LSAT

PrepTest 156
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SECTION I
Time—35 minutes
27 Questions

Directions: Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage or a pair of passages. The questions are to be
answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage or pair of passages. For some questions, more than one of the
choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, choose the response that
most accurately and completely answers the question and mark that response on your answer sheet.

Because most agricultural practices in North generating work. The result has been a dwindling
America produce row after row of only a few, number of small farmers—with many of those planting
genetically identical, varieties of crops, the continent’s nonheirloom, commercial seed varieties—and a
food system rests precariously on a rapidly eroding breakdown of many community and regional exchange
genetic base, increasingly susceptible to pests and networks. These recent developments have made
disease. As a possible solution, agricultural researchers, clear that immediate steps must be taken to preserve
development experts, and policy makers are searching indigenous knowledge systems and integrate them with
for ways to conserve the wealth of genetic information programs for the conservation of diverse crop genetics,
contained in crops known as heirloom varieties, which thus bolstering the long-term sustainability of the
have been developed and maintained by indigenous continent’s agricultural systems.
farmers for many generations. The store of agricultural
knowledge associated with the cultivation of these 1. Which one of the following most accurately states the
varieties has only recently been recognized as a main point of the passage?
valuable resource by crop geneticists, who have tended (A) Heirloom crops need to be protected not only
to base their research and their thinking solely on to maintain desirable genetic diversity but to
agricultural methods brought to North America from protect North American cultures as well.
elsewhere. But given the intensity with which these (B) Indigenous farmers originated the practice of
non–North American methods seek to maximize the creating hybrid crops to maximize yields, but
land’s output for economic reasons, they are not always their efforts were overlooked by crop geneticists
suited to preserving a diverse pool of crop genetics. until recent increases in crop failures reduced
A recent study describes how generations of yields to unacceptable levels.
indigenous farmers relied on their understanding of (C) The problem of an eroding crop genetic base
practical genetics to develop hundreds of varieties of in North America points to the need for crop
each indigenous plant cultivated. For example, long geneticists to preserve and utilize knowledge
aware of the technique referred to now as hybridization, held by indigenous farmers who have developed
indigenous farmers frequently used the pollen from and maintained a wide variety of specialized
one variety of corn to fertilize another variety, thereby crops.
creating many varieties of sweet corn, dent or cereal (D) Erosion of the crop genetic base in North
corn, popcorn, and numerous other types. This variation America is the result of the loss of indigenous
allowed for the exploitation of the crops’ natural ability knowledge regarding the cultivation of a wide
to resist pests and disease. Furthermore, indigenous variety of heirloom crops.
farmers maintained those varieties that provided the (E) The wide variety of heirloom crop genetics
best yields in their local environment; varieties in the maintained by indigenous farmers is a direct
wet areas along the coastal plains, for instance, differed result of efforts to procure the best yields in
substantially from those grown in the mountains. varying regions of North America.
Thus in addition to being more resistant to pests and
disease, heirloom crops are less dependent on intensive
irrigation systems because they have been selectively
bred for particular environments.
Many of these heirloom varieties are preserved
in household seed stocks by indigenous farmers who
obtain seeds through long-standing family, community, GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
and regional exchange networks; similarly, knowledge
of the required development and cultivation methods
has been maintained through the centuries by
intergenerational exchanges within an oral tradition.
Over the past century, however, penetration of the world
market economy into small agricultural communities,
both native and non-native, has discouraged small-
scale, internal food production in favor of income-
1 1 -5-
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2. Which one of the following most accurately describes the 6. According to the passage, which one of the following is
author’s attitude toward the value of heirloom crops? a cause of the dwindling stock of heirloom crop varieties
maintained by indigenous farmers?
(A) certainty that these crops will eventually produce
the same yields more economically than their (A) North American farmers now exclusively use
commercial counterparts do now commercial crop varieties that produce higher
(B) relief that these crops have been used to maintain yields.
the genetic base of the continent’s food crops (B) The loss of crop genetic diversity has led to a loss
(C) optimism that the agricultural knowledge of heirloom varieties due to disease and insects.
associated with these crops will help bolster the (C) Agricultural researchers have not generally
genetic base of the continent’s food crops considered heirloom crop varieties viable
(D) pride in the agricultural researchers who have because of the lower yields these varieties
studied for generations the methods used produce.
by indigenous farmers in developing and (D) Heirloom crop varieties have been too difficult to
maintaining these crops adapt to the large-scale agricultural production
(E) confidence that the world market economy will prevalent today.
encourage the production of these crops in both (E) There are fewer farmers planting and passing on
native and non-native agricultural communities information about heirloom crop varieties.

3. Based on the passage, the expression “knowledge 7. The author would be most likely to agree with which one
systems” (last sentence of the passage) most likely refers of the following statements about the crop geneticists
to which one of the following? mentioned in the second-to-last sentence of the first
paragraph?
(A) sets of farming techniques developed by crop-
genetics researchers (A) They have been too willing to further intense
(B) the passing of heirloom seed stock from efforts to maximize the land’s agricultural
generation to generation output.
(C) techniques of hybridization brought to North (B) They are focused on maximizing crop production
America from elsewhere at the expense of small farmers.
(D) methods for breeding and raising heirloom crop (C) They have not demonstrated any interest in
varieties diversifying the crop genetic pool.
(E) fail-safe techniques for successful farming (D) They are interested in heirloom crop varieties
operations because they help maximize specific crop yields.
(E) They continue to ignore heirloom crop varieties
4. The author’s main purpose in writing the passage is to in favor of commercial varieties.
(A) criticize current efforts to solve a problem
(B) contrast two approaches to solving a problem
(C) propose a novel solution to a problem
(D) praise a definitive solution to a problem
(E) support a promising approach to a problem
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
5. The information in the passage most strongly supports
which one of the following statements?
(A) Revitalizing seed exchange networks will
ultimately help preserve an essential aspect of
traditional indigenous culture.
(B) The heirloom crops of indigenous farmers are
the only possible solution to the problem of the
eroding genetic base of the continent’s food
system.
(C) North American farmers have always refused
to switch to nonheirloom, commercial crop
varieties.
(D) Maintaining many varieties of a plant can
have significant advantages over exclusively
cultivating the single variety that provides the
highest yield.
(E) Crop geneticists must rely on North American
farmers’ long-standing knowledge of local
environments when developing new varieties.
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Passage A respect all people as equal individuals, capable of
What public interest is served by an earmarked making their own choices. For these reasons, there can
tax for the arts? This is a most important question, be no justification for arts subsidies.
for unless the public interest is somehow served,
proponents of arts subsidies will be hard pressed to 8. Both passages are concerned with answering which one
justify the transfer of money from taxpayers in general of the following questions?
to those who happen to enjoy attending cultural events (A) Does public funding for the arts raise the quality
that would be eligible for such funding. It is not enough of the art produced?
to claim that the range of organizations receiving public (B) Does broader access to the arts result in more
funding will be large and attract diverse audiences: this diverse audiences?
leaves unanswered the question of why the arts should (C) Is public funding for the arts a justifiable use of
not be funded exclusively through the private sector. taxpayers’ money?
But public support of the arts is, in fact, eminently (D) Is access to the arts distributed broadly?
justifiable. Left to the private sector alone, opportunities (E) Is there a direct relationship between
to share in a region’s cultural life will not be distributed participation in the arts and civic involvement?
equitably. Individuals who simply do not have the
money, or those who live in regions with few cultural 9. Which one of the following principles underlies both
offerings, will miss out on an important part of a full passages?
life.
Arts events and institutions in a community also (A) The arts should serve purposes besides aesthetic
build social capital: the invisible, informal ties that bind enjoyment.
our society together. By enhancing opportunities for (B) Public funding of a service is justifiable only if it
citizens to get together, especially in amateur cultural serves the public good.
organizations where they are participants rather than (C) People’s aesthetic choices should not be dictated
spectators, we build the social capital that is an essential to them.
determinant of a region’s quality of life. Those who (D) Participatory cultural events are essential for a
participate frequently in arts and cultural events are far community’s cohesion.
more likely to engage in other civic activities, such as (E) Culture is a public good that must be equally
voting and volunteer work. available to all.

Passage B 10. It can be inferred that the author of passage B believes

Tax-funded arts subsidies admittedly provide some which one of the following about public arts subsidies?
incidental benefits, such as increasing tourism. Yet a
justification for such subsidies must show the direct (A) They promote important public policy objectives
benefit of spending taxpayers’ money on things the that are not directly related to
taxpayers themselves would not have chosen. It must the arts.
show that subsidies will enable many more people to (B) They are not as effective as private subsidies in
enjoy works of art that are decidedly better than art that disseminating culture evenly.
is privately funded. (C) They are not justified unless they make the arts
Yet even if we could guarantee better art, it is available to everyone equally.
doubtful that we could guarantee more widespread (D) They condescend to people by making aesthetic
aesthetic enjoyment. Art that is subsidized generally choices for them.
will not be the art that most taxpayers would have (E) They reduce the availability of funds for
chosen for themselves. Subsidized art generally reflects other public programs that are of far greater
the tastes, not of popular audiences, but of selection importance.
committees that distribute government money. Most
people will therefore get what they don’t like.
Moreover, culture is not like national defense: a
public good that must be available to everyone if it is
available to anyone. I can’t buy my own defense policy,
but I can buy my own aesthetic experiences. Nor can GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
income level justify cultural subsidies. It may be that,
if I had more money, I would spend it on aesthetic
experiences. By this logic, perhaps we should augment
incomes to enable all people, if they so choose, to
buy art they select themselves. But it is wrong for
government to choose for people the art works and
cultural events it considers they should have. We must
1 1 -7-
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11. The author of passage B mentions national defense 14. The authors would be most likely to disagree over
primarily in order to whether
(A) identify an area in which there is little consensus (A) most people would be willing to pay taxes for the
about public spending support of public arts subsidies if they could be
(B) suggest a similarity between arts funding and sure that such subsidies would serve the public
other types of public subsidies interest
(C) make a comparison to a good that can be (B) the range of arts organizations that can be
acquired only through public funding reached by public funding and the resulting
(D) point to an example of a public subsidy that increase in the diversity of audiences is in itself
enjoys widespread support a justification for such funding
(E) highlight the importance of public subsidies in (C) most people, if given the opportunity and means,
general would spend some of their discretionary income
on cultural events
12. The authors would be most likely to disagree over (D) tax-funded subsidies for the arts result in many
whether tax-funded arts subsidies more people’s taking advantage of cultural
(A) build social capital opportunities than would be the case without the
(B) provide any benefits subsidies
(C) negatively impact private arts support (E) art that is publicly funded is generally
(D) guarantee better art than private arts support aesthetically superior to art that is privately
(E) encourage fiscal responsibility among arts funded
institutions

