0038-075X/07/17210-751–758 October 2007

Soil Science Vol. 172, No. 10

Copyright * 2007 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Inc. Printed in U.S.A.

SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED

WITH WASTE FOUNDRY SANDS
Robert S. Dungan1, Brad D. Lee2, Peter Shouse3, and Jason P. de Koff 2

Benef icial uses are being sought af ter for the large quantities of waste
foundry sand (WFS) that are landfilled. Potential applications include
their use in synthetic soils and incorporation into agricultural soils. In
this laboratory study, we investigated the saturated hydraulic conduc-
tivity (Ks) of sandy loam, loam, silty clay, and clay soils that were
blended with WFS. Each soil was blended with 0% to 50% green sand
(bentonite-coated sand) from an iron and aluminum foundry and a
phenolic urethane no-bake sand from a steel foundry. The soils and
foundry blends were packed into f ixed-wall columns, and Ks was
assessed using the constant and falling head methods. The results showed
that Ks generally increased in a linear manner as the WFS blending ratio
was increased in the soils. Compared with soil only, Ks increases were the
greatest in the loam and silty clay soils; at 50% WFS, Ks was as much as
235- and 600-fold higher, respectively. However, Ks was lower over the
blending range in soils containing green sands that were predominantly
coated with sodium bentonite as compared with calcium bentonite. We
attribute this to the high swelling properties of sodium bentonite. (Soil
Science 2007;172:751–758)

Key words: Beneficial use, foundry sand, green sand, pedotransfer

function, saturated hydraulic conductivity.

reclaim signif icant portions of benef icially reusable by the U.S. Environmental
F OUNDRIES
their molding and core sands; however,
sands can only be reused a finite number of
Protection Agency (2002). One particular bene-
ficial use that has gained recent notice is their
times because of changes in grain shape and size. substitution for virgin sands in synthetic soils
Metal-casting molds consist largely of silica sand ( Jing and Barnes, 1993; Lindsay and Logan,
and, depending upon the molding process, may 2005). The soil manufacturing process generally
also contain sodium and/or calcium bentonite involves the blending of a low-grade soil with
clay and carbonaceous additives (e.g., bitumi- sand and an organic additive.
nous coal, cellulose additives) or organic resin Although untested to date, another potential
binders (Carey, 2002). It is estimated that 9 to beneficial use for WFS is as an amendment in
13 million tons of waste foundry sand (WFS) are agricultural soils. Fine-textured soils (e.g., silty
generated annually, with the bulk being land- clay, clay) may benefit the most from WFS
filled as nonhazardous waste. Although only applications, as these soils often drain very
about 10% is being used outside of the foundry, slowly and remain wet for long periods. Assum-
much of the landf illed sand has been deemed ing a perched water table or restrictive subsur-
face horizon is not present, changing the soil
1Environmental Management and Byproduct Utilization Lab., USDA-ARS, Bldg. texture in the surface horizon toward a loam or
306, 10300 Baltimore Ave, Beltsville, MD 20705. Dr. Dungan is corresponding sandy loam could potentially improve water
author. E-mail: robert.dungan@ars.usda.gov
movement. A laboratory study to investigate the
2Dept. of Agronomy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907. influence of WFS on soil physical properties was
3George E. Brown, Jr., Salinity Laboratory, USDA-ARS, Riverside, CA 92507. conducted by McCoy (1998). Progressive
Received Nov. 15, 2006; accepted May 30, 2007. increases in the sand content of the soils, while
DOI: 10.1097/SS.0b013e31812f4f72 maintaining a low organic matter content, lead

751

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752 DUNGAN, ET AL. SOIL SCIENCE

