Polytechnic University of the Philippines Bataan Campus Mariveles, Bataan

Submitted to: Prof. Nora Q. Rillon Submitted by: Alexis V. Dela Cruz II BEEd March 22, 2010

Outline / Topic Statement Being acquainted with the different Theories of Learning in this term paper would not only convey awareness about how learning can be realized but give us an overview whether which among them will be constructive for teachers/ teachers to-be in dealing with different learners on the field as we approach on being efficient and effective in delivering learning. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Student Diversity Behaviorist Perspective Cognitive Perspective Cognitive Processes Motivation Environmental Factors affecting Motivation

UNIT 2.2

STUDENT DIVERSITY

Module 7

Individual Differences

Factors that bring about Student Diversity 1. Socioeconomic Status 2. Thinking/Learning Style 3. Exceptionalities How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment? 1. Students self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. 2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. 3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of society. 4. Student diversity can promote harmony. Some Tips on Student Diversity 1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences. 2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students multicultural and cross-cultural awareness. 3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences. 4. Communicate high expectations to students from all sub-groups. 5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles. 6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds. 7. Adapt to the students diverse background and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it. 8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning. 9. Purposely, form small-discussion group of students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc.

Reaction: Teachers should always take into consideration that each student of hers possesses individual differences. It should be noted as to teachers construct their learning objectives, select learning resources/materials as well as their strategies to be applied on their class.

Module 8

Learning/ Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Learning and Thinking Styles refer to the preferred way an individual process information. 1. Sensory Preferences Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two sensory input and maintain dominance in one of the following: Visual Learners Learners who see their teachers actions and facial expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. a. Visual-iconic Those who are more interested in visual imagery; they have a good picture memory. b. Visual-symbolic Those who feel comfortable with abstract symbolism; they are good abstract thinkers Auditory Learners Learners who learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have to say. a. Listeners They remember things said to them and make the information their own. They carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard others say. b. Talkers They prefer to talk and discuss. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners They benefit mush from a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They tend to prefer learning by doing. They tend to have a good motor memory and motor coordination. 2. Global- analytic Continuum Analytic They tend toward the linear, step by step processes of learning. They are the tree seers. Global They learn towards non-linear thought and tend to see the whole pattern rather than particle elements. They are the forest seers.

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) Successive Hemisphere Style 1.Verbal 2.Responds to word meaning 3.Sequential 4.Process information linearly 5.Responds to logic 6.Plans ahead 7.Recalls peoples name 8.Speaks with few gestures 9.Punctual 10.Prefers formal study design 11.Prefers bright lights while studying

RIGHT BRAIN (Global) Simultaneous Hemisphere Style 1.Visual 2.Responds to tone of voice 3.Random 4.Processes information in varied order 5.Responds to emotion 6. Impulsive 7.Recalls peoples faces 8.Gestures when speaking 9. Less punctual 10.Prefers sound/music while studying 11.Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner) Intelligence an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve problems or fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures. Nine Distinct Forms of Intelligences: 1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) learning visually and organizing ideas spatially 2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) learning through the spoken and written words

3. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) learning through reasoning and problem solving 4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) learning through interaction with ones environment; promotes understanding through concrete experience 5. Musical (Music Smart) learning through patterns, rhythms and music 6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) learning through feelings, values and attitudes 7. Interpersonal (People Smart) learning though interaction with others; promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others 8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) learning through classification, categories and hierarchies 9. Existential (Spirit Smart) learning by seeing the big picture; seeks connection to real world understanding and application of new learning Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences: Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking. Provide a general overview of the material to be learned. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experiences. Warm up before the lesson development. Use multi-sensory means for both the processing and retrieving information. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising.

Reaction: The teacher must also be aware of his students abilities on how to process information and on what multiple intelligence his student lands on. The teacher must not discriminate any student of his as each student has his own distinct form of intelligence.

