases, the ingestion of a single plastic item, such as a
drinking straw, has been linked to the death of large marine
animals like whale sharks.
Plastic ingestion is widespread among seabirds and is on the rise
globally, with estimates suggesting that up to 90% of seabirds
and over half of all sea turtles have consumed plastic.
Additionally, many emaciated whales and dolphins that have
washed ashore have been found with macroplastics in their
digestive systems. The consequences of ingesting plastics include
reduced food intake, stunted growth, weakened immune
response, lower fertility, disrupted reproduction, and altered
cellular functions and behaviors. The severity of these effects is
generally proportional to the amount of plastic exposure.
3. Smothering

Plastic pollution can suffocate marine life by blocking access to

light, oxygen, and food, especially for corals, sponges, and other
organisms that live on the ocean floor. This smothering effect can
make the sediment oxygen-deficient, leading to a significant
reduction in the number and diversity of organisms living within
it. Such conditions create opportunities for harmful pathogens to
thrive, further damaging marine ecosystems. This impact is
particularly severe in sensitive habitats like coral reefs,
mangroves, and coastal marshes, where plastic debris has been
shown to dramatically decrease the abundance of marine life and
compromise the essential ecosystem services these habitats
provide.
2.4 Chemical Pollution

While not all components of plastic are harmful, many contain

toxic substances that can leach into the marine environment. The
smallest plastic particles, such as microplastics, are capable of
entering the cells of marine organisms, and in some cases, even
reaching their brains. This can lead to serious health issues,
including cellular damage and disruption of vital bodily functions.

The effects of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems cannot be

viewed in isolation. It adds to a range of human-induced
pressures, including ocean warming, overfishing, acidification,
eutrophication, deoxygenation, noise pollution from ships,
invasive species, and habitat destruction. Although plastic
pollution is widespread across the global ocean, some ecosystems
are especially vulnerable because they are already under stress.
Coral reefs and mangroves, in particular, are vital both for marine
biodiversity and for the human communities that depend on
them. When plastic pollution disrupts the functioning of these
ecosystems, it directly impacts not only marine life but also
people who rely on the services they provide.

Table.1 Impact of marine debris on marine biota

Species Number Number of Number of Number of animal
Group of known species with animal with with entanglement
species entanglement ingestion or ingestion
record record records or both

Sea 7 6 (86%) 7 (100%) 6 (86%)

Turtles

Seabirds 312 51 (16%) 79 (25%) 111 (36%)

Marine 115 32 (28%) 52 (23%) 26 (23%)

mammal
s
Fish 16752 34 (0.2%) 66 (0.39%) 33 (0.2%)

Source:(Gall & Thompson (2015))

Marine Plastic Pollution in India

In India, solid waste management practices are generally
inefficient, and the recycling of plastic waste is not yet a widely
adopted standard. A significant portion—about 87%—of the
country’s plastic waste is mismanaged each year. Of this, an
estimated 0.09 to 0.24 million metric tons end up in the ocean
annually, placing India 12th globally in terms of marine plastic
debris generation.
Despite the growing concern, marine plastic pollution remains a
relatively under-researched area in India. There is limited
information available on the sources, types, and pathways of
plastic waste entering the marine environment, as well as its
impact on marine ecosystems. To address this gap, this study
employed a mixed-method approach, combining stakeholder
interviews with simulation analyses. The study utilized India-
specific data drawn from various existing research efforts to
assess and outline the current status of marine plastic pollution in
the country.
The study gathered input from coastal stakeholders in Kerala,
Odisha, Maharashtra, and Goa to better understand the severity
of beach debris, coastal plastic pollution, and the economic
impact on local communities. In Odisha, the plastic pollution
problem appeared to be less pronounced, likely due to lower
plastic consumption, which is associated with a modest standard
of living. Additionally, the use of traditional, biodegradable
packaging materials—such as palm leaf baskets and earthen pots
—especially in high-traffic areas like the Jagannath Temple, plays
a significant role in minimizing plastic waste, despite the large
number of visitors.On the other hand, Kerala, Maharashtra, and
Goa showed more serious concerns regarding marine plastic
pollution. These states have acknowledged the issue, and their
respective governments have started taking steps to prevent
further damage.

In urban India, per capita waste generation increased from 0.44

kg in 2001 to 0.5 kg in 2011. The total volume of solid waste
produced in urban areas is estimated at 68.8 million tons per
year, or about 188,500 tons per day. Although plastic waste
accounts for around 3% of the total, this proportion is notably
higher in urban settings.In Northern Goa, where detailed records
have been kept since 2016, plastic waste comprises between
4.7% and 5.8% of total solid waste. The lowest levels of plastic
waste are recorded between May and August, with a steady
increase in the following months, peaking in January and February.
This pattern coincides with the tourist season, suggesting that the
volume of plastic waste is closely tied to tourist arrivals,
especially during the peak months of December through February.

Table.2 Abundance of microplastics in the beach sediment

samples reported from different coastal states in India.

S. No Locations Mean ± SD Unit

1 Beaches of Mumbai, Maharashtra 204 ± 110 Particles/kg
2 Mumbai coast, Maharashtra 9630 ± 2947 Particles/kg
3 West coast of India, Goa 3950 ± 930 Particles/kg
4 Arabian Sea coast, Karnataka 664 ± 114 Particles/kg
5 Southwest coast of India, Kerala 65.1 ± 34.9 Particles/m²
6 Beaches of Puducherry 72.03 ± 19.16 Particles/100g
7 Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, Tamil Nadu 65.4 ± 39.8 Particles/m²
8 Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu 31.4 ± 137.6 Particles/kg
9 Southeast coast of India 505 ± 121 Particles/kg
10 Central east coast of India, Bay of Bengal 209 ± 99 Particles/kg
11 Southeast coast of India, Tamil Nadu 46.6 ± 37.2 Particles/m²
12 Southeastern coast of India, Odisha 258.7 ± 90.0 Particles/kg
13 Golden beach, Odisha 731 ± 719 Particles/kg
14 Wandoor beach, Andaman and Nicobar Islands 249.8 ± 105.7 Particles/kg
15 Port Blair Bay, Andaman and Nicobar 45.1 ± 25.2 Particles/kg