to the greatest reductions of soil compressibility The three iron green sands (IGSs), three
and increases of the air-f illed porosity and aluminum green sands (AGSs), and two steel
saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ks). phenolic urethane no-bake sands (NBSs) were
Saturated hydraulic conductivity is an shipped directly from the foundries and stored at
important soil parameter used to measure the room temperature as received. Particle size
ability of a soil to transmit water. Soils with high distribution curves for the WFSs are shown in
clay content generally have lower Ks than sandy Fig. 1; the main components of the sands are
soils because the pore size distribution in sandy shown in Table 2.
soils favors large pores, although the total pore
space in clayey soils is greater (U.S. Department Soil Blending
of Agriculture, 1993). Because water movement Each soil was blended with either an IGS,
is very important in high-foot traf fic soils, large AGS, or NBS. The soils were blended in 10%
amounts of sand are commonly used in synthetic increments to contain from 0% to 50% WFS
soils destined for putting greens and athletic (wt./wt., dry weight basis). Before blending, the
fields (Swartz and Kardos, 1963; Brown and WFSs were passed through a 2-mm sieve to
Duble, 1975; Davis, 1978; Taylor and Blake, remove any metal fragments and debris. Each of
1979; Baker, 1983). In this study, we assessed Ks the blends was homogenized in a V-mixer
in four agricultural soils blended with 0% to 50% (Blendmaster Lab Blender; Paterson-Kelly, East
WFS (dry weight basis). In addition, we used Stroudsburg, PA) for 5 min. The sand, silt, and
ROSETTA (Schaap et al., 2001) as a pedo- clay fractions of the soils, WFSs, and blends
transfer function (PTF) to compare estimated were determined using the pipette method (Gee
and measured Ks values in the pure soils and and Bauder, 1986). The particle size data for
blends. Studies that characterize the physical each soil and blend are given in Table 3.
properties of soil-foundry sand blends are
needed because of the interest in using WFS in Column Experiments
synthetic soils or applying them to agricultural Laboratory Ks of the pure soils and foundry
fields. blends were measured using the constant head
method as described by Klute and Dirksen
MATERIALS AND METHODS (1986). Fixed-wall acrylic columns (Soil Mea-
surement Systems, Tucson, AZ) measuring 7.62
Soils and WFSs cm (height)
7.62 cm (diameter) were packed
The soils used for the Ks studies were the with the blends to a bulk density (>b) ranging
Bearden sandy loam (fine-silty, mixed, super- from 1.1 to 1.4 g cmj3. The >b of the foundry
active, frigid Aeric Calciaquolls), Regent loam blends was determined from the oven-dry
(fine, smectitic, frigid Vertic Argiustolls), Toledo weight and soil volume before packing. The
silty clay (fine, illitic, nonacid, mesic Mollic columns were packed in 2.54-cm increments
Endoaquepts), and Lillis clay (very-fine, smec- and then gradually saturated by capillarity for 3
titic, thermic Halic Haploxererts). Each soil was days with room temperature tap water (electrical
collected from the Ap horizon, air-dried, and conductivity = 106 6S cmj1; pH = 7.3). Both
stored at room temperature. Selected soil physical column ends were fitted with nylon mesh
and chemical properties are shown in Table 1. screens and capped with O-ring–containing

TABLE 1
Selected soil chemical and physical properties
Soil texture Soil series pH. EC- (6S cmj1) C‘ (%) OMP (%) CEC# (cmolc kgj1) % Sand % Silt % Clay
Sandy loam Bearden 7.3 196 2.66 2.6 23.5 57 42 2
Loam Regent 6.2 99 2.32 3.8 23.3 27 48 25
Silty clay Toledo 5.8 57 1.80 3.1 24.1 3 51 45
Clay Lillis 7.3 454 0.94 1.9 24.8 19 39 41
.
Ratio of deionized water to soil: 1:1.
-
EC = electrical conductivity.
‘
C = carbon, as determined by the combustion method.
P
OM = organic matter.
#
CEC = cation exchange capacity.

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VOL. 172 ~ NO. 10 SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED 753

measure Ks when less than 1
10j5 cm sj1. In

this case, a maximum pressure head of 745 mm
was applied, and the change in hydraulic head
was measured 5 times with 1-min intervals.
Pedotransfer Function
The ROSETTA program (Schaap et al.,
2001) was used as a PTF to estimate Ks in the
soils and blends. Input data consisted of the
percentage of sand, silt, and clay and bulk density.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Fig. 1. Particle size distribution curves for the WFSs.