Module 9

Learners with Exceptionalities

Exceptional Learner those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behaviour, social functioning, physical and social impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness. Disability a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a persons ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition. Handicap a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. Categories of Exceptionalities (Omrods Educational Psychology) A. Specific cognitive or Academic difficulties 1. Learning Disabilities Ex. Dyslexia (reading), Dyscalculia (number operations), Dysgraphia (writing) 2. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention; recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behaviour 3. Speech and Communication Disorders difficulty in spoken language; Ex. Voice disorders B. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties 1. Emotional/Conduct Disorders involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression 2. Autism manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviours and limited interest 3. Mental Retardation refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits inn adaptive behaviour C. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments 1. Physical and Health Impairments involves physical or medical conditions; a. Limited energy and strength b. Reduced mental alertness c. Little muscle control 2. Severe and Multiple disabilities refers to the presence of two or more different types of disabilities D. Sensory Impairments 1. Visual impairments there is a malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision 2. Hearing impairments malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves that hinder perceptions of sound

E. Giftedness involves a significantly high level of cognitive development (intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts, or leadership) People-First Language involves putting the person first and not the disability Avoid generic labels Emphasizing abilities, not limitations Avoiding Euphemisms Avoid implying illness or suffering

Reactions: Teachers also must accept the weaknesses of his students and try to cope up with them. They should make up with their special needs and any other exceptionality. Teaching is a noble profession so he should be prepared with instances of dealing with exceptional children. (As what I had observed with my FS observation, having a deaf pupil, the teacher exerts extra time and effort to make sure that the child learns.)

UNIT 3.1

BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE

Module 10

Behaviorism : Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Skinner

Behaviorism Focuses on the study of observable and measurable behaviour It emphasizes that behaviour is most learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punidhment).

Ivan Pavlov Russian physiologist well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. His most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell.

Stage 1.Before conditioning Bell (neutral stimulus) Stage 2.During conditioning Bell (neutral stimulus) paired with Meat (unconditioned) Stage 3.After Conditioning Bell (conditioned stimulus) Pavlov had the following findings: Stimulus Generalization Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Discrimination High-order Conditioning

- No response

-Salivation (unconditioned response) - Salivation (conditioned response)

Theory of Connectionism (Edward Lee Thorndike) Learning takes place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed.

Three Primary Laws: Law of Effect states that a connection between a stimulus response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and weakened when the consequence is negative (punishment). Law of Exercise states that Practice makes perfect Law of Readiness states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to a stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them Principles derived from Thorndikes Connectionism Learning requires both practice and reward. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson First American psychologist to work with Pavlovs ideas He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage.

Experiment on Albert = an experiment about Albert and a rat wherein Watson applied classical conditioning. At first Albert was not afraid of a rat but because of the sudden loud noise Watson made whenever he touches the rat, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. This may help us understand the fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner He believed the Stimulus-Response pattern of conditioned behaviour. Wrote the Walden Two (1984) which is about the Utopian society based on operant conditioning and Science and Human Behavior (1953)

Operant Conditioning Learning is a result of change in overt behaviour. Changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. When a particular Stimulus-Response pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement Key element in the Skinners S-R theory Reinforcer Anything that strengthens the desired response Positive reinforce = any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response Negative reinforce = any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed; not a punishment Punishment = consequence intended to result in reduced responses Non-reinforcer/ Extinction response that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated Shaping a behaviour Successive approximations of the behaviour are rewarded until one learns the association. Behavioral chaining Series of steps are needed to be learned. Reinforcement Schedule Once the desired behavioural response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100% which means interval schedules and ratio schedules. Fixed interval schedules = target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement Variable interval ratio = similar to fixed interval ratio but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. Fixed ratio schedules = a fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement mat reoccur. Variable ratio schedules = number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. Implications of Operant Conditioning Practice should take the form of question- answer frames Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct Ensure that a good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers. Principles derived from Skinners Operant Conditioning Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced

 Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli producing secondary conditioning.

Reaction: Behaviourists findings really help with the effect of rein forcers on learners nowadays. Teachers having a background of psychology, knowing these principles will really be a great help in his understandings about his pupils and for him to make learning and teaching situation more effective by application of such laws and behavioural learning theories.