13. Which one of the following, if it were to occur, would

cast the most doubt on the assertion made in the last
sentence of passage A?
(A) Despite a vigorous publicity campaign, GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
attendance at a recently opened, publicly funded
art museum has been significantly lower than
expected.
(B) As a result of reductions in federal funding for
the arts over the past several years, participation
in local theatrical groups has declined in many
municipalities.
(C) A recent study reveals that, in contrast to most
predictions, contributions to the arts by private
institutions do not decline during periods of high
public funding.
(D) A survey of several small municipalities shows
a positive correlation between enrollment in
volunteer rescue organizations and involvement
in local amateur theatrics.
(E) In the ten-year period since the initiation of a
tax-funded arts program, local voter turnout
rates in several affected municipalities have not
changed.
1 -8-
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Traditionally, corporate bankruptcy law placed 15. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the
highest priority on the orderly discharge of debts; main point of the passage?
courts generally ordered failed businesses to pay
(A) According to Korobkin, Jackson’s conception of
all creditors a set percentage of the amounts owed.
bankruptcy law does not adequately balance the
Modern bankruptcy laws, by contrast, allow insolvent
competing needs of all who are affected by the
companies to apply for “reorganization,” which
failure of a corporation.
establishes a plan for satisfying liabilities while
(B) Korobkin’s approach to protecting the interests
allowing the company to continue operating. Some
of people affected by corporate bankruptcy is
legal scholars prefer the traditional model, arguing
fairer than the traditional approach favored by
that bankruptcy law’s sole task should be to make
Jackson, but it is not without drawbacks.
the largest possible asset pool available for settling
(C) Korobkin opposes Jackson’s conception of
creditors’ preexisting contractually secured claims—
bankruptcy law because it fails to provide a
something that is usually precluded by allowing
rational plan for compensating the employees,
companies to stay in business. Thomas H. Jackson,
as well as the creditors, of failed corporations.
for example, argues that bankruptcy law is best seen
(D) Korobkin argues that the traditional bankruptcy
simply as a “collectivized debt collection device.” Such
laws advocated by Jackson needlessly
a compulsory regime, Jackson argues, guarantees that
extinguished corporations that were still capable
claims will be fairly adjudicated and that the collection
of providing salaries and tax revenue.
process will be efficient.
(E) Korobkin’s vision of bankruptcy law is more
Donald Korobkin and others argue that Jackson’s
popular among policymakers than Jackson’s
account fails to give due regard to the interests of
approach, but the long-term economic costs
other parties affected by a corporation’s bankruptcy,
of Korobkin’s regime outweigh its short-term
such as suppliers, employees and their dependents,
benefits.
and the community at large—parties whose interests
are not represented in the company’s contractual 16. The passage most helps to provide an answer to which
debts. Jackson’s position, Korobkin argues, calls for one of the following questions?
a sell-off of assets to satisfy creditors, an approach to
business failure that places no value on reorganizing (A) What is the likelihood that a corporation
companies to enable them to continue benefiting others undergoing reorganization will emerge
by producing wealth, providing employment and tax successfully from bankruptcy?
revenue, and so forth. (B) What percentage of contractually secured debt
Korobkin claims that fairness and acceptability is recovered on average by creditors of failed
to all interested parties, not just to creditors, can be corporations?
achieved through the application of two principles. (C) What arguments does Jackson offer in favor of
First, a principle of inclusion requires that all parties his approach to bankruptcy law?
significantly affected by a company’s failure be (D) What kinds of creditors are most vulnerable to
eligible to have their claims considered. Additionally, financial losses when a corporation fails?
a principle of rational planning requires that each (E) What are some of the inefficiencies that exist in
party’s interests be considered in the context of whether bankruptcy regimes that place a high priority on
a rational long-term plan could salvage any of the the orderly discharge of debts?
troubled company’s remaining potential. The rational-
planning principle also mandates that the interests of
those suffering the greatest financial distress as a result
of the bankruptcy be protected over the interests of
those less badly affected.
But while Korobkin’s approach is more equitable GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
than Jackson’s, it also has significant weaknesses. First,
a fair accounting of the interests of other affected parties
represents an increase in risk to creditors, since they are
likely to recover less in the event of bankruptcy. Under
such a regime, creditors charge more for credit, a result
that has its own adverse economic effects. Furthermore,
Korobkin’s scheme provides no way of empirically
assessing the relative vulnerability to loss of the various
parties affected by a corporate bankruptcy. With a
company’s reorganization, for example, some creditors
may suffer financial losses while many employees
retain their jobs; Korobkin fails to provide a way of
deciding when such trade-offs are warranted.
1 1 -9-
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17. The meaning of the third sentence of the final paragraph 20. The author would be most likely to agree with which one
would remain most nearly the same if “regime” were of the following statements?
replaced with which one of the following words?
(A) The short-term consequences of modern
(A) principle bankruptcy laws are more predictable than are
(B) constraint those of traditional bankruptcy laws.
(C) law (B) The creditors of failed corporations are more
(D) system vulnerable than are the employees of those
(E) government corporations to financial losses.
(C) Korobkin’s conception of the purpose of
18. It can be inferred from the passage that Jackson would bankruptcy laws relies more than Jackson’s does
be most likely to agree with which one of the following on an appeal to efficiency.
statements? (D) Insolvent companies that are allowed to
(A) Bankruptcy laws should be designed to minimize reorganize ultimately discharge a greater portion
the likelihood that businesses will have to cease of their contractual debts than do insolvent
operating in order to satisfy creditors. companies that are forced to liquidate their
(B) The claims of those creditors to whom the assets to pay creditors immediately.
largest amounts of money are owed should be (E) Bankruptcy laws that place a high priority on
given highest priority when funds yielded by equitable treatment of noncreditors tend to make
bankruptcy proceedings are distributed. it more expensive to finance the establishment
(C) Bankruptcy law should favor promises to firms’ of a new business than do those that prioritize
creditors over the well-being of those firms’ the orderly discharge of debts.
employees.
21. Which one of the following most closely conforms to
(D) Bankruptcy laws that emphasize efficiency
the moral priorities underlying Korobkin’s principle
should be abandoned in favor of those that place
of rational planning (last two sentences of the third
a greater emphasis on equity.
paragraph)?
(E) The legal system should function as a debt
collection service only in cases in which (A) a peace plan that attempts to balance each
corporations that owe debts cannot earn concession made by one warring party with a
sufficient profits to stay in business. concession from the other warring party
(B) an emergency management plan according to
19. The primary purpose of the final paragraph of the passage which those most badly injured in a disaster
is to do which one of the following? are to be evacuated and given medical attention
(A) provide criticisms of the position described in the before those not injured as badly
third paragraph (C) an investment strategy that balances high-risk
(B) offer evidence that the two principles discussed investments with some less-risky investments
in the third paragraph are better served by in order to protect the investor against
traditional bankruptcy laws than by modern ones catastrophic loss
(C) refute the argument attributed to Korobkin in the (D) a taxation policy that imposes a substantial
second paragraph luxury tax on very expensive items such as
(D) offer an alternative way of solving the problems yachts but exempts necessities such as food and
discussed in the second paragraph clothing from taxation
(E) suggest refinements to the modern bankruptcy (E) a public-health initiative that emphasizes the
laws described in the first paragraph prevention of disease rather than its treatment

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

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Discovered in 1993, the site known as Ukhaa 22. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the
Tolgod, in the Gobi desert of Mongolia, is one of the main point of the passage?
world’s best sources of fossils from the Late Cretaceous
(A) Some scientists have long believed that the Gobi
period, which ended about 65 million years ago. The
desert experienced abundant rainfall in the past,
dinosaur, lizard, and mammal fossils from this area,
and the geological formations at Ukhaa Tolgod
including skeletal structures less than 2 millimeters
provide evidence to support this theory.
across, are extraordinarily well preserved. The
(B) Though the causes of rain-induced sandslides
quality and completeness of their preservation was
in dunes are not entirely understood, scientists
at first thought to have been due to immense, sudden
have now settled on a particular explanation for
sandstorms that buried the bodies of the animals before
the sandslides that occurred at Ukhaa Tolgod.
they could be scavenged or destroyed by exposure
(C) Investigations of geological formations at Ukhaa
to the elements. However, new evidence gathered by
Tolgod have raised the possibility that, contrary
scientists analyzing the geological formations of Ukhaa
to previous assumptions, the Gobi desert was
Tolgod indicates that this sandstorm hypothesis is
once a stable dune field.
probably mistaken.
(D) Geological evidence suggests that the animals
The scientists found that there are three distinct
whose fossilized skeletons have been found at
types of sandstone at the site. The first exhibits a
Ukhaa Tolgod died from rain-induced sandslides
well-defined structure of layers tilted at 25 degrees and
rather than from sandstorms.
sorted by particle size. Such arrangements are typical
(E) The search for fossilized dinosaur, lizard,
of deposits created from windblown sand. While this
and mammal skeletons at Ukhaa Tolgod
sandstone contains dinosaur footprints, it contains no
has provided scientists with new evidence
skeletal remains. The second type of sandstone does
concerning the ways in which various types of
not show the same fine-grained structure as the first,
sandstone are formed.
but similarities in tilt and layering indicate that it, too,
was created by wind. The third type shows no layering 23. According to the passage, which one of the following
whatsoever and contains pebbles that are too large to has been considered evidence that the animals whose
have been windblown. It is in this third type of deposit fossilized skeletons are found at Ukhaa Tolgod were
that all the vertebrate skeletal fossils of Ukhaa Tolgod killed in sudden sandstorms?
are found.
This third type of sandstone exhibits a structure (A) the existence of three distinct types of sandstone
similar to that caused by a phenomenon in which an at Ukhaa Tolgod
otherwise stable sand dune becomes drenched with (B) the fact that fossilized remains of some of those
water from heavy rains, triggering a sudden debris flow. animals are in unlayered sandstone
The resulting avalanche of sand can be as powerful and (C) the fact that those animals’ fossilized remains are
violent as a snow avalanche or mudslide. Such a debris extremely well preserved
flow at Ukhaa Tolgod in the Late Cretaceous period (D) the discovery of dinosaur footprints in one type
could have trapped whatever animals were in its path, of sandstone at Ukhaa Tolgod
resulting in the pristine quality of the remains. (E) the fact that clay particles are deposited on sand
The cause of these sandslides is not well dunes by dust storms
understood. However, there is evidence that clay plays
an important role. When windblown clay particles
deposited by dust storms are moistened with rain, the
wet clay filters into the dune and adheres to individual
sand grains. The buildup of clay eventually inhibits
drainage of rainwater from the dune but does not GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
prevent the wet sand grains from shifting. Unusually
heavy rains can therefore cause a layer of wet sand to
rush down a dune’s face. Observations of modern sand
dunes indicate that clay accumulates only if the dunes
are stabilized by vegetation; dunes in deserts lacking
vegetation migrate across the desert as the sand is
blown away, preventing clay buildup. If the animals of
Ukhaa Tolgod were indeed killed by sandslides, this
suggests that the Gobi area at that time was not a sterile
desert, but a stable dune field with plant life and rain.
1 1 -11-
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24. The observations reported in the second-to-last sentence 26. The author’s main purpose in discussing the sandstorm
of the passage serve a function that is most analogous hypothesis (last two sentences of the first paragraph) is to
to the function of the observations in which one of the
(A) question the wisdom of the scientists who
following scenarios?
formulated the sandstorm hypothesis
(A) In order to theorize about how a certain (B) provide the basis for a contrast with a competing
distinctive style of ancient pottery was created, a hypothesis that is discussed in the rest of the
historian watches skilled craftspeople making a passage
similar type of pottery. (C) explain the geological basis for the sandstorm
(B) In order to determine the approximate rate of hypothesis
unemployment, an economist surveys a large (D) show how adherence to the sandstorm hypothesis
number of working-age people about their previously hindered a type of research that has
employment status. now turned out to be fruitful
(C) A historian considers some ancient manuscripts’ (E) establish that scientists formulating the sandstorm
descriptions of ancient medicines in order to hypothesis ignored crucial evidence, which is
theorize about whether or not the manuscripts’ discussed later in the passage
authors viewed medicine as a science.
(D) As part of an effort to develop a technique for 27. Which one of the following, if true, provides the
predicting the future performance of the stock strongest grounds for doubting that the animals whose
market, an economist studies past trends in the fossilized skeletons were found at Ukhaa Tolgod were
stock market. killed by sandslides?
(E) An archaeologist examines the objects preserved (A) Scientists have never directly observed animals
by members of an ancient civilization in order being killed by a sandslide in the Gobi desert.
to determine what that civilization valued most (B) The area of the Gobi desert in which Ukhaa
highly. Tolgod is located is currently not a stable dune
field.
25. The information in the passage most helps to answer
(C) In areas of the Gobi desert other than Ukhaa
which one of the following questions?
Tolgod, pristine vertebrate skeletal fossils have
(A) What kinds of mammals inhabited the Gobi been found in the second type of sandstone
desert at the end of the Late Cretaceous period? described in the second paragraph.
(B) What kind of sandstone is currently being formed (D) Geologists believe that no sandslides have
at Ukhaa Tolgod? occurred in the Gobi desert for at least 5 million
(C) Have fossilized plants ever been found in years.
sandstone in the Gobi desert? (E) There are several natural processes that can
(D) Have scientists found fossilized skeletons of produce the third type of sandstone described in
animals that were killed in sudden sandstorms the second paragraph.
somewhere other than at Ukhaa Tolgod?
(E) Are present-day sand dunes ever subject to
sudden, violent, rain-caused sandslides?

S T O P
IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.
DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.
2 -12-
2
SECTION II
2 2
Time—35 minutes
25 Questions

Directions: Each question in this section is based on the reasoning presented in a brief passage. In answering the questions, you
should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. For
some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer; that is, choose the response that most accurately and completely answers the question and mark that response on your
answer sheet.