Figure 2 shows the Ks of Bearden sandy
loam when blended with IGS-1, AGS-1, or
NBS-1. The >b of the IGS-1 and AGS-1 blends
end-plate assemblies. Pressure heads for the was 1.2 g cmj3; the NBS-1 blends were packed
foundry blends ranged from 100 to 600 mm to 1.4 g cmj3. The associated soil-only samples
and were applied to the column bottom using a were also packed to the same >b, which explains
Mariotte bottle. After steady-state flow was the difference in Ks seen at 0% WFS. The Ks of
obtained, the outflow was measured 15 times Bearden soil without WFS at a >b of 1.2 and 1.4
(group of five measurements at three different g cmj3 were 1.1
10j4 and 5.3
10j6 cm
pressure heads) using an analytical balance in sj1, respectively. The NBS-1 blends were
timed increments. The column outflow under packed to a higher >b because these blends
the three different pressure heads was used to would liquefy when packed at >b G 1.4 g cmj3
calculate Ks using: and wetted (data not shown). We attribute this
Ks ¼ QL=A$ H ð1Þ
to the fact that the NBSs exhibit a slight
hydrophobic behavior due to their phenolic
where Ks is the saturated hydraulic conductivity urethane coating. Given that NBS-1 is not clay
(L Tj1), Q is the volume of water flowing per coated, one might expect incremental additions
unit time (L3 Tj1), L is the length of the sample of this sand to result in considerable increases in
(L), A is the cross-sectional area of the sample Ks compared with the green sands. Although Ks
(L2), and $H is the change in hydraulic head (L). of the NBS-1 blends was lower than that of the
The values for Ks were converted to cm sj1. green sand blends as a result of the higher >b of
Using the same column setup, the falling head 1.4 g cmj3, there was a 34-fold increase in Ks
method (Klute and Dirksen, 1986) was used to when the NBS-1 content was increased from

TABLE 2
Composition of the foundry molding sands before casting
% (Dry weight)
Sample Molding type Metal poured Sodium Calcium Bituminous
Silica sand Leonardite. Cellulose
bentonite bentonite coal
IGS-1 Green sand -
Iron 91.0 4.4 2.6 1.8 0.2 na‘
IGS-2 Green sand Iron 87.8 1.8 5.4 5.0 na na
IGS-3 Green sand Iron 89.0 6.6 1.4 2.5 na 0.5
AGS-1 Green sand Aluminum 93.4 na 6.6 na na na
AGS-2 Green sand Aluminum 91.9 4.0 na 1.1 na 3.0
AGS-3 Green sand Aluminum 94.0 na 6.0 na na na
NBS-1 PU no-bakeP Steel 100.0 na na na na na
NBS-2 PU no-bake Steel 100.0 na na na na na
.
A soft brown coal-like deposit usually found in conjunction with lignite.
-
Green sand is bentonite-coated sand.
‘
na = not applicable.
P
PU no-bake = phenolic urethane-coated sand using the no-bake process.

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754 DUNGAN, ET AL. SOIL SCIENCE

TABLE 3
Particle size analysis and bulk densities of the soils and blends
Sand Silt Clay j3 Sand Silt Clay j3
>b (g cm ) >b (g cm )
- - - - - - -(%)- - - - - - - - - - - - - -(%)- - - - - -
Bearden sandy loam 57 42 2 1.2/1.4 Toledo silty clay 3 51 45 1.1
IGS-1 IGS-3
10% 59 36 5 1.2 10% 13 46 42 1.1
20% 60 34 6 20% 20 42 39
30% 64 28 8 30% 26 38 35
40% 69 23 8 40% 35 34 31
50% 71 20 8 50% 44 29 27
AGS-1 AGS-3
10% 59 35 6 1.2 10% 9 43 48 1.1
20% 64 31 5 20% 20 51 30
30% 65 29 6 30% 29 37 34
40% 72 24 5 40% 34 35 31
50% 74 22 4 50% 44 25 31
NBS-1 NBS-2
10% 55 32 14 1.4 10% 14 46 40 1.1
20% 60 27 12 20% 25 40 35
30% 65 24 10 30% 34 36 30
40% 70 20 9 40% 42 32 26
50% 77 15 8 50% 55 24 21

Regent loam 27 48 25 1.2 Lillis clay 19 39 41 1.1

IGS-2 IGS-3
10% 33 43 24 1.2 10% 29 35 36 1.1
20% 41 37 22 20% 37 32 31
30% 48 32 20 30% 41 29 30
40% 54 29 17 40% 48 25 27
50% 63 24 13 50% 53 22 25
AGS-2 AGS-3
10% 34 44 22 1.2 10% 27 36 37 1.1
20% 36 43 21 20% 31 34 35
30% 46 36 18 30% 41 28 30
40% 54 31 15 40% 46 25 29
50% 60 26 14 50% 54 21 25
NBS-1 NBS-2
10% 25 48 27 1.2 10% 25 36 39 1.1
20% 41 38 22 20% 28 36 36
30% 49 32 19 30% 39 33 28
40% 56 27 16 40% 49 26 25
50% 65 23 12 50% 55 24 21