Module 11

Neo Behaviorism : Tolman and Bandura

Tolmans Purposive Behaviorism Also referred to as a Sign learning Theory; link between behaviourism and cognitive theory Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior States that the organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal Stressed the relationship between stimuli rather than stimulus response ; the new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with already meaningful stimuli (the significant) through a series of pairings, theres no need for reinforcement in order to establish learning

Tolmans Key Concepts Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Concept maps (in rats) = tendency to learn location that forms cognitive maps Latent Learning = kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed Concept of intervening variable = intervening variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinant of behaviour (expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables) Reinforcement not essential for learning.

Albert Banduras Social Learning Theory Focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context; considers that people learn from one another

General Principles of Social Learning Theory People learn by observing the behaviour of others. Learning can occur without a change in behaviour. Cognition plays a role in learning.

 Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviourist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. How the environment reinforces and punishes modelling? The observer is reinforced by the model. The observer is reinforced by the third person. The imitated behaviour itself leads to reinforcing consequences. Consequences of the models behaviour affect the observers behaviour vicariously (vicarious reinforcement). Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and punishment Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behaviour that has been learned. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Cognitive Factors in Social Learning Learning without performance Cognitive process during learning Expectations Reciprocal causation Modeling Behaviors that can be learned through modelling Reading Mathematics problems Aggression Moral behaviour Moral judgements Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur Attention Retention Motor production Motivation Effects of modeling on Behavior Teaches new behaviour Influences the frequency of previously learned behaviours Encourage previously forbidden behaviours Increases the frequency of similar behaviours Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory 1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequences of behaviour can effectively increase the appropriate behaviours and decrease in appropriate ones. 3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviours. 4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and take care that they do not model inappropriate behaviour. 5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models.

Reaction: Cognitive learning theories have also its points regarding on how learners are motivated and how learning takes place within the learner. Teachers also have to put these on mind as aid in facilitating learning among students.

UNIT 3.2 COGNITIVE PERPECTIVE

Module 12

Gestalt Psychology

Gestalt psychology The forefront of cognitive psychology Served as a foundation of the cognitive perspective to learning Opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviourism Considers the mental and products of perception Gestalt theory Initial cognitive response to behaviourism Emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception Gestalt means form or configuration

Gestalt Psychologists

Wolfgang Kohler

Max Wertheimer

Kurt Koffka

Kurt Lewin

They studied perception and concluded that perceivers (learners) were not passive but rather active. They suggested that learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data to understand it (perceptual process). Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes, and ones present situation can affect perception.

Gestalt Principles Law of Proximity = Elements that are closer together will be perceived as a coherent object. Law of Similarity = Elements that look similar will be perceived as a part of the same form. Law of Closure = Tendency to fill the gaps or close the figures we perceive. Law of Good Continuation = Tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. Law of Good Pragnanz = Stimulus will be organized into as a good figure (symmetry, simplicity, regularity) as possible. Law of Figure/ Ground = tendency to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. Insight Learning (Wolfgang Kohler) The important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations of materials. Learning could occur when the individual perceives the relationships of the elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. Kurt Lewin The individual has an inner (motivation, attitude and feelings) and outer forces (attitude and behaviour of teacher and classmates) that affect his perceptions and learning.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching-Learning Process (Mario Polito) Focused on the experience of contact that occurs Considers with interest the life of the teacher and students Takes interest in the complexity of experience Stimulates learning as experience and experience as a source of learning Learning is not accumulation but remodelling or insight

Reaction: Experience is the best teacher. It also contribute to the learning process of an individual. It is necessary then for teachers to expose students as early as needed to experiences that will mold them also holistically.

Module 13

Information Processing

Information Processing A cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and retrieved from our memory Cognitive Psychologists They believed that cognitive processes influenced the nature of what is learned. Learning is an internal process and not an external behaviour change. They looked into how individuals receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. Types of Knowledge General vs. Specific =knowledge useful in many tasks or only in one Declarative = factual Knowledge Procedural = Knowledge on how to do things Episodic = includes memory of events Conditional = about knowing when and why to apply declarative or procedural strategies Three Primary Stages in Information Processing Theory Encoding = information is sensed, perceived, attended to Storage = information is stored Retrieval = information is brought back at the appropriate time, and reactivated for use on a current tasks, the true measure of effective memory Three Main Stages of Memory process: Sensory Register = holds all sensory information for a very brief time Short term Memory (STM or Working Memory) Capacity: 5-9 chunks of information Duration: 18 seconds or less Long term Memory (LTM) = final or permanent storing house for memory information; holds stored information until needed again Capacity: unlimited Duration: indefinite Executive Control Process Involve the executive processor or metacognitive skills Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make informed decisions about how to categorizes, organize, or interpret information Forgeting = inability to retrieve or access information when needed