1. When primatologist Akira Suzuki began studying snow 3. A recent study has found that, surprisingly, the risk of
monkeys in the 1950s, he found that they often roamed serious injuries to workers is higher in industries that
out of the mountains to feed in apple orchards. After a are monitored by government safety inspectors than in
decade of observing this behavior, Suzuki began to feed industries that are not so monitored.
the monkeys in their mountain habitat by providing them Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain
with soybeans to eat. The monkeys no longer raided the the surprising finding described above?
orchards. When Suzuki began his work, 23 snow monkeys
lived in the region he studied. The population today is (A) Government safety inspectors not only monitor
270 snow monkeys and is expected to continue growing. but also train employees of the inspected firms to
follow safe practices.
Which one of the following claims is most strongly (B) Government safety inspectors do not have the
supported by the information above? authority to enforce safety regulations.
(A) Snow monkeys do not feed outside of their (C) Only those industries with an inherently high risk
mountain habitat when food is readily available of on-the-job injury are monitored by government
within it. safety inspectors.
(B) For snow monkeys, soybeans provide more (D) Workers behave especially cautiously when they
complete nutrition than other beans. believe their performance is being monitored by
(C) In feeding soybeans to the monkeys, Suzuki did government safety inspectors.
not intend to provoke the phenomenal population (E) Some of the industries that are monitored by
growth that resulted. government safety inspectors have much lower
(D) Snow monkeys eat apples only if there is no other rates of injuries than do other industries that are
fruit to eat. also so monitored.
(E) Feeding soybeans to snow monkeys has proved to
be an environmentally unsound policy. 4. Business writer: Although the demand for Corinne
wristwatches currently far outstrips supply, it
2. Body temperature can be estimated by the relative would be a mistake for the manufacturer to increase
proportion of two oxygen isotopes in bone. Such estimates supply to meet demand. The current demand results
derived from dinosaur fossils suggest that dinosaurs had from the public’s perception that the wristwatches
nearly the same body temperature in their limbs as in the are in short supply, and the wristwatches are in
rest of their bodies. Typically, the core body temperature of short supply merely because they are produced
cold-blooded animals today is much higher than the body in very limited quantities. The excess demand
temperature in their limbs. Thus, dinosaurs were probably creates the impression that the wristwatches are
warm-blooded. greatly desired, and that impression in turn helps
account for consumers’ desire for them. If the
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously
supply of Corinne wristwatches were to increase
weakens the argument?
to meet demand, excess demand for them would
(A) Large warm-blooded animals keep their core be eliminated, with the result that the wristwatches
body temperature slightly higher than the body would no longer be desired.
temperature in their limbs.
The claim that it would be a mistake for the manufacturer
(B) The fossilization process introduces changes to
of Corinne wristwatches to increase supply to meet
bones such that their original oxygen isotope
demand plays which one of the following roles in the
ratios cannot be predicted.
business writer’s argument?
(C) Oxygen was more abundant in Earth’s atmosphere
during the period in which the dinosaurs lived. (A) an introductory claim that describes the position to
(D) Small warm-blooded animals like mice tend to be refuted by the argument
have more uniform body temperatures than do (B) a justification of the relevance of the evidence cited
large warm-blooded animals like elephants. (C) a premise of the argument
(E) Warm-blooded animals are more active and use (D) an opinion offered in support of one of the
more oxygen than cold-blooded animals. argument’s premises
(E) the conclusion toward which the argument is
directed
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
2 5.
2
Zobel: Peterson’s analytic concepts are wrong and should 6.
2
Some psychologists claim that empathic responses are
-13-
2
be rejected. As a psychoanalyst myself, however, forms of moral behavior. Having observed that young
I can understand why certain psychoanalysts children who witness another’s distress respond by
adhere to them. These psychoanalysts acquired expressing sadness and offering help, these psychologists
their “emotional certainty” that Peterson’s views believe that moral behavior begins early in life. A second
are correct while training under her. This training group of psychologists claims that empathic response is
includes one’s own psychoanalysis, in which not, by itself, moral behavior and that in order to count as
the teacher interprets the actions, dreams, and moral, behavior must be based on a clear understanding
fantasies of the student in analytic terms. Strong of moral principles and a certain degree of moral
emotional bonds with the teacher are formed, reasoning skill. On the basis of children’s unsophisticated
bonds that predispose the student to accept verbal responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas, these
the teacher’s analytic concepts as correct. It is psychologists conclude that children lack the degree
thus impossible for a student to make unbiased of moral reasoning skill necessary for their behavior,
judgments about the value of the teacher’s however compassionate, to be considered moral.
analytic concepts.
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously
Based on the information in the passage, which one of undermines the conclusion drawn by the second group
the following is the most accurate assessment of Zobel’s of psychologists?
claim that Peterson’s analytic concepts are wrong and
(A) The children studied by the second group of
should be rejected?
psychologists displayed a slightly higher level
(A) The claim is dubious because Zobel assumes of moral reasoning when they were well rested
without justification that she is qualified to judge than when they were tired.
Peterson’s analytic concepts. (B) Adults who respond to hypothetical moral
(B) The claim has not been established because Zobel dilemmas display a much higher level of moral
provides evidence that could show only that reasoning than do children who responded to the
Peterson’s students are biased in the evaluation same hypothetical moral dilemmas.
of Peterson’s analytic concepts. (C) The children studied by the second group of
(C) The claim cannot be evaluated because it is not psychologists displayed a slightly higher level
possible for any psychoanalyst to provide an of moral reasoning in response to hypothetical
objective assessment of another psychoanalyst’s dilemmas involving adults than in response to
analytic concepts. hypothetical dilemmas involving children.
(D) The claim is questionable because it is obvious (D) In actual situations involving moral dilemmas,
that Zobel has a professional rivalry with children display a much higher level of moral
Peterson and cannot judge Peterson’s concepts reasoning than did the children who, in the study
fairly. by the second group of psychologists, responded
(E) The claim is acceptable because Zobel has only to hypothetical dilemmas.
effectively shown that Peterson’s analytic (E) Some adults who respond to hypothetical moral
concepts are biased and based on emotion rather dilemmas reason at about the same level as
than rational thinking. children who respond to the same hypothetical
moral dilemmas.

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2 -14-

7.
2
Mr. Xu: The arctic squirrel gets so cold while hibernating 9.
2
Editorialist: Evidence shows that restrictions on tobacco
2
that its blood temperature falls well below the advertising have had a significant impact on
temperature at which water freezes. Although smoking among adults. A recent survey has
the squirrel’s blood is about 70 percent water, shown that a smaller percentage of adults now
the blood never freezes while the squirrel is smoke than at any other time in the last two
hibernating. The squirrel’s blood, therefore, decades. The decline in the percentage of adults
must contain a substance that prevents the blood who smoke has been most marked during the last
from freezing at the temperature at which water ten years, and, not coincidently, some of the most
freezes. important restrictions on tobacco advertising
Ms. Yerky: The blood contains no such substance. came into force ten years ago.
Laboratory experiments involving a number of The reasoning in the editorialist’s argument is most
animals, including the arctic squirrel, have shown vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument
that a vial of blood from any of the animals
freezes at just the same temperature as does a vial (A) fails to consider whether there have been any
of water. changes over the last two decades in the
percentage of the teenage population who smoke
Ms. Yerky’s response proceeds by (B) uses evidence that describes only a percentage of
(A) presenting evidence that supports a conclusion the adult population to reach a conclusion about
inconsistent with Mr. Xu’s conclusion the entire adult population
(B) showing that the evidence offered by Mr. Xu was (C) reaches a conclusion about smoking among
collected by means of unreliable methods today’s adults based on statistics from ten or
(C) offering an alternative explanation for why the twenty years ago
squirrel’s blood fails to freeze at the temperature (D) neglects to take into account whether there have
at which water freezes been restrictions on the advertising of other
(D) showing that a key term used by Mr. Xu is products besides tobacco in the past ten years
ambiguous (E) fails to consider the possibility that factors other
(E) showing that the evidence provided by Mr. Xu than restrictions on advertising have contributed
has no bearing on the point at issue to the decline in smoking among adults

8. Historian: A democracy’s citizens must know some

history if the democracy is to meet its challenges.
However, popular historical awareness is
inevitably distorted, for most people learn history
through popular narratives that sustain readers’ GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
interest by implying that a few famous heroes and
notorious villains have shaped all of history.
The historian’s argument depends on assuming which
one of the following?
(A) Historical awareness is distorted by the view that
there have been only a few famous heroes or
notorious villains.
(B) History cast in the narrative format inevitably
distorts historical reality.
(C) Most historical narratives sustain interest
by implying that a few famous heroes and
notorious villains have shaped all of history.
(D) Only narratives written for a purpose other
than sustaining readers’ interest can convey an
undistorted awareness of history.
(E) The implication that a few famous heroes and
notorious villains have shaped all of history
distorts history.
2 2
10. Medical researcher: Studies in North America have
2 -15-

12. Politician: Tightening air quality standards that regulate

2
shown that the incidence of heart disease in a industrial emissions would cause industries to
population is closely related to the average fat move to locations with less stringent standards
consumption for individuals in that population. concerning these emissions. So current standards,
However, although residents of France consume, which are already quite stringent, should not be
on average, as much fat as residents of North raised, since there is not enough evidence that the
America, heart disease presently occurs half as decreased pollution that would admittedly result
frequently among the French as among North from raising the standards would compensate for
Americans. the loss of jobs caused by the relocation of key
industries.
Which one of the following, if true, would most help to
resolve the apparent conflict noted by the medical Which one of the following principles, if valid, most
researcher? helps to justify the politician’s reasoning?
(A) The average level of fat consumption by the (A) Governmental policy should generally be
French has been falling for several decades. designed to encourage the growth of key
(B) Other factors of diet besides high consumption of industries.
fat have not been similarly linked with incidence (B) The extent to which the people are willing to
of heart disease. accept a governmental policy should be the
(C) Heart disease takes years to develop and the only factor determining whether that policy is
average level of fat consumption in France adopted.
increased to North American levels only a few (C) Governmental policy should be altered only
years ago. if there is compelling evidence that the
(D) Certain diseases other than heart disease have consequences of doing so are better than the
also been linked to average fat consumption, and consequences of not doing so.
the French have a higher incidence of these than (D) Governmental policy should be changed in those
do North Americans. cases in which retaining the policy and changing
(E) Cigarette smoking significantly increases the it each have positive and negative consequences.
risk of heart disease and France has a higher (E) If one lacks clear evidence about whether a
percentage of cigarette smokers in its population given action will have a specified consequence,
than does North America. then one should assume that it will have that
consequence when deciding whether to perform
11. Professor Williams: Professor Thomas’s report that action.
characterizes our colleague Professor York
as too flamboyant and confrontational in the 13. Santayana recommends that we study history to avoid the
classroom. But the argument given in this report mistakes of the past. But we should not follow his advice.
sounds so much like the classic argument of the For, since history consists of unique and unrepeatable
self-serving academic that one has to wonder if accidents, none of the crises we now face are the same as
Professor Thomas simply is not the orator and those our ancestors faced. Thus, studying history never
entertainer Thomas would like to be, and so vents enables one to avoid mistakes of the past.
frustrations by condemning others—Professor
Which one of the following most accurately expresses
York in particular.
the main conclusion of the argument above?
Professor Williams’s argument is flawed because it
(A) People should not study history, since doing so
(A) confuses the distinction between being overly leads them to misunderstand the crises they
confrontational and engaging students by now face.
entertaining them (B) Every historical period is different from every
(B) presupposes the point it is attempting to establish other historical period.
(C) mistakes Professor Thomas’s characterization of (C) Although the crises one generation faces
a view for an endorsement of that view may appear to be the same as those another
(D) attacks Professor Thomas personally rather than generation faces, they never are.
addressing Professor Thomas’s argument (D) Studying history is valuable, but not for the
(E) rejects the possibility that Professor York is in reason that Santayana suggests.
fact too confrontational (E) One should not try to avoid repeating the
mistakes of previous generations by studying
history.