0% to 50%. In contrast, little increase in Ks coated with 6.6% calcium bentonite. Because
occurred in the IGS-1 blends, with Ks in the sodium bentonite has a much higher swelling
10%, 20%, 30%, and 50% blends being roughly potential than calcium bentonite (Grim and
equivalent to that of soil only. The Ks in the Güven, 1978), it will produce a more tortuous
AGS-1 blends increased linearly up to 50% sand, path for water flow within the pore spaces and
resulting in an 11-fold increase in Ks over soil result in lower Ks.
only. However, the fact that Ks was lower in the Figure 3 shows Ks of Regent loam when
IGS-1 blends than in the AGS-1 blends is not blended with IGS-2, AGS-2, or NBS-1 to a >b
because of differences in particle size distribution of 1.2 g cmj3. The Ks of Regent soil only, also at
(Table 3), but can be explained by the type of a >b of 1.2 g cmj3, was determined to be 6.7

bentonite clay on the green sands (Table 2). 10j6 cm sj1. The addition of IGS-2 to Regent
IGS-1 is coated with 4.4% sodium bentonite soil at 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, and 50% increased
and 2.6% calcium bentonite, and AGS-1 is Ks about 9-, 28-, 49-, 82-, and 190-fold,

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VOL. 172 ~ NO. 10 SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED 755

Fig. 4. The average Ks of the Toledo silty clay blended

Fig. 2. The average Ks of the Bearden sandy loam with IGS-3, AGS-3, or NBS-2. The >b of the soil only and
blended with IGS-1, AGS-1, or NBS-1. The >b of IGS-1 blends was 1.1 g cmj3. Error bars represent the S.D.
and AGS-1 blends and soil only was 1.2 g cmj3; the of 15 readings (group of five readings taken at
NBS-1 blends and soil only were packed to a >b of 1.4 three different pressure head settings). Readings less
g cmj3. Error bars represent the standard deviation than 1
10j5 cm sj1 were determined using the
(S.D.) of 15 readings (group of five readings taken at falling head method. Error bars represent the S.D. of
three different pressure head settings). Readings 5 readings.
less than 1
10j5 cm sj1 were determined using
the falling head method. Error bars represent the S.D.
of 5 readings.
there was a linear response up to 50% sand,
where Ks was 27-fold higher than soil only.
respectively, when compared with soil only. A Although IGS-2 and AGS-2 are both green
similar trend also occurred when Regent soil was sands, Ks in the AGS-2 blends was lower than
blended with the steel no-bake molding sand, in the IGS-2 blends. At the 50% blending ratio,
NBS-1. Because the Regent soil contains 23% there was a 7-fold difference in Ks between the
more clay than Bearden soil (Table 1), the two treatments. Although IGS-2 is predomi-
Regent NBS-1 blends remained intact at >b as nantly coated with calcium bentonite, AGS-2 is
low as 1.2 g cmj3. As a result of the lower >b, exclusively coated with higher swelling sodium
higher Ks were observed than seen in Fig. 2. bentonite (Table 2).
When Regent soil was blended with AGS-2, Figure 4 shows the Ks of the Toledo silty
clay when blended with IGS-3, AGS-3, or

Fig. 3. The average Ks of the Regent loam blended with

IGS-2, AGS-2, or NBS-1. The >b of the soil only and
blends was 1.2 g cmj3. Error bars represent the S.D. of Fig. 5. The average Ks of the Lillis clay blended with IGS-
15 readings (group of five readings taken at three 3, AGS-3, or NBS-2. The >b of the soil only and blends
different pressure head settings). Readings less than 1
was 1.1 g cmj3. Error bars represent the S.D. of 15
10j5 cm sj1 were determined using the falling head readings (group of five readings taken at three different
method. Error bars represent the S.D. of 5 readings. pressure head settings).

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756 DUNGAN, ET AL. SOIL SCIENCE

Fig. 6. Measured and estimated Ks values for the (A) Bearden sandy loam, (B) Regent loam, (C) Toledo silty clay,
and (D) Lillis clay blended with the WFSs.