 Decay = information fades away Interference = new or old information blocks access to the information on question

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information Rehearsal = repeating information verbatim Meaningful Learning = making connections between new information and prior knowledge Organization = making connection among various pieces of information Elaboration = adding additional ideas to new information Visual Imagery = forming a picture of the information Generation = things produce are easier to remember than things heard Context = remembering the situation helps recover information Personalization = making the information relevant to the individual

Other Memory Methods Serial position effect (Recency and Primacy) = remember the beginning and end of list Part learning = break up the list or chunk information to increase memorization Distributed Practice = break up learning sessions Mnemonic Aids = memory techniques (loci technique, acronyms etc.)

Reaction:
There are different ways to process information as there are methods mentioned above. Knowing these techniques will be a great help for a student especially if a supplantive approach of teaching is being applied and if the curriculum design is a subject- centered one.

Module 14

Bruners Constructivism Theory

Jerome Bruner One of the first proponents of constructivism Learning is an active process in which the learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/ past knowledge. Bruners Main Concept 1. Representation = ability to represent knowledge develops in three stages: Enactive representation = learning about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes of these objects Iconic representation = learning can be obtained through using models and pictures Symbolic representation = ability to think in abstract terms; uses symbol system to encode knowledge 2. Spiral Curriculum Teachers must revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content in different ways depending on students development levels. Principles of instruction: Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness) Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization) Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gasps (going beyond the information given) 3. Discovery learning Refers to obtaining knowledge for oneself Teacher plans and arranges activities in such a way that students search, manipulate, explore and investigate. Bruners Four Major Aspects of Theory of Instruction Predisposition to learn = readiness for learning Structure of Knowledge = refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques Effective sequencing = lesson can be presented in increasing difficulty Reinforcement = rewards and punishment

4. Categorization categorization of information in the construction of internal cognitive maps perception, conceptualization, learning decision making, and making interferences are involved Categories / rules specify four things: Critical Attributes How critical attributes are combined Assigns weights to various properties Sets acceptance limits on attributes Kinds of Categories Identity categories = include objects based on their attributes or features Equivalent categories = determined by affective criteria, which render objects equivalent by emotional reactions, functional criteria, based on related functions Coding systems = categories that serve to recognize sensory input

Reaction: Learning as an active process reminds me of this line: The mind is not an empty vessel but a fire to be ignited. This suggest that each student has his prior learning that he will link to newly learned material.

Module 15

Ausubels Meaningful Verbal Learning/ Subsumption Theory

David Ausubel Suggested the use of advance organizers which are contained in the Meaningful Verbal Learning Meaningful Verbal Learning Knowledge is hierarchically organized New information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what is already known Focus of Ausubels Theory The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of learners present knowledge. The way to strengthen the students cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already have a birds eye view or to see the big picture of the topic to be learned even before going to the details Meaningful Learning can take place through Four Processes: Derivative subsumption = new information learned is an example of a concept that you have already learned Correlative subsumption = more valuable learning; in order to accommodate new information, you have to accept or expand your concept Superordinate Learning = a situation wherein you already know a lot of examples but you dont know the concept itself so it is needed to be taught Combinational Learning = when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts Advance Organizers An instructional unit that is used before direct instruction; sometimes called a hook set induction or anticipatory set major instructional tool proposed by Ausubel gives two benefits: 1. You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic 2. You can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing related ideas Types of advance organizers Expository = describes new content Narrative = presents new information in a form of story

 Skimming = done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview Graphic Organizer = visuals to set up or outline the new information Application of Principles The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specificity (Progressive differentiation). Instructional material should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.