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2 -16-
2
14. When polar ice caps grow (during ice ages, for example),
2
16. A recent study found that small rats were approximately
2
lighter forms of oxygen from water vapor and seawater twice as likely, and large rats only half as likely, to suffer
accumulate in the frozen ice caps, leaving greater from heart problems than were rats of average size.
concentrations of one heavy form of oxygen behind in
Each of the following, if true, contributes to an
the sea, where it is absorbed by marine organisms. When
explanation of the correlation given above between size
and as the ice caps shrink, the concentrations of this
and heart disease in rats except:
heavy oxygen in seawater decrease. During one 30,000-
year period, concentrations of this heavy oxygen in sea (A) Small rats are more likely than large rats to suffer
shellfish increased for about 20,000 years, then decreased from fatal diseases that tend to strike earlier than
for 10,000 years. do heart problems.
(B) Small rats generally have smaller blood vessels
The information given most strongly supports which one
than do large rats, vessels that can more easily
of the following hypotheses about the period described
be clogged with fatty deposits.
above?
(C) The larger a rat is, the more successful it will
(A) Average global temperatures 10,000 years after be at defending itself, and therefore the less
the beginning of the period approximately stressful its existence will be.
equaled average global temperatures 20,000 (D) In addition to being the leading cause of weak
years later. hearts in adult rats, malnutrition at early stages
(B) Polar ice caps at the beginning of the period were of development causes rats to be undersized.
larger than they were at the end of the period. (E) Although large rats are no more active than rats
(C) The beginning of the period coincided with the of average size, they tend to be much more
onset of an ice age that lasted approximately active than small rats, resulting in greater
20,000 years. cardiovascular conditioning.
(D) The polar ice caps grew for about 20,000 years
after the period began, then began to shrink. 17. To measure a small boat hull accurately, it is necessary to
(E) An ice age was drawing to an end during the first level the hull so that a baseline can be established. This
20,000 years of the period. does not require sophisticated tools, but it does require
a leveling tool called a “line level.” When scientists
15. People would not follow a leader if they felt that there discovered a small ninth-century boat, they wanted to
was nothing they could gain by following that leader. record the dimensions of its hull accurately. None of the
Therefore, even those leaders who are incompetent or scientists, however, had any experience measuring hulls.
evil bring some good to their followers. Because of this they were not sure they had leveled the
hull before establishing a baseline.
Which one of the following is most similar in its flawed
reasoning to the flawed reasoning in the argument If the statements above are true, then which one of the
above? following must also be true?
(A) Because people expound upon only theories they (A) The scientists did not accurately measure
believe are true, any theory that is expounded the hull’s dimensions because they had no
upon by someone contains at least a grain of experience measuring hulls.
truth. (B) The scientists accurately determined the
(B) Because there is some good to be found in even hull’s dimensions, provided that they leveled the
the worst circumstances, the world’s most hull.
vicious people must have brought about at least (C) If the scientists did not accurately determine the
some good. hull’s dimensions, it was because they did not
(C) To be a worthy leader, one must bring some good have a line level.
to people. Therefore, those who bring about (D) The scientists were able to accurately record the
some good make worthy leaders. hull’s dimensions only if they used a line level.
(D) Because people can never completely separate (E) If the scientists had measured the hull’s
what is true from what they wish to be true, no dimensions accurately, then at least one of them
theory is ever completely true. would have had experience measuring hulls.
(E) Even leaders of scientific revolutions are
influenced by the false theories of their
predecessors. Therefore, the influence of earlier
false theories never completely disappears.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

2 2
18. Dapolito: The city council recently passed a rent-control
2
20. Economist: When national governments dispense funds
-17-
2
ordinance. But a recent study of fifteen local to local governments to spend on local projects,
communities shows clearly that rent control any local government can receive a greater
increases the price and lowers the quality proportion of government funds by creating more
and availability of rental units. Thus, it can local projects than other local governments create
be concluded that it is not the city council’s on average. Due to this added incentive to create
objective to preserve the quality and availability more local projects, overall government spending
of local rentals. and taxation are greater everywhere than they
would be if local governments funded projects
Dapolito’s conclusion follows logically if which one of
entirely by themselves.
the following is assumed?
Which one of the following most closely conforms to the
(A) The recent study of local rent-control ordinances
proposition illustrated by the economist’s statements?
was conducted by impartial investigators.
(B) Rent control is not an appropriate topic for (A) A large company invests in a new technology
consideration by the city council. that greatly improves its product. Smaller
(C) The members of the city council who voted for companies, individually unable to match
rent control agree with the study’s conclusions the large company’s investment, pool their
about rent control. resources and invest in the new technology in
(D) Some members of the city council who voted for order to compete.
rent control stand to profit from rent control. (B) A national government finances an irrigation
(E) The city council sometimes acts in an arbitrary project in order to turn an arid valley into fertile
and irrational manner. farmland. The food grown in the valley reduces
local prices, which helps consumers in the
19. Geologist: As a spinning object’s radius decreases, its rate valley but hurts farmers elsewhere.
of rotation increases; for example, figure skaters (C) A sales manager offers prizes for the salesperson
can twirl faster by bringing their arms closer to who sells the most products during a month.
their sides. This law of physics helps to explain This causes each salesperson to try to undercut
why, over the past decade, Earth’s rate of rotation the prices of the other salespeople, and as
increased. For earthquakes have increased in a result profits are lower than they would
number and severity during the past decade; and otherwise be.
since immediately after an earthquake Earth’s (D) People pool their money to buy certain foods
tectonic plates move toward the center of the in bulk in order to get a volume discount and
earth, their movement causes Earth’s radius to reduce their bills. But after doing this, they eat
decrease. more than they used to and so spend the same
Which one of the following, if true, would most amount of money on food as they did before
undermine the geologist’s explanation of why Earth’s they pooled it.
rate of rotation increased over the last decade? (E) Several communities band together to build a
large conference center. But the project nearly
(A) In the beginning of the twentieth century, collapses as each community, because of the
geologists observed an increase in number and revenue the center will bring, fights to be the
severity of earthquakes, accompanied by a one in which it is built.
decrease of Earth’s radius.
(B) During the past decade, other geological events
have counteracted the movements of the tectonic
plates that occur immediately after earthquakes.
(C) Only skillful figure skaters succeed in twirling
faster by bringing their arms closer to their GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
sides.
(D) Since the time of the ancient Egyptians, Earth’s
rate of rotation has been known to fluctuate.
(E) Increased volcanic activity over the last ten
years suggests that the overall movement of the
tectonic plates has increased.
2 -18-
2
21. Philosopher: For some kinds of art, there is truth to the
2
23. When a resource’s price reflects its full cost to society,
2
adage that beauty is in the eye of the beholder. consumers pay directly for externalities—the unintended
A painting or sculpture that strikes one person but harmful consequences to society of using a resource.
as having artistic value may strike another as Further, the price of a resource deters misuse of that
lacking such value. Consequently, there are no resource only if it reflects the resource’s externalities.
valid objective standards for determining the So, since sound management of a resource requires that
artistic value of a painting or a sculpture. the price of the resource deter its misuse, it also requires
that the price reflect whatever unintended harm to the
The philosopher’s reasoning is flawed because it
environment the use of that resource causes.
(A) relies exclusively on an old adage whose truth
The conclusion follows logically if which one of the
has not been demonstrated
following is assumed?
(B) ignores the fact that there are other kinds of art,
such as literature and poetry, that may also (A) Whatever constitutes unintended harm to the
occasion disagreement environment also constitutes unintended harm
(C) fails to consider whether there are valid objective to society.
standards for evaluating nonvisual art, such as (B) A resource’s externalities are always taken into
music account in setting the price of that resource.
(D) fails to consider that people who disagree about (C) When setting a resource’s price, it is possible to
the artistic value of a given painting may be forecast completely and accurately all of the
incorrectly applying the same evaluation criteria effects of using that resource.
to that painting (D) If a resource is soundly managed, then its
(E) fails to consider that the individuals judging and externalities are precisely assessed.
disagreeing about works of art may be experts in (E) The price of a given resource is only one of
making such judgments several factors relevant to a decision about
whether to use it.
22. Researcher: Experiences that are accompanied by
increased secretions of adrenaline—a hormone
produced in situations involving fear—tend to be
remembered more clearly than experiences not
so accompanied. Thus, the details of frightening
experiences tend to be remembered more clearly
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
than do the details of nonfrightening experiences.
Which one of the following, if true, most seriously
weakens the researcher’s argument?
(A) Some experiences are so intense that an
individual’s normal tendency to retain the details
of them is reversed.
(B) An individual will tend to remember most clearly
those details of a situation that are relevant to
the satisfaction of desires.
(C) Highly pleasurable experiences are, like
frightening experiences, accompanied by
increased levels of adrenaline.
(D) Frightening experiences make up only a small
fraction of experiences in general.
(E) If an individual perceives a dangerous situation
as nonfrightening, then the experience of that
situation will not be accompanied by increased
adrenaline secretions.
2 2
24. Researcher: Several chemical compounds found
2
25. According to the Newtonian theory of gravity, the
-19-
2
in soybeans are effective agents for cancer gravitational force between two bodies depends
prevention in humans. These include isoflavones exclusively on their mass and the distance between them,
and phytosterols, which also occur in other plants but is independent of what the bodies are made of. Thus,
but are especially concentrated in soybeans. In according to the Newtonian theory, one does not need a
rats and larger mammals such as cheetahs and theory of the structure and constitution of the Sun and the
sheep, isoflavones have been shown to inhibit the planets in order to calculate their orbits.
production of estrogen, and estrogen is known
The conclusion of the argument above follows logically
to promote certain types of cancer. Phytosterols
if which one of the following is assumed?
may slow cholesterol absorption and thus have
anticancer effects. (A) Mass is dependent on gravitational force.
(B) According to the Newtonian theory, the
Each of the following, if true, would reduce the support
calculation of planetary orbits requires
given by the researcher for the claim that several
considering only their gravitational forces.
chemical compounds in soybeans are effective agents for
(C) The Newtonian theory of gravity is mistaken
human cancer prevention except:
about the data needed to calculate gravitational
(A) The soybean derivatives used in most studies force.
are the products of specialized processing (D) Knowing what an object is made of is sufficient
techniques and are not yet widely available to for determining its mass.
consumers. (E) The gravitational force between the Sun and a
(B) While phytosterols, which occur in high planet is a factor in determining the distance
concentrations in soybeans, have been shown to between them.
decrease cholesterol absorption in the body, new
evidence suggests that this decrease is not large
enough to reduce susceptibility to cancer.
(C) A study of people with high levels of blood
cholesterol showed no significant reduction in
cholesterol levels after switching to a soybean-
rich diet.
(D) Consumption of soybean products might lower
blood cholesterol in animals, but a study
of people whose major source of protein is
soybeans rather than animal products showed
blood cholesterol levels no lower than normal.
(E) Preliminary studies have not shown isoflavones
to have a significant effect on estrogen levels in
humans.

S T O P
IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.
DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.
3 -20-
3 3 3 3
SECTION III
Time—35 minutes
27 Questions

Directions: Each set of questions in this section is based on a single passage or a pair of passages. The questions are to be
answered on the basis of what is stated or implied in the passage or pair of passages. For some questions, more than one of the
choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best answer; that is, choose the response that
most accurately and completely answers the question and mark that response on your answer sheet.

Two competing demands we make of the law law can adapt to social reality. The attempt to reconcile
create a troubling conflict that contributes to the law’s formalism and substantive justice within a legal system
frequent failure to deliver what we imagine it should. situated in conditions of social inequality is a misguided
On one hand, we want a formalist system of law—one project.
that is rational and rule-based, and that promises to
deliver us from arbitrariness, irrationality, and caprice 1. Which one of the following would, if true, most seriously
in a coherent, reasoned way. It should be a system undermine the author’s conclusion about formalism in
that we are capable of understanding and generally legal systems?
able to depend on so that we can order our affairs with (A) The vast majority of people are quite aware of the
the knowledge that none of us will be individually imperfections of merely procedural justice but
disadvantaged before it. In short, it is imperative that do not see any practical way of remedying these
the law provide a universal ordering principle that is imperfections.
rational, consistently applied, and blind to the differing (B) Nonformalist legal systems have been found to
social and economic situations of those who come deliver substantive justice even less frequently
before it. than their formalist counterparts.
On the other hand, however, we want the law to be (C) Any type of collective action that is formalized
connected to social reality and sensitive to the particular into a set of rules tends to become less effective
contexts out of which individual cases arise. After all, as those rules become dated and less relevant.
a body of law is of little use if it delivers justice that is (D) Societies in which there is little social inequality
merely procedural as opposed to substantive—i.e., if tend to use formalism as a basis for their legal
it cannot deliver results in individual cases that we can systems.
recognize as fair and equitable. It need not, of course, (E) A formalist approach to the law is sometimes
be the outcome that we, as individual parties, would found to be too broad and abstract to apply to
want; someone must, after all, lose in an adversarial the particulars of individual cases.
system. But it must at least be an outcome that we,
as parties and observers, can accept as legitimate and 2. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the
justifiable according to some common understanding of message the author intends to convey in using the phrase
fairness and justice. Cases should not, for example, be “misguided project” in the final sentence of the passage?
decided based strictly on the application of unalterable
rules without regard for the equity or reasonableness of (A) The project would be much more difficult than
the outcome. Such extreme formalism, applied neutrally the benefits of its success would warrant.
and without prejudice but also without sensitivity to the (B) Such a project is bound to produce unforeseen
social contexts of those involved, speaks little to the negative consequences.
substance of justice. And it is imperative that the legal (C) The project lacks the expert guidance that would
system deliver substantive justice in individual cases— be necessary to make it a success.
that it derive from and relate to subjective experience as (D) The steps necessary to make such a project
well as objective reason. succeed would violate several important
It seems, then, that we are left with an principles of justice.
irreconcilable tension arising from the competing (E) Such a project cannot, given the present context,
imperatives of formalism and substantive justice. be successful.
Any attempt to accommodate both principles within
the legal system is bound to fail for systemic reasons:
formalism cannot produce substantive justice until
there is a reasonable degree of social equality. Without
this equality, formalism may very well perpetuate
injustice; no universal rules can guarantee otherwise. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
If we cannot aspire to the significant degree of social
and economic equality that is required for formalism
to be compatible with the achievement of substantive
justice, then formalism should be abandoned so that the
3 3 3 3 -21-
3
3. The passage most strongly supports which one of the 5. The passage indicates that which one of the following
following statements about a formalist approach to is a characteristic of a body of law that delivers merely
the law? procedural justice?
(A) It tends to be too detailed in its language and is (A) It cannot be relied upon to deliver results that are
not sufficiently reliant on broad principles. recognizably fair and equitable.
(B) It may satisfy the demands of objective reason (B) It derives from subjective experience as well as
and yet fail to connect to social reality. objective reason.
(C) It produces substantive justice in individual cases (C) It adapts too readily to social reality.
if it is applied neutrally and without prejudice. (D) It takes into account the social and economic
(D) Its tension with substantive justice arises circumstances of those who come before the
from their differing approaches to deductive law.
reasoning. (E) It is based on a common understanding of
(E) It can be reconciled with substantive justice by fairness and justice.
formalizing a recognition of social inequalities.