NBS-2, and packed to a >b of 1.1 g cmj3. The dramatic when compared with the Toledo
Ks of Toledo soil only, which contains 45% clay, AGS-3 and NBS-2 blends (Fig. 4), there was a
was 6.9
10j6 cm sj1 at a >b of 1.1 g cmj3. linear increase in Ks that was similar among all
When the Toledo soil was blended with up to three WFSs. However, Ks of the 40% and 50%
50% AGS-3 or NBS-2, a linear increase in Ks IGS-3 blends was about 4- and 3-fold lower,
occurred as well as a comparable trend between respectively, than Lillis soil containing the same
the two WFSs. The Ks in both 50% blends was amount of AGS-3 and NBS-2. Surprisingly, the
about 600-fold higher than soil only. In con- trend in the IGS-3 blends is one of increasing
trast, Toledo soil blended with 10%, 40%, and Ks, because this did not occur in the Toledo
50% IGS-3 did not result in increases in Ks. IGS-3 blends. This is likely the result of textural
Although Ks peaked at 1.8
10j4 cm sj1 in differences between the Lillis and Toledo soils,
the 30% blend (a 26-fold increase over soil because the Lillis soil contains more sand and
only), it declined to levels lower than that of soil less silt and clay-sized particles (Table 3).
only in the 50% blend. Although IGS-3 and Regardless, Ks was lower in the Lillis IGS-3
AGS-3 contain similar amounts of bentonite blends than in the AGS-3 blends because IGS-3
clay (Table 2), the difference in the clay coating is predominantly coated with sodium bentonite.
once again explains the contradictory results. The sealing material in most of geosynthetic
IGS-3 contains 6.6% sodium bentonite and clay liners is sodium bentonite, because it has a
1.4% calcium bentonite, whereas AGS-3 con- very high expansion capability, high ion
tains only calcium bentonite at 6.0%. exchange capacity, and very low hydraulic
Figure 5 shows the Ks of Lillis clay when conductivity (Egloffstein, 2001). Compared
blended with IGS-3, AGS-3, or NBS-2 and with calcium bentonite, sodium bentonite has
packed to a >b of 1.1 g cmj3. The Ks of Lillis a smaller average crystal size and a more finely
soil only was 7.7
10j5 cm sj1 at a >b of 1.1 g dispersed microstructure, which results in a
cmj3. Although the increases in Ks were not as lower flow-efficient pore space with longer

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VOL. 172 ~ NO. 10 SATURATED HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY OF SOILS BLENDED 757

f low paths around the individual clay particles. ite. This is because sodium bentonite is a
The data in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5 suggest that soils swelling clay, whereas calcium bentonite is a
blended with green sands dominated by sodium nonswelling clay. As the sodium bentonite
bentonite have lower Ks than the same soil swells, it occupies more pore space and impedes
blended with a calcium bentonite-coated green water movement. Blends containing NBS pro-
sand. This fact from our research also reveals an duced Ks results somewhat similar to green sand
important consideration, because there have blends with higher levels of calcium bentonite.
been efforts to classify Ks of a soil matrix Assuming a WFS passes all necessary environ-
according to its U.S. Department of Agriculture mental regulations to be land applied, studies
soil textural class (Clapp and Hornberger, 1978; should be conducted to determine its success in
Loague, 1992; Rawls et al., 1998). Predicting Ks the field. The laboratory Ks data should be used
from the soil textural class should not only cautiously, however, because it may not accu-
consider particle size but also the mineralogy of rately predict what occurs under field condi-
the soil fractions. Although not entirely consid- tions, especially if there are restricting soil layers.
ered in this study, other properties such as Although Ks is an important soil physical
particle size distribution and hydrophobicity of property, consideration should also be given to
the soil and WFS particles warrant attention. infiltration, drainage, compaction, and air per-
The ability of the ROSETTA program to meability. Because the PTF model poorly
estimate Ks in the soil columns based on input predicted Ks of the pure soils and foundry
data consisting of the percentage of sand, silt, and blends, it should not be considered as a replace-
clay, and bulk density is shown in Fig. 6A–D. ment for direct measurements of Ks. Inaccuracy
Overall, the estimated values were very similar of the PTF was not a function of properties of
among the WFSs in each soil, and only minor the WFSs, because it also overpredicted Ks of
increases in Ks were predicted over the full the pure soils.
blending range. In all cases, the PTF over-
estimated Ks in the soils without WFS. Com-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
pared with the measured values in the Bearden
blends, the PTF overestimated Ks at all blending The authors thank Don McClure of NRCS,
ratios (Fig. 6A). In Regent soil, the PTF Findlay, Ohio, for collecting the Toledo soil;
overestimated Ks in the AGS-2 blends but Nikki Dees, Yoojeong Yang, and Cathy Jacob
closely approximated Ks in the IGS-2 and for obtaining some of the data used in this
NBS-1 blends that contained 40% to 50% sand manuscript; and the anonymous reviewers for
(Fig. 6B). In Toledo soil, the PTF overestimated their valuable comments on this manuscript.
Ks in the IGS-3 blends and could not predict the
sharp decrease in Ks at more than 30% sand
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