Reaction: The use of advance organizers which were introduced by Ausubel, really bridges a gap with what one already knows and what one needs to know. As what several research studies have shown, it can improve levels of understanding and recall if principles were properly applied.

Module 16

Gagnes Conditions of Learning

Conditions of learning The focus of this theory is on intellectual skills Robert Gagnes Principles 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Five Categories of Learning: Verbal Information Intellectual Skills Cognitive Strategies Attitudes Motor Skills 2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction. 3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning. Nine Instructional Events: Gaining Information (reception) Informing learners of the objective (expectancy) Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) Presenting the stimulus (selective perception) Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) Eliciting performance (responding) Providing feedback (retrieval) Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization) Teaching Sequences: Gain attention Identify objective Recall prior learning Present stimulus Guide learning Elicit performance Provide feedback Assess performance Enhance retention/transfer

Reaction: If teachers will use the nine events of instruction as a tool/guide in teaching, it will surely make him a great teacher for the theory utilizes also all the domains as well as the use of instructional technology in learning.

UNIT 3.3 COGNITIVE PROCESSES

Module 17 Constuctivism: Knowledge Construction/Concept Learning

Constructivism Teaching involves giving opportunities for learners to explore and discover Learners construct their own learning and generate insights Two Views of Constructivism Individual Constructivism = also called cognitive constructivism = emphasizes individual, internal construction of knowledge =largely based on Piagets theory Social Constructivism = emphasizes that knowledge exist in a social context an d is initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual; based on Vygotskys theory Characteristics of Constructivism Learners construct understanding. New learning depends on current understanding. Learning is facilitated by social interaction. Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. Organizing Knowledge 1. Concepts = way of grouping or categorizing objects or events in our mind Concepts as featured lists = Learning a concept involves learning specific features that characterize positive instance of the concept. a. Defining feature = characteristic present in all instances b. Co relational feature = present in many positive instances but not essential for concept membership Concepts as Prototypes = idea or visual image of a typical example =usually formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often Concepts as Exemplars =represent a variety of examples; allows learners to know that an example under a concept may have variability 2. Making a concept-learning effective Provide a clear definition of the concept Make the defining features very concrete and prominent Give a variety of positive instances Give negative instances Provide opportunity for learners to identify positive and negative instances Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept Point out how concepts can be related to each other 3. Schemas and Scripts Schema = an organized body of knowledge about something Script = schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity

Applying Constructivism in Facilitating Learning Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner Give a varied examples Provide opportunities for experimentation Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction Have a lot of hands-on activities Relate your topic to real life situations Do not depend on the explanation method all the time

Reaction: It is simple as the phrases: I hear I forget, I see I remember, I do I understand. As what Vygotskys theory conveys, social interaction is important in the learning process, so as to this constructivism theory, direct instruction is significant in generating insights among learners.

Module 18

Transfer of Learning

Transfer of Learning Happens when learning in one context or with a set of materials affects performance in another context or with other related materials Applying to another situation what was previously learned Types of Transfer Positive Transfer = occurs when learning in one context improves performance in some other context. Negative Transfer = occurs when learning in one context impacts negatively on performance in another Near Transfer = refers to transfer between very similar contexts Far Transfer = refers to transfer between contexts, that on appearance, seem remote and alien to one another

Conditions and Principles of Transfer Conditions/Factors affecting transfer of learning 1. Similarity between two learning situations

Principle of Transfer

Implication

The more similar, the greater the chance that learning will be transferred.

Involve learners in learning situations and tasks that are similar as possible. Remember to provide opportunities for learners to link new material to what they learned in the past. To ensure transfer, teach a few topic in depth rather than many topics tackled in a shallow manner. Illustrate new concepts and principles with a variety of examples. Relate topic in one subject to topics in other subjects or disciplines.

2. Degree of Meaningful learning leads meaningfulness/ to greater transfer than rote relevance of learning learning. 3. Length of instructional time The longer the time spent, the greater the probability of transfer. Exposure to many and varied examples and opportunities for practice to encourage transfer. Transfer of learning is most likely to happen when learners discover that what they learned is applicable to various contexts.

4. Variety of Learning experience

5. Contexts for learners experiences

6. Focus on principles rather than tasks

Principles transfer easier than facts.