4. The author’s primary purpose in mentioning the fact that

someone must lose in an adversarial system of law (third
sentence of the second paragraph) is to
(A) emphasize the systemic nature of the tension GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
between formalism and substantive justice
(B) imply that, invariably, someone will view the
outcome of a legal proceeding as unfair
(C) suggest that the flaws of formalism may be absent
from some systems of law
(D) stress that substantive justice cannot be expected
to produce outcomes that favor every participant
(E) foreshadow the author’s conclusion about the
ultimate irreconcilability of formalism and
substantive justice
3 -22-
3 3 3 3
Passage A is adapted from a book review by physicist results are unequivocal: psychic power is a chimera.
Freeman Dyson. Passage B is adapted from a response Dyson recognizes that his belief in the possibility of
to the review. paranormal phenomena conflicts with his scientific
views, but he responds by invoking the principle of
complementarity. Sorry, but the principle does not apply
Passage A
to the paranormal. Either people can read other people’s
There are two extreme views concerning the role
minds or they cannot. Science has demonstrated that
of science in human understanding. The reductionist
they cannot. And being a holist instead of a reductionist
view holds that all kinds of knowledge, from physics to
or reading about weird things that happen to people
ethics, can be reduced to science. The traditional view
does not change this scientific fact.
holds that science is one of many independent sources
of knowledge. Most people hold views between these
6. Both passages are concerned with answering which one
two extremes. Skeptics of paranormal phenomena are
of the following questions?
generally near the reductionist extreme, while I am near
the traditional extreme. (A) Does experiencing apparent paranormal
The question of the limits of science is closely phenomena lead to stress?
connected to the possible existence of paranormal (B) Is it possible that paranormal phenomena exist?
phenomena. Scientific attempts to study extrasensory (C) Do anecdotes have any place in scientific
perception and telepathy have failed. Skeptics conclude inquiry?
from this that paranormal phenomena do not exist. (D) Is the principle of complementarity valid outside
I do not accept this conclusion because I am not a quantum physics?
reductionist. Paranormal phenomena may exist but be (E) Are there kinds of knowledge that have not been
inaccessible to scientific investigation. This is just a successfully reduced to science?
hypothesis, but one that I find tenable and plausible.
This hypothesis is supported by abundant evidence 7. It can be inferred that the author of passage A would
(stories of ordinary people who be most likely to consider which one of the following
apparently possess paranormal abilities) collected assertions made in passage B to misrepresent his views?
by the Society for Psychical Research and similar (A) The author of passage A is convinced that
organizations. This evidence is anecdotal rather under certain conditions some people exhibit
than scientific, since it cannot be reproduced under paranormal powers.
controlled conditions. But the organizations have (B) The author of passage A believes that there
conscientiously interviewed eyewitnesses right after is anecdotal evidence for the existence of
the events and carefully documented the stories. These paranormal phenomena.
stories make it clear that if paranormal events occur, (C) The author of passage A denies that he holds the
they occur only when people are under stress and reductionist view of the role of science in human
experiencing strong emotion. This would explain why understanding.
paranormal phenomena are not observable in well- (D) The author of passage A tries to resolve the
controlled scientific experiments. Strong emotion and conflict between science and the paranormal by
stress are incompatible with scientific procedures. invoking the principle of complementarity.
Paranormal phenomena and the scientific (E) The author of passage A believes that paranormal
method may be complementary. “Complementary” powers are not observable in scientific
is a technical term in quantum physics, meaning that experiments.
two descriptions of nature are both valid but cannot
be observed simultaneously. The classic example of
complementarity is the dual nature of light. Light
behaves as a wave in one experiment and as particles in
another, but we cannot see both in the same experiment.
Passage B GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
Freeman Dyson makes a ridiculous plea for
openness to the paranormal because he is not a
reductionist and because anecdotal evidence convinces
him that under certain conditions (e.g., stress), some
people exhibit paranormal powers, unless they are
placed in controlled scientific conditions, in which
case the powers mysteriously disappear. A scientist
of Dyson’s caliber should know that anecdotes do not
make a science. The only way to find out if anecdotes
represent real phenomena is controlled experimental
tests. Paranormal phenomena have repeatedly been
subjected to rigorous scientific experiments, and the
3 3 3 3 -23-
3
8. In the first sentence of passage B, the author says that 11. Passage A, but not passage B, refers to
paranormal powers “mysteriously disappear” when
(A) scientific experiments
people are placed in controlled scientific conditions
(B) anecdotal evidence
primarily in order to
(C) stress
(A) present a counterexample to reductionism (D) reductionism
(B) introduce the author’s view of the role of science (E) the dual nature of light
in human understanding
(C) state the author’s main point of disagreement 12. Which one of the following statements most accurately
with passage A describes the relationship between passage B and the
(D) ridicule a view expressed in passage A assertion in passage A that “skeptics of paranormal
(E) convey the results of scientific investigations of phenomena are generally near the reductionist extreme”
the paranormal (last sentence of the first paragraph)?
(A) Passage B attempts to disprove that assertion.
9. Which one of the following principles underlies the
(B) Passage B dismisses that assertion as not worthy
argument in passage B but would be rejected by the
of a response.
author of passage A?
(C) Passage B serves as an example of that assertion.
(A) There are principles of quantum physics that (D) Passage B examines the relationship of that
cannot be applied to studies of human behavior. assertion to the principle of complementarity.
(B) Either all knowledge can be reduced to science, (E) Passage B attempts to show that that assertion
or science is in no way privileged over other is incompatible with other assertions made in
sources of knowledge. passage A.
(C) Scientific facts are valid independently of any
views that people may have about the role of 13. It can be inferred from the passages that the author
science in human understanding. of passage B would be more likely than the author
(D) If the existence of an alleged phenomenon cannot of passage A to accept which one of the following
be demonstrated in controlled experimental statements?
tests, then the phenomenon does not exist. (A) There may be real phenomena that can never be
(E) The support that anecdotes provide for a discovered by scientific procedures.
scientific theory can never be as strong as the (B) There are numerous reports citing ordinary
support provided by controlled experimental people who apparently demonstrate paranormal
tests. abilities.
(C) Light behaves as a wave in some experiments
10. The primary purposes of the two passages are related in
and as particles in others.
which one of the following ways?
(D) Scientific investigation has provided no evidence
(A) Passage A argues for a general view, and that extrasensory perception and telepathy
passage B presents a specific counterexample to are real.
that view. (E) The same general methods that are used in
(B) Passage A proposes a wide-ranging new theory, physics are appropriate to the study of all human
and passage B takes issue with some details of behavior.
that theory.
(C) Passage A argues that something is possible, and
passage B tries to refute that argument.
(D) Passage A questions a mainstream view, and
passage B defends that view against the charges
made in passage A.
(E) Passage A argues that a theory is self- GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
contradictory, and passage B argues that the
contradiction is only apparent.
3 -24-
3 3 3 3
In typical accounts of the beginnings of bebop— 14. Which one of the following most accurately states the
the first “modern” jazz style, which was originated main point of the passage?
in the 1940s by Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker, and
(A) Historical inquiry into the origins of bebop has
Thelonious Monk, among others—commercialism
tended to overemphasize the commercial causes
plays an important, though indirect, role. By the early
of swing music’s artistic decline.
1940s, according to these histories, jazz had reached an
(B) Typical accounts of the origins of bebop
impasse. The reigning jazz style, swing, had become
misrepresent the relationship of bebop’s
“threadbare,” a “harmonic
originators to mass-market capitalism.
and melodic blind alley,” a formulaic popular
(C) Bebop arose as a reaction to the failure of swing
music undergoing “death by entropy,” a
musicians to extend jazz’s rhythmic, harmonic,
“billion-dollar rut.”
and melodic language in directions plainly
These metaphors, sampled from various writings
indicated by the music itself.
on jazz, echo the “crisis theory” of twentieth-century
(D) Commercial relations permeate all genres of
European classical music. Classical music history
musical entertainment, including bebop.
textbooks commonly impute the eruptions of modernity
(E) Bebop’s originators did not see bebop as being
in the early 1900s to classical music’s stubborn failure
fundamentally different from swing music.
to move beyond the language of tonality worn out from
overuse in the nineteenth century. Something similar is 15. According to the author’s argument, at least some of the
implied about jazz in the early 1940s. Musicians’ failure originators of bebop were motivated by a desire to
to extend jazz’s rhythmic, harmonic, and melodic
language in directions plainly indicated by the music (A) attain artistic autonomy
itself built up pressure resulting in the eruption of a new (B) overthrow the musical dominance of swing music
musical modernism. (C) strip jazz of its associations with entertainment
But phrases like “billion-dollar rut” clearly (D) escape the commercial influences present in
suggest that these writers believe that the real culprit is swing music
commercialism—the commingling of art and commerce (E) secure financial rewards greater than those
that had for a time allowed swing to become both an available to swing musicians
authentic jazz expression and a national fad. Even
after swing had run its course, the theory goes, the 16. The primary purpose of the reference to eruptions of
machinery of the popular music industry continued to modernity in classical music in the early 1900s (second
prop up the “threadbare” idiom, seducing musicians sentence of the second paragraph) is to
into going through the motions long after they had (A) provide evidence that undermines the typical
any legitimate artistic reason to do so. In other words, accounts of the origins of bebop by suggesting
mass-market capitalism was a logjam in the path of that factors other than commercialism were
musical evolution that could be removed only by at play
explosive force. Bebop provided that force. In this (B) outline a theory of classical music history that the
version of jazz history there is an implicit teleology to author claims is parallel to the typical accounts
the progression from early jazz through swing to bebop: of the origins of bebop
the gradual shedding of jazz’s associations with dance, (C) suggest that typical accounts of the origins of
popular song, and entertainment. Bebop is the logical bebop are based on an inaccurate understanding
culmination of this process—in it jazz became “art,” of the history of twentieth-century music in
declaring its autonomy by severing forever its ties to general
commerce. (D) describe a movement in classical music that was
This insistence that bebop is anticommercial may part of the impetus behind the transition from
suit the needs of contemporary jazz discourse, but it swing to bebop in jazz
is a poor basis for historical inquiry. It idealizes the (E) provide an example of a modernist movement
circumstances of artistic creation and represses the in classical music that was motivated at least in
unpleasant reality that commercial relations permeate part by commercial considerations
all realms of musical entertainment. For the musicians
who originated bebop, mass-market capitalism was not
a prison from which the true artist was duty-bound to
escape, but a system of transactions defining music as a
profession, thereby making their achievements possible.
By 1945, Parker, Gillespie, and Monk had indeed willed
a new musical subculture into being. But they were not GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
trying to disengage from the “commercial” music world
so much as to find a new point of engagement with it—
one that would grant them a measure of autonomy and
recognition.
3 3 3 3 -25-
3
17. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree 20. It can be inferred from the passage that the authors
with which one of the following statements about the of typical accounts of the origins of bebop would be
originators of bebop? most likely to agree with which one of the following
statements about swing musicians in the 1940s?
(A) Their music was promoted by the music industry
with the same vigor as swing music had been (A) They continued to believe that their music was
earlier. innovative even though artistic developments in
(B) They repudiated the notion accepted by swing jazz had rendered swing outdated.
musicians that jazz was a form of popular (B) They resented critics’ insinuations that their
entertainment. music was merely entertainment.
(C) They regarded themselves as professionals and (C) They recorded and performed music in a style
accepted commercialism as a central element of that many of them no longer found to be
their profession. artistically compelling.
(D) They were better off financially than they would (D) They believed they had a responsibility to
have been had they played only swing music. preserve the great traditions established by
(E) They believed that bebop would appeal to as earlier generations of jazz musicians.
wide an audience as swing did. (E) They sought unsuccessfully to liberate their
music from the pressures of commercialism.
18. It can be inferred from the passage that the proponents
of the typical accounts of the origins of bebop would be 21. Which one of the following principles does the author
most likely to believe which one of the following? use in analyzing typical accounts of the origins of bebop?
(A) The lack of innovation in classical music in the (A) Artistic progress in music is generally the result
early 1900s was due largely to commercialism. of commercial pressures.
(B) Swing music came to enjoy immense commercial (B) New movements in music typically begin with
success primarily because it was not the rejection of the fundamental principles of the
aesthetically adventurous. reigning musical style.
(C) The insistence that bebop was anticommercial (C) Music historians should rely primarily on
in its origins serves the needs of today’s jazz musicians’ first-hand accounts in analyzing
critics rather than the needs of genuine historical significant developments in music.
inquiry. (D) The turns of phrase employed by historians
(D) Swing contained the seeds of innovations in can legitimately be analyzed to uncover the
musical language that, because of commercial historians’ assumptions.
pressures, were left undeveloped by swing (E) Music historians must take care not to let their
musicians. aesthetic preferences influence their historical
(E) The originators of bebop embraced jazz’s analyses.
associations with dance, popular song, and
entertainment.