7. Emphasis on metacognition

Student reflection improves transfer of learning.

Zero in on principles related to each topic together with strategies based on those principles Encourage students to take responsibility for their own learning and to reflect on what they learned.

Reaction: Teachers must put into consideration the mentioned conditions in the transfer of learning as it is important in the application phase of the learner to apply his previous learning to other situations it is applicable.

Module 19

Facilitating Learning and Blooms Taxonomy of Objectives

Bloom's Taxonomy is a classification of learning objectives within education. It refers to a classification of the different objectives that educators set for students (learning objectives). Domains: Bloom's Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three "domains:" Affective, Psychomotor, and Cognitive. A goal of Bloom's Taxonomy is to motivate educators to focus on all three domains, creating a more holistic form of education. Affective Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel another living thing's pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings. Five Levels: 1. Receiving The lowest level; the student passively pays attention. Without this level no learning can occur. : Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention. Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people. Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to, selects, sits, erects, replies, uses. 2. Responding The student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus; the student also reacts in some way. Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practices them. Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs, practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes. 3. Valuing The student attaches a value to an object, phenomenon, or piece of information. The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of

specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable. Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about. Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

4. Organizing The student can put together different values, information, and ideas and accommodate them within his/her own schema; comparing, relating and elaborating on what has been learned. Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Accepts responsibility for one's behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self. Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains, formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates, synthesizes. 5. Characterizing The student holds a particular value or belief that now exerts influence on his/her behaviour so that it becomes a characteristic. Examples: Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look. Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies Psychomotor The psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972) includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: 1. PerceptionThe ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation. Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball.

Adjusts heat of stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.

2. Set Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize one's abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision of Psychomotor is closely related with the "Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the Affective domain. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers. 3. Guided ResponseThe early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while learning to operate a forklift. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds 4. Mechanism This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking faucet. Drive a car. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches 5. Complex Overt ResponseThe skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano. Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. NOTE: The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.

6. AdaptationSkills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Perform a task with a machine that it was not originally intended to do (machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task). Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

7. OriginationCreating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills. Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training programming. Creates a new gymnastic routine. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates. Cognitive Skills in the cognitive domain revolve around knowledge, comprehension, and critical thinking of a particular topic. Traditional education tends to emphasize the skills in this domain, particularly the lower-order objectives. Six levels: 1. KnowledgeExhibit memory of previously-learned materials by recalling facts, terms, basic concepts and answers Knowledge of specifics - terminology, specific facts Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics - conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field - principles and generalizations, theories and structures Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a customer. Knows the safety rules. Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

2. ComprehensionDemonstrative understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating main ideas Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives Examples, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.

3. ApplicationUsing new knowledge. Solve problems to new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules in a different way Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses. 4. AnalysisExamine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes. Make inferences and find evidence to support generalizations Analysis of elements Analysis of relationships Analysis of organizational principles Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates, selects, separates. 5. SynthesisCompile information together in a different way by combining elements in a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions Production of a unique communication Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations Derivation of a set of abstract relations Examples: Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes. 6. EvaluationPresent and defend opinions by making judgments about information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria Judgments in terms of internal evidence Judgments in terms of external criteria Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

Effective Questioning Technique (Basic Techniques) 1. Pose the question first, before asking a student to respond. 2. Allow plenty of think time by waiting at least 7-10 seconds before expecting students to respond. 3. Make sure you give all students the opportunity to respond rather than relying on volunteers. 4. Hold students accountable by expecting, requiring, and facilitating their participation and contribution. 5. Establish a safe atmosphere for risk taking by guiding students in the process of learning from their mistakes.

Reaction: It is significant for the teacher to use this taxonomy of learning objectives of Bloom in order for him to make sure that in forming the objectives for the day, it will deal with the learner in a holistic manner (cognitive, affective and psychomotor).

Module 20

Problem Solving and Creativity

Edward Paul Torrance Father of Creativity Torrance test of creative thinking helped shatter the theory that IQ tests alone were sufficient to gauge real intelligence

Manifesto for Children (Torrance) 1. Dont be afraid to fall in love with something and pursue it with intensity. 2. Know, understand, take pride in, practice, develop, exploit, and enjoy your greatest strengths. 3. Learn to free yourself from the expectations of others and to walk away from the games they impose on you. 4. Find a great teacher or mentor who will help you. 5. Dont waste energy trying to be well rounded. 6. Do what you love and can do well. 7. Learn the skill of independence. Torrance Framework for Creative thinking Common framework for creative thinking process Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a problem; implies understanding not just remembering Key Words: Compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match, name, outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or realms of thought; involves the ability to see things from different points of view Key Words: change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret, predict Elaboration process of enhancing ideas by providing more details Key Words: appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual Key Words: compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct, reorganize, revise

Creative Problem Solving (CPS) Osborns Checklist origin of Classical Brainstorming and the root of creative problem solving

Six Stages: Stage 1. Mess Finding: Sensitise yourself for issues (concerns, challenges and opportunities) that need to be tackled. Stage 2. Data Finding: Gather information about the problem. Stage 3. Problem Finding: Convert a fuzzy statement about the problem into a broad statement more suitable for idea finding. Stage 4. Idea Finding: Generate as many ideas as possible. Stage 5. Solution Finding: Generate and select obvious evaluation criteria and develop the short-listed ideas from the Idea finding as much as you can in the light of these criteria. Stage 6. Acceptance Finding: Continue to apply deferred judgement; Possible techniques includeFive Ws and H, Implementation checklist, Consensus Mapping, Potential-Problem Analysis (PPA). Other Model for Problem Solving (Bransfords IDEAL Model) 1. Identify the problem. 2. Define the problem. 3. Explore solutions. 4. Act on the strategies. 5. Look back and evaluate the effects of your activity.

Reaction: Problems come along our lives and its up to the individual on how to deal with it. In dealing with those problems, we tend also to learn problem- solving strategies which are also a form of learning on our part as growing individuals.

UNIT 4.1

MOTIVATION

Module 21

Meaning and Types of Motivation

Motivation an inner drive that causes you to do something and persevere at something if Ability refers to what you can do, Motivation refers to what you will do refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behaviour Indicators of High level of Motivation excited about learning and accomplishing things has initiative to undertake learning tasks, assignments and projects without being pushed by parents/teachers has goals to accomplish and dreams to realize willing to give up the satisfaction of immediate goals for the sake of more important remote goals Types of Motivation Intrinsic when the source of motivation is from the person himself or the activity itself; shown in the enjoyment of the activity itself and the inner conviction of the learner that such things are right to do in order to realize a personal goal or a life dream Extrinsic include rewards, incentives, praises or words of encouragements, approval of significant others, fear of punishment, withdrawal of priveledges, censure, and ostracism

Reaction: Individuals really need be motivated to achieve his goal, likewise with the learner. Most of the time it depends on how teachers/parents motivate their children for them to reach their aspirations especially with their studies.

Module 22 Theories on Factors Affecting Motivation

Attribution Theory (Bernard Weiner) Explains that we attribute our successes or failures or others events to several factors Attributes differ from one another in three ways: Locus (place) Internal vs. External Stability Stable vs. Unstable Controllability Controllable vs. Uncontrollable People tend to attribute their successes to internal causes (high ability, hard work) and their failures to external causes (luck, behaviour of others)

Self-Efficacy Theory (Albert Bandura) A sense of high efficacy means high sense of competence Self efficacy is the belief that one has the necessary capabilities to perform a tasks, fulfil role expectations, or meet a challenging situation successfully

Self- efficacy Enhancing Strategies: Make sure students master the basic skills. Help them feel noticeable progress on difficult tasks. Communicate confidence in students abilities through both words and actions. Expose them to successful peers. Other recommendations: Provide competence-promoting feedback. Promote mastery in challenging tasks. Promote self- comparison rather than comparison with others. Be sure errors occur within an overall context of success. Self-determination and Self- regulation Theories Students are more likely to be intrinsically motivated when they believe they can determine their learning goals and regulate their learning. Suggestions to enhance students sense of self -determination: Present rules and instructions in an informational manner rather than controlling manner. Provide opportunities for students to make choices. Evaluate student performance in a non-controlling fashion. Self-regulation refers to a persons ability to master himself.