19. According to the passage, which one of the following is

true of typical accounts of the origins of bebop?
(A) They assert that bebop was originated by GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
musicians seeking commercial success.
(B) They represent bebop as an outgrowth of the
modernist movement in classical music.
(C) They identify bebop as the first jazz movement
that did not have strong commercial appeal.
(D) They overly idealize the realities of artistic
creation.
(E) They were themselves shaped by commercial
pressures.
3 -26-
3 3 3 3
Organic chemist Larry Koskan’s inspiration fertilizers. If Koskan’s company can show continued
arrived in the mid-1980s, when he read a report by success, it may yet help enliven an environmental
marine biologists describing how oyster shells grow. It chemistry sector saddled with a reputation for
was known that oysters secrete calcium carbonate as an ineffectiveness and high cost.
essential constituent of their hardened exteriors, but the
biologists discovered that they also produce a special 22. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the
protein-based agent that molds the mineral into their main point of the passage?
shells’ characteristic shape. (A) Polyaspartate was once thought to be the
At the time, Koskan was studying the properties inevitable successor to polyacrylates, but
of water-soluble polyacrylates. Among other things, technical shortcomings restrict its usefulness to
these widely used additives help to stem the buildup applications in specialized niche markets.
of damaging mineral-scale deposits (carbonate and (B) The success of Koskan’s company in the
sulphate compounds) on the surfaces of industrial development of polyaspartate for industrial
water-treatment equipment. What Koskan realized was uses may improve the reputation of the
that the agent produced by the oysters—polyaspartate— environmental chemical industry.
inhibits the formation of calcium carbonate and could (C) Polyaspartate, which Koskan researched and
also therefore control scale. Polyaspartate mimics the developed as an environmentally friendly
scale-inhibiting activity of polyacrylates because it has alternative to polyacrylates, shows promise for
a similar chemical structure. But because the backbone commercial applications but also faces barriers.
of polyaspartate is made of peptides (chains of amino (D) Koskan’s work with polyaspartate has shown that
acids) rather than the hydrocarbon compounds that environmentally friendly alternatives to many
constitute polyacrylates’ backbone, it is subject to industrial chemicals can be found by studying
bacterial action (i.e., it is biodegradable). plants and animals.
Polyacrylates, inexpensive and versatile (E) Although polyaspartate is superior to existing
chemicals, are easy to manufacture and process. In products, it will probably fail in the marketplace
laundry detergents, they act as dispersants that keep dirt because of hurdles that stand in the way of its
suspended in the wash water. As a recent alternative being economically competitive.
to phosphates, which, via wastewater, pollute surface
waters, some half a billion pounds of polyacrylates are
used in detergents worldwide every year. Additionally,
some polyacrylates have chemical configurations with
a tremendous affinity for water, making them ideal
in superabsorbent materials for disposable products
like baby diapers, which currently account for around GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
2 billion pounds in annual production of polyacrylates.
The trouble is, polyacrylates last virtually forever, and
these vast quantities of the highly stable substance are
being discarded in landfills.
With requests by consumer products companies
for environmentally friendly products growing
rapidly, Koskan started his own small company and
began researching cost-effective ways of producing
polyaspartate for industrial use. Soon, leading
chemical companies also began researching the
issue, with the consensus being that polyaspartate
was the most suitable replacement for polyacrylates.
Unfortunately, as with many emerging technologies
that lack a supporting infrastructure, polyaspartate’s
price was estimated to be four to five times that
of the high-volume-production alternative. Given
this, the consumer products industry lost interest in
the technology, and the chemical industry shelved
it. Koskan’s company, however, believing that
polyaspartate could nonetheless be market-competitive
on its own merits, decided to persevere and focus on
specialty application niches. Polyaspartate has since
shown unparalleled success at eliminating scale in
offshore oil production equipment and is being used by
the farming industry to keep chemical fertilizers in the
soil longer, reducing pollution of groundwater by the
3 3 3 3 -27-
3
23. Which one of the following scenarios would conform 26. The primary purpose of the passage is to
most closely to the assessment given in the final sentence
(A) describe and analyze one attempt to develop
of the passage?
and market a new, promising alternative to an
(A) Koskan’s company produces a carefully existing product
designed marketing video that demonstrates the (B) demonstrate the mistakes made in one attempt to
effectiveness of polyaspartate in eliminating develop and market a new, promising alternative
scale in both oil production equipment and to an existing product
water treatment equipment. (C) illustrate the kinds of problems that are likely
(B) Koskan’s company comes under increased to be encountered in attempts to market a new,
market competition from leading chemical promising alternative to an existing product
companies that are developing alternatives to (D) comment on the state of affairs in an industry
polyaspartate to reduce scale in offshore oil that tends to overlook environmentally friendly
equipment. innovation in favor of maintaining strong profits
(C) Using revenues from sales of polyaspartate to the (E) explain the chemical processes that make a
oil and farming industries, Koskan’s company particular new product a promising alternative
is able to develop low-cost ways of producing to an existing product
large volumes of polyaspartate for general use.
(D) Koskan’s company performs studies 27. The passage most strongly suggests that which one of the
demonstrating that polyacrylates are following is true of both polyaspartate and polyacrylates?
accumulating in landfills at a rate that is (A) They perform identically within any industrial
increasing steadily. application.
(E) Koskan’s company discovers that oysters secrete (B) They were both discovered as a result of research
a highly specialized form of polyaspartate that is performed by marine biologists.
difficult to isolate in laboratory settings. (C) The chemical industry was aware of their
existence long before industrial applications for
24. Which one of the following most accurately captures the
either one were developed.
meaning of the phrase “on its own merits” as it is used in
(D) They both have been used to reduce water
the third-to-last sentence of the passage?
pollution.
(A) without funding from government agencies (E) At the time they were first brought to market,
(B) without reference to its chemical properties leading chemical companies were skeptical
(C) once its newest industrial uses are more widely about their commercial success.
publicized
(D) not merely as a general substitute for
polyacrylates
(E) because of its unsurpassed ability to reduce scale

25. It can most reasonably be inferred from the passage

that the author believes that the failure of leading
chemical companies to fully embrace polyaspartate as a
replacement for polyacrylates
(A) was a result of fears about the potentially harmful
consequences to human health of using a new
and untested material
(B) was not primarily a result of considerations
involving costs and profits
(C) was not due to a widely accepted belief that
polyaspartate is ineffectual
(D) was a result of the relative scarcity of the raw
material from which polyaspartate is made
(E) was due to the belief that consumers would not
trust products containing polyaspartate

S T O P
IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.
DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.
4 -28-
4 4 4 4 4
SECTION IV
Time—35 minutes
26 Questions

Directions: Each question in this section is based on the reasoning presented in a brief passage. In answering the questions, you
should not make assumptions that are by commonsense standards implausible, superfluous, or incompatible with the passage. For
some questions, more than one of the choices could conceivably answer the question. However, you are to choose the best
answer; that is, choose the response that most accurately and completely answers the question and mark that response on your
answer sheet.

1. Montoya: Many industrial chemical processes that 3. James: The world is increasingly divided between the
currently use organic solvents could use ionic computer literate and the computer illiterate.
liquids instead. Ionic liquids are less hazardous The economic gap between rich and poor is
to workers and generate less air pollution. partly responsible for causing this division, but
Moreover, some reactions occur at a faster rate or the economic gap will widen because of the
yield smaller quantities of unwanted by-products increasing importance of computer literacy.
when ionic liquids are used. So chemical Ariel: I disagree. Because of businesses’ increasing need
companies should begin using ionic liquids for computer-literate employees, companies
for many reactions that currently use organic will have to train nearly all workers in computer
solvents. skills. This will lessen the division between the
Peterson: Ionic liquids cost many times as much as computer literate and the computer illiterate. So
organic solvents, so they are currently not whatever might cause the economic gap between
practical for the chemical industry. rich and poor to widen in the future, it won’t be
the importance of computer literacy.
Of the following, which one, if true, is the strongest
counter Montoya could make to Peterson’s argument? James and Ariel disagree over whether
(A) The cost of organic solvents is only one of many (A) the economic gap between rich and poor will
expenses involved in industrial production of widen
chemicals. (B) the economic gap between rich and poor is now
(B) New methods for removing by-products partly responsible for causing the division
of chemical reactions have recently been between the computer literate and the computer
developed. illiterate
(C) The chemical industry has historically been quick (C) businesses’ need for computer-literate employees
to adopt new techniques that increase the rate at will increase
which reactions occur. (D) the economic gap between rich and poor will
(D) Ionic liquids can be reused many times, whereas widen as a result of the increasing importance of
organic solvents can be used only once. computer literacy
(E) For the sake of public relations, companies will (E) companies will have to train their employees in
sometimes use a more environmentally friendly computer skills
process even if it is slightly more expensive.

2. The relationship between money and the things it allows

one to purchase is like that between a tool and the tasks it
enables its user to accomplish. Therefore, since tools are
useless if there is no task that needs to be done, _______.
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
Which one of the following most logically completes the
argument?
(A) money should be thought of as no more useful
than a tool
(B) any tool that enables its user to accomplish a task
is valuable
(C) money is valueless in a world where nothing is
for sale
(D) money should be regarded as a tool rather than a
commodity
(E) the value of money derives from the tasks it
allows one to accomplish
4 4 4 4 4 -29-
4
4. Overcrowding inclines human beings toward aggressive, 6. Anthropologist: During the last ice age, nomadic
competitive behavior. Just consider the behavior of communities probably needed at least 15 or 20
normally considerate people driving in rush-hour traffic members to survive, and they were generally
or attending crowded sporting events. This shows that, as not much larger than this. Ice-age nomads are
world population continues to grow, aggressive behavior, commonly portrayed as primarily big-game
including war and crime, will become more frequent and hunters, but most of their food must have in fact
severe. come from other sources, such as small game
and plants. Hunting large animals is a dangerous
Each of the following, if true, strengthens the argument
activity that would have risked the lives of
except:
several members of the community.
(A) The frequency and severity of overcrowding in
Which one of the following most accurately describes
the past have been roughly proportional to the
the role played in the argumentation by the statement
size of world population.
that ice-age nomads are commonly portrayed as
(B) The frequency and severity of war and crime
primarily big-game hunters?
have generally increased in the past century,
and world population also increased during that (A) It is a premise used as support for the overall
period. conclusion of the anthropologist’s argument.
(C) Some forms of aggressive, competitive behavior, (B) It is a clarification of one of the premises of the
including war, tend to occur even in situations in anthropologist’s argument.
which human beings are not overcrowded. (C) It is an objection that the anthropologist raises
(D) With respect to its effect on behavior, rush-hour against an opposing theory.
traffic is an example of a situation in which (D) It is the overall conclusion of the anthropologist’s
human beings are overcrowded. argument.
(E) Most mammals inhabiting a given region exhibit (E) It describes a claim that the anthropologist
increasingly aggressive, competitive behavior as attempts to refute.
their population density in that region increases.
7. A truly visual art form—for example, painting—is one in
5. Gahagan’s Greenstore sells a large volume of plants. The which time plays no essential role. Though it takes time
vast majority are sold wholesale to commercial buyers, to look at a painting, there is no fixed order in which one
most of them to landscape contractors. Gahagan’s also must look at its parts, and no fixed amount of time one
sells gardening implements, most of which are purchased must spend examining it. In contrast, most art forms,
retail by home gardeners. such as poetry and music, are essentially temporal; that
is, they require performance, which means they must
Which one of the following is most strongly supported
be experienced in a fixed order and over a roughly fixed
by the information above?
amount of time. Poetry, for instance, though often written
(A) Gahagan’s makes a larger profit from the sale of down and thus seemingly a visual art, actually must
plants than from the sale of all other products be performed, even if the performance is only a silent
combined. reading to oneself.
(B) Most of those who make regular wholesale
If the statements above are true, then on the basis of
purchases from Gahagan’s have never purchased
them which one of the following must be true?
gardening implements from Gahagan’s.
(C) There are more commercial buyers than home (A) Truly visual art forms do not essentially involve
gardeners among Gahagan’s regular customers. performance.
(D) Gahagan’s sells a few gardening implements (B) Poetry is less like music than it is like painting.
wholesale to landscape contractors. (C) Spatiality and temporality are mutually exclusive
(E) A plant purchased from Gahagan’s is more components of art forms.
likely to have been purchased by a landscape (D) Art forms that must be examined for an extended
contractor than by a home gardener. period of time in order to be understood are
essentially temporal.
(E) Anything capable of being performed is either
musical or poetic, or both musical and poetic.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

4 -30-
4 4 4 4 4
8. Actors generally learn their lines by focusing on the 10. While the population of city X is approximately one-half
meanings of the words, the motivations of the characters that of city Y, the number of city X residents who are
uttering them, and the physical and emotional dimensions patients in hospitals is only one-fourth that of the number
of their own performances. It seems likely that memory of city Y residents who are patients in hospitals.
can be enhanced by factors such as emotion, action, and
Each of the following, if true, contributes to an
context, so this approach is probably more effective than
explanation of the difference in the number of residents
mere rote memorization.
who are patients in hospitals except:
Each of the following, if true, adds support for the
(A) Preventive health programs are more prevalent in
conclusion drawn above except:
city X than in city Y.
(A) Test subjects are best able to remember items (B) The hospitals in city X are noted as leaders
on a shopping list when they are also told how in employing outpatient treatment wherever
those items will be used. possible.
(B) The actors who are able to deliver the greatest (C) The drinking water of city Y has dangerously
amount of dialogue most effortlessly are those high levels of pollutants, whereas this is not the
who have spent the most time learning their case for city X.
lines. (D) The hospitals in city Y are of very high quality,
(C) Actors are more readily able to remember lines and residents of city X are often sent there for
learned while making an appropriate motion— treatment.
for example, walking across a stage—than lines (E) The lifestyle in city X is significantly less
learned without an accompanying action. stressful than the lifestyle in city Y.
(D) People who try to memorize information
by imagining that they are conveying it to 11. A law is futile unless most of the parties subject
somebody else who needs the information show to it abide by it willingly. Thus, there can be no
higher retention than those who try to memorize comprehensive international solution to the problem of
the material by rote. pollution, since few nations would willingly give up their
(E) People with no acting experience are able to power over their own industries.
memorize and deliver lines from a play more Which one of the following is an assumption required by
accurately after they have read and understood the argument?
the entire play.
(A) A comprehensive solution to the problems of
9. Journalists often claim that their investigation of the pollution would require major changes in
private lives of political leaders is an effort to improve international law.
society by forcing the powerful to conform to the same (B) Some nations would be required to give up some
standards of conduct as the less powerful. In reality, of their power over their own industries as part
however, the tactic is detrimental to society. It makes of any comprehensive solution to the problem of
public figures more concerned with mere appearances, pollution.
and makes everyone else cynical about the character of (C) If most nations were willing to abide by
their leaders. international law, then there could be a
comprehensive solution to the problem of
The claim that journalistic investigation of the private
pollution.
lives of political leaders is an effort to improve society
(D) The problems created by pollution affect most
plays which one of the following roles in the argument?
of the world’s nations, but the pollution itself
(A) It is a claim that the argument attempts to refute. is produced by the industries of relatively few
(B) It mentions a justification that is sometimes nations.
offered for a practice that, the argument (E) Most of the current international laws concerning
concludes, has undesirable consequences. pollution do not require nations to give up any
(C) It is cited as evidence often given for an assertion of their power over their own industries.
that the argument concludes is false.
(D) It describes a phenomenon that, according to the
argument, is much less damaging to society than
journalists often assume.
(E) It gives an example of a phenomenon that the
argument contends has very different effects GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
from those it is generally assumed by everyone
to have.
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4
12. Ecologist: El Niño, a global weather phenomenon that 14. Science writer: Scientists often accept a scientific
occurs once every several years, is expected to argument largely for social reasons, such as the
become more frequent in coming decades due to argument’s acceptance by other scientists or the
the global warming caused by air pollution. In prestige of the scientist making the argument.
region T, El Niño causes heavy winter rainfall. But this is not at all to the sciences’ detriment,
Since rodent populations typically increase for similar social factors strongly influence every
during long periods of sustained rain, it is likely human endeavor.
that average rodent populations in region T will
The science writer’s argument is most vulnerable to
also increase in coming decades.
criticism on the grounds that it
Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken
(A) takes for granted that the only legitimate reasons
the ecologist’s argument?
for accepting an argument are social reasons
(A) In region T, there is typically much less rainfall in (B) takes for granted that whether a behavior
summer than there is in winter. obstructs the achievement of a particular
(B) Rodent populations in region T often diminish endeavor’s goals depends on the prevalence of
during long periods in which there are no heavy comparable behaviors in other endeavors
rains. (C) fails to consider the possibility that scientists who
(C) In many regions that, on average, experience accept an argument largely for social reasons
substantially more winter rainfall than also generally consider relevant scientific
region T does, average rodent populations are evidence before accepting the argument
considerably lower than they are in region T. (D) fails to consider the possibility that many
(D) In region T, winters marked by relatively high scientists are unaware that they usually accept
rainfall have usually not been marked by long scientific arguments largely for social reasons
periods of sustained rain. (E) takes for granted that a behavior that is not
(E) The global warming caused by air pollution detrimental to the sciences will not be
produces a number of effects, other than the detrimental to any other human endeavor
increase in the frequency of El Niño, that could
affect rodent populations. 15. Historian: Scholars writing histories of an era’s business
practices must, of course, analyze the practices
13. If the natural history museum stays within this year’s and strategies employed by firms of that era.
budget, it will be unable to stay within next year’s But historians probably study successful firms
budget, for renovating next year will make the museum’s more frequently than they do unsuccessful firms.
expenditures exceed next year’s very tight budget. After Therefore, it is reasonable to think that business
all, the museum will have to renovate next year if it histories overestimate the successes of past
does not do so this year, because work from previous businesses.
renovations is deteriorating rapidly.
Which one of the following would, if true, most support
The argument’s conclusion can be properly inferred if the historian’s argument?
which one of the following is assumed?
(A) The specific factors that cause businesses to do
(A) The museum will stay within this year’s budget. poorly are often not inferable from historical
(B) This year’s budget is less than next year’s budget. records of business activity.
(C) The museum will not renovate next year. (B) Those who study past first-person accounts of
(D) The museum will exceed this year’s budget if it business strategies inevitably approach them
renovates this year. with certain present-day cultural assumptions.
(E) The museum will stay within this year’s budget if (C) The many public legal documents that firms
it does not renovate this year. have had to file provide a record that is more
objective than that provided by the firms’ own
internal documents.
(D) The records of businesses that have gone
bankrupt are destroyed more frequently than the
records of other businesses.
(E) Scholars who study businesses of the past are
usually trained in the effective techniques of
business administration.

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16. Manager: I plan to put together a successful marketing 17. Different cultures have independently reached the
team by choosing highly skilled, independent conclusion that ingesting honey daily promotes vigor
workers who prefer not to work as part of a and longevity. Thus, unless strong evidence emerges
tightly knit group. This strategy is bound to contradicting this conclusion, we should assume that it
succeed because recent research shows that when is true.
a common purpose is shared, the flexibility of
The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is
loosely bound groups enables them to function
most similar to that in the argument above?
better than tightly knit ones.
(A) Three engineers have inspected the bridge, and
The reasoning in the manager’s argument is most
each has independently concluded that it is safe.
vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument
So unless good evidence emerges that the bridge
(A) presumes that factors that are collectively is unsafe, it should be considered safe.
sufficient for success are also individually (B) Numerous studies have concluded that most
necessary for success people benefit from weight-training exercises.
(B) relies on research that has no apparent relevance Thus, since no other form of exercise has been
to the manager’s proposed plan shown to be more beneficial, most people should
(C) takes for granted that flexible teams always be encouraged to exercise with weights.
function significantly better than inflexible (C) The members of an independent group of
teams scientists have concluded that human activities
(D) overlooks the possibility that people who prefer over the last century have disrupted global
not to work in tightly knit groups may have weather patterns. Thus, unless these scientists
difficulty committing to a common purpose are working from questionable assumptions, we
(E) confuses the goals that the manager is seeking should conclude that their assessment is correct.
to achieve with the goals that must be held in (D) Three theater critics, none of whom had any
common by the members of the marketing team influence on the others, said that Tales in
Tokyo was not worth the price of admission.
Thus, unless each of these critics happened to
attend the play on the same night, it is unlikely
that the play will be successful.
(E) Several different physicians examined Janet, and
none could agree on a diagnosis. Therefore,
unless new evidence shows that Janet is
unhealthy, she should instead assume that she is
healthy.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.

4 4 4 4 4 -33-
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18. Land developer: In a certain nation, stringent regulations 20. Azalea bushes flourish in acidic soil. Clay soil, while
prevent private landowners from building on rarely acidic, can be mixed with other types of soil to
their land if any endangered species is present create a soil that is acidic. Hence, azalea bushes can be
on it. These regulations make the presence of made to flourish in clay soil.
endangered species a severe financial liability
Which one of the following is an assumption on which
for many landowners and thereby discourage
the argument depends?
the landowners from protecting the endangered
species on their land. Therefore, endangered (A) Mixing an acidic soil with another type of soil
species would very likely not be harmed by always results in an acidic soil.
removal of the regulations on land development. (B) Clay soil that is mixed with certain other types of
soil is still clay soil.
The reasoning in the land developer’s argument is most
(C) Whenever clay soil is mixed with other types of
vulnerable to criticism on which one of the following
soil, an acidic soil results.
grounds?
(D) Some plants do not flourish in acidic soil.
(A) It confuses a condition whose presence would (E) Azalea bushes do as well in treated clay soils as
be required in order for a certain result to be in naturally acidic soils.
produced with a condition whose presence
would be required to prevent that result from 21. Company policy: Eligible employees will be granted up
occurring. to six weeks of paid parental leave following
(B) It justifies a claim containing a value judgment the birth or adoption of a child. To be eligible,
solely on the basis of factual claims that do not an employee must apply for the benefit at least
in themselves entail that value judgment. three months prior to the beginning of the leave
(C) It unjustifiably overlooks the possibility that period and must have at least one year of full-
even if certain factors tend to produce a given time employment with the company at the time of
effect, they may be likely to produce stronger application.
countervailing effects as well. Which one of the following judgments most closely
(D) It fails to take into account the possibility that conforms to the company policy?
policies that are not in the interest of land
developers may well be in the interest of (A) Mac is a full-time employee who has been with
landowners. the company for exactly one year. He just
(E) It fails to account for potential reactions from adopted a child, and he applied for parental
private landowners who do not have any leave three months ago, so Mac should be
endangered species on their land. granted the leave.
(B) Sara has worked full-time for the company for
19. I promised Bernie that I would answer his question. three years, and she applied for parental leave
He asked me whether his project had been approved. I four months before the recent birth of her child.
misunderstood and thought he had asked whether I had However, she should not be granted the leave
approved it. I said, truthfully, “I would approve it if I because she took a leave of absence within the
could, but I don’t have the authority to do so—that is up past year.
to Dorothy, and she hasn’t yet made a decision.” Thus, I (C) Hal, a second-year, full-time employee, applied
fulfilled my promise to Bernie. for parental leave three months ago. He wishes
to stay at home for only two weeks following
Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the
the impending birth of his child, so the company
conclusion above to be properly drawn?
should not grant him parental leave.
(A) All there is to answering a question is giving the (D) Dudley has worked part-time for the company
questioner the information requested. for the past seven years. He applied for parental
(B) No person can be held accountable for another leave over three months before the birth of his
person’s decisions. child, so it should be granted
(C) The person responsible for a decision is the one to him.
who should explain the decision. (E) Maria has worked full-time for the company for
(D) One need not fulfill a promise in order to do the the past two years and applied for parental leave
best that could be done to fulfill it. six months prior to her adoption of a child, so
(E) Making a promise always obliges a person to she should be granted parental leave.
keep it.

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4 -34-
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22. An effective acting performance does not call the 24. A movie studio’s script readers discard all proposed
audience’s attention to the fact that it is a performance. scripts that are not submitted by agents, and they discard
That would make it more difficult for the audience to all scripts that are incorrectly formatted. So a script that
empathize with the character the actor is playing, and is submitted by an agent and formatted correctly will not
effective dramatic performances do not detract from the be discarded by the studio’s script readers.
audience’s appreciation of a play.
Which one of the following exhibits a flawed pattern of
The argument’s conclusion follows logically from the reasoning that most closely parallels that in the argument
premises if which one of the following is assumed? above?
(A) An audience will not completely appreciate a (A) To be accepted, entries in the essay contest must
play unless all of the acting performances in the be postmarked by the deadline and accompanied
play are effective. by a completed entry form. March 21 was the
(B) As long as an acting performance does not deadline. Thus, an entry that is accompanied
call the audience’s attention to the fact that it by a completed entry form but postmarked
is a performance, it will not detract from the March 22 will not be accepted.
audience’s appreciation of a play. (B) If your kitchen is well organized and you are
(C) If a performance by an actor in a play enhances a good cook, the meals you prepare will be
the audience’s appreciation of the play, then the delicious. The dinner Jon prepared last week
play as a whole is better as a result. was not at all tasty, so his kitchen must not be
(D) An effective dramatic performance in a play will well organized.
enhance the audience’s appreciation of the play. (C) If Bob starts exercising daily, he will improve his
(E) A dramatic performance that makes it more fitness level. His fitness level will also improve
difficult for the audience to empathize with the if he quits smoking. So if he refuses to exercise
actor’s character detracts from the audience’s and continues to smoke, his fitness level is not
appreciation of the play. going to improve.
(D) The police are allowed to ticket any parked car
23. The computer software industry is rapidly growing and that does not have a parking permit. They are
has been for some time. For a company to grow rapidly, also allowed to ticket any parked car whose
it must be innovative, which means it must have creative parking permit has expired. Thus, the police are
employees or a management that is open to new ideas. going to ticket Ruta’s car, for her parking permit
Logichut is a software company that is said to have no has expired.
creative employees. If so, its management is evidently (E) Most dogs that have attended obedience classes
open to new ideas. respond correctly to basic commands, but only
The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it some are able to perform advanced tricks. Thus,
any dog that has attended obedience classes and
(A) illicitly presumes that because a set of things has performs advanced tricks will be able to respond
a certain property, each member of that set has correctly to basic commands.
the property
(B) confuses a necessary condition for a company’s
being innovative with a sufficient condition for a
company’s being innovative
(C) illicitly concludes that because many people
believe something, it must be true
GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE.
(D) confuses a necessary condition for a company
to grow rapidly with a sufficient condition for a
company to grow rapidly
(E) overlooks the possibility that a software company
could have both creative employees and a
management that is open to new ideas
4 4 4 4 4 -35-
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25. Translator: Dr. Abner, apparently scornful of my 26. Letter to the editor: In calling on antinuclear activists to
translation of an ancient poem on the grounds “live up to their own ideals” and help find better
that it is inaccurate, says that my translation ways of disposing of nuclear waste, advocates of
produces in most readers feelings other than nuclear power merely prove their own dishonesty.
those the original text was intended to produce. Everyone knows that antinuclear activists
However, as Dr. Abner should realize, we do not want the world rid of nuclear power as soon
know how people originally responded to the as possible, and they believe any other option
poem or how its author intended them to respond. is environmentally irresponsible. But finding
So Dr. Abner’s criticism is unjustified. better ways of disposing of nuclear waste would
probably make nuclear power acceptable to more
The translator’s argument is flawed in that it
people and thus likelier to continue.
(A) fails to adequately address the possibility that the
Which one of the following principles, if valid, most
original poem had more than one author
helps to justify the reasoning in the argument?
(B) draws a conclusion purely on the basis of an
appeal to popular opinion (A) If other options are available, it is irresponsible to
(C) fails to adequately address the possibility that the take a possibly beneficial course of action that
original text was not intended to produce any has the potential of causing harm.
particular feelings in the reader (B) It is better to eliminate a potentially harmful
(D) rejects an argument merely because of the practice than to try to improve it, if improving
circumstances of the person who offered it it will not significantly reduce its capacity to
(E) concludes that we cannot know that certain cause harm.
effects were not what the author intended merely (C) If one is calling on people to act in a way that
because we do not know what specific effects will possibly undermine their goals, it is
the author did intend dishonest to ask that they do so for the sake of
their ideals.
(D) It is irresponsible to try to induce others to find a
practice acceptable if it is not one’s own belief
that that practice is acceptable.
(E) It is dishonest to ask people to live up to their
ideals without revealing whether one’s own
ideals conflict with theirs.

S T O P
IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, YOU MAY CHECK YOUR WORK ON THIS SECTION ONLY.
DO NOT WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION IN THE TEST.
-36-

Acknowledgment is made to the following sources from which material has been adapted for use in
this test:

Steven Ashley, “It’s Not Easy Being Green” in Scientific American. ©2002 by Scientific American, Inc.
Scott DeVeaux, The Birth of Bebop. ©1997 by The Regents of the University of California.
Freeman J. Dyson, “One in a Million” in New York Review of Books. ©2004 by NYREV, Inc.
Vanessa Finch, “The Measures of Insolvency Law” in Oxford Journal of Legal Studies. ©1997 by Oxford
University Press.
Geoffrey W. G. Leane, “Testing Some Theories About Law” in Melbourne University Law Review. ©1995
by Melbourne University Law Review Association.
Jeff Poling, “Gobi Dinosaurs Killed by Rainstorms, Not Sandstorms” in Dinosauria website. ©1998 by
Jeff Poling.
“Shaking Up the Day.” ©1988 by Discover, Inc.
Michael Shermer, “Freeman Dyson, Miracles, and the Belief in the Paranormal” in eSkeptic newsletter.
©2004 by The Skeptics Society and Michael Shermer.
John Timpane, “How to Convince a Reluctant Scientist” in Scientific American. ©1995 by Scientific
American, Inc.
Jack Weatherford, Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World. ©1988 by
Jack McIver Weatherford.
 -37-

Computing Your Score

Directions: Score Conversion Chart

1. Use the Answer Key on the next page to check Use the table below to convert your raw score to the
your answers. corresponding 120–180 scaled score for PrepTest 156.

2. Use the Scoring Worksheet below to compute

your raw score. Raw Score Scaled Score Raw Score Scaled Score
78 180 39 147
3. Use the Score Conversion Chart to convert
your raw score into the 120–180 scale.* 77 180 38 147
76 179 37 146
75 177 36 145
Scoring Worksheet
74 175 35 144
1. Enter the number of questions you 73 174 34 144
answered correctly in each section. 72 173 33 143
Number 71 171 32 142
Correct 70 170 31 141
69 169 30 140
SECTION I Unscored
____________
68 168 29 140
SECTION II ____________ 67 168 28 139
SECTION III ____________ 66 167 27 138
SECTION IV ____________ 65 166 26 137
2. Enter the sum here: ____________ 64 165 25 136
This is your 63 164 24 135
Raw Score. 62 164 23 134
61 163 22 133
60 162 21 132
59 161 20 131
58 161 19 130
57 160 18 128
56 159 17 127
55 159 16 126
54 158 15 124
53 157 14 123
52 157 13 121
51 156 12 120
50 155 11 120
49 155 10 120
48 154 9 120
47 153 8 120
46 152 7 120
45 152 6 120
44 151 5 120
43 150 4 120
*Scores are reported on a 120–180 score scale, with 120 42 150 3 120
being the lowest possible score and 180 being the highest
possible score. 41 149 2 120
40 148 1 120
0 120
-38-

Answer Key

Question Section I* Section II Section III Section IV

1 C A B D
2 C B E C
3 D C B D
4 E E D C
5 D B A E
6 E D B E
7 A A A A
8 C E D B
9 B E D B
10 D C C D
11 C D E B
12 A C C D
13 E E E D
14 D D B B
15 B A A D
16 C A B D
17 D D C A
18 C C D C
19 A B D A
20 E C C B
21 B D D E
22 D C C E
23 C A C A
24 A A D C
25 E B C E
26 B A C
27 E D

*Section I is unscored. The number of items answered correctly in Section I should not be added to the raw score.
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A B C D E 1 »»»»»
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A B C D E

t 2 \\\\\
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A B C D E 2 \\\\\
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A B C D E 2 \\\\\
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A B C D E 2 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 3 \\\\\
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A B C D E 3 \\\\\
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A B C D E 3 \\\\\
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A B C D E 3 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 4 \\\\\
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A B C D E 4 \\\\\
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A B C D E 4 \\\\\
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A B C D E 4 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 5 \\\\\
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A B C D E 5 \\\\\
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A B C D E 5 \\\\\
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A B C D E 5 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 6 \\\\\
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A B C D E 6 \\\\\
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A B C D E 6 \\\\\
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A B C D E 6 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 7 \\\\\
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A B C D E 7 \\\\\
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A B C D E 7 \\\\\
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A B C D E 7 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 8 \\\\\
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A B C D E 8 \\\\\
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A B C D E 8 \\\\\
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A B C D E 8 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 9 \\\\\
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A B C D E 9 \\\\\
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A B C D E 9 \\\\\
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A B C D E 9 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 10 \\\\\
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A B C D E 10 \\\\\
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A B C D E 10 \\\\\
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A B C D E 10 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 11 \\\\\
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A B C D E 11 \\\\\
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A B C D E 11 \\\\\
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A B C D E 11 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 12 \\\\\
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A B C D E 12 \\\\\
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A B C D E 12 \\\\\
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A B C D E 12 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 13 \\\\\
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A B C D E 13 \\\\\
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A B C D E 13 \\\\\
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A B C D E 13 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 14 \\\\\
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A B C D E 14 \\\\\
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A B C D E 14 \\\\\
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A B C D E 14 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 15 \\\\\
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A B C D E 15 \\\\\
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A B C D E 15 \\\\\
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A B C D E 15 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 16 \\\\\
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A B C D E 16 \\\\\
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A B C D E 16 \\\\\
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A B C D E 16 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 17 \\\\\
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A B C D E 17 \\\\\
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A B C D E 17 \\\\\
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A B C D E 17 \\\\\
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t 18 \\\\\
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A B C D E 18 \\\\\
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A B C D E 18 \\\\\
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A B C D E 18 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 19 \\\\\
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A B C D E 19 \\\\\
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A B C D E 19 \\\\\
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A B C D E 19 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 20 \\\\\
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A B C D E 20 \\\\\
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A B C D E 20 \\\\\
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A B C D E 20 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 21 \\\\\
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A B C D E 21 \\\\\
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A B C D E 21 \\\\\
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A B C D E 21 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 22 \\\\\
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A B C D E 22 \\\\\
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A B C D E 22 \\\\\
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A B C D E 22 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 23 \\\\\
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A B C D E 23 \\\\\
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A B C D E 23 \\\\\
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A B C D E 23 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 24 \\\\\
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A B C D E 24 \\\\\
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A B C D E 24 \\\\\
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A B C D E 24 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 25 \\\\\
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A B C D E 25 \\\\\
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A B C D E 25 \\\\\
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A B C D E 25 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 26 \\\\\
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A B C D E 26 \\\\\
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A B C D E 26 \\\\\
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A B C D E 26 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 27 \\\\\
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A B C D E 27 \\\\\
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A B C D E 27 \\\\\
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A B C D E 27 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 28 \\\\\
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A B C D E 28 \\\\\
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A B C D E 28 \\\\\
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A B C D E 28 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 29 \\\\\
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A B C D E 29 \\\\\
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A B C D E 29 \\\\\
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A B C D E 29 \\\\\
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A B C D E

t 30 \\\\\
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A B C D E 30 \\\\\
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A B C D E 30 \\\\\
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A B C D E 30 \\\\\
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A B C D E

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