Indicators: set standards for oneself; monitor and evaluate ones own behaviour against such standards; and impose consequences on oneself for ones successes or failures How does self-regulation relate to motivation? A student who is capable of self-regulation is more likely to be more intrinsically motivated. A student who is capable of self-regulation, is not only capable of regulating his behaviour, but also capable of regulating his own learning. Processes involve: Goal setting = Self regulated learners know what to accomplish Planning = They determine ahead of time how to use best the time available Attention Control = They try to focus their attention on the subject matter and clear minds of distractions Application of learning strategies = They choose appropriate learning strategies Self monitoring = They continually monitor their progress towards goal Self-evaluation = They determine whether what they have learned is sufficient for the goals they set

Choice Theory (Bob Sullo) A biological theory taht suggest we are born with specific needs that we are genetically instructed to satisfy. Four Basic Psychological Needs: Belonging or connecting = motivates us to Develop relationships and cooperate with others Power or competence = more thanjust a drive to dominate = gained through competence, achievement and mastery Freedom Fun

What happens outside of us has a lot to do with what we choose to do but the outside event does not cause our behaviour. What we get and all we ever get from the outside is information; how we choose to act on that information is up to us. William Glasser

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

The lower four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow called "deficiency needs" or "d-needs": physiological (including sexuality), security of position, friendship and love, and esteem. With the exception of the lowest (physiological) needs, if these "deficiency needs" are not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious and tense. Physiological needs physiological needs are obviousthey are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of clothing and shelter), the human body simply cannot continue to function. Physiological needs include: Breathing Food Sexual activity Homeostasis Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for survival in all animals, including humans. The intensity of the human sexual instinct is shaped more by sexual competition than maintaining a birth rate adequate to survival of the species. The urge to have sex is so powerful that it can drain psychic energy away from other necessary goals. Therefore every culture has to invest great efforts in rechanneling and restraining it, and many complex social institutions exist only in order to regulate this urge. The saying that "love makes the world go round" is a polite reference to the fact that most of our deeds are impelled, either directly or indirectly, by sexual needs. Safety needs With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, these safety needs

manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like. Safety and Security needs include: Personal security Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and their adverse impacts Love and Belonging After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs are social and involve feelings of belongingness. This aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as: Friendship Intimacy Family Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs ("Safety in numbers"), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging. Esteem All humans have a need to be respected and to have self-esteem and selfrespect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. Note, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels. Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-respect, the need for strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The latter one ranks higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience.

Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness. Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and outer recognition instead of inner competence. He sees healthy self-respect as based on earned respect. Self-actualization What a man can be, he must be This forms the basis of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need pertains to what a person's full potential is and realizing that potential. Maslow describes this desire as the desire to become more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.. This is a broad definition of the need for self-actualization, but when applied to individuals the need is specific. For example one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in another it may be expressed in painting, pictures, or inventions As mentioned before, in order to reach a clear understanding of this level of need one must first not only achieve the previous needs, physiological, safety, love, and esteem, but master these needs. Below are Maslows descriptions of a self-actualized persons different needs and personality traits. Acceptance A self-actualized person can accept their own human nature in the stoic style, with all its shortcomings, with all its discrepancies from the ideal image without feeling real concern. This means that a self-actualized person can clearly see human nature in all its good and evil without the distortion from false social norms. Maslow uses basic animal acceptance to prove this point. He states that self-actualized people tend to be good and lusty animals, hearty in their appetites and enjoying them mightily without regret or shame. This involves a basic acceptance of nature and the way things are rather than trying to change things (for example: disgust with body functions or having a food aversion) to suit one's neuroses. This doesnt mean these people lack morals, guilt, shame, or anxiety; it means that they have the ability to remove all unnecessary forms of these processes. Goal Theory Learning goals versus performance goals. The goals we set for ourselves affect our level of motivation. Learning Goal a desire to acquire additional knowledge or master new skills Performance Goal a desire to look good and receive favourable judgements from others or else look bad and receive unfavourable judgements Self determined Goals = personally relevant goals and enhance a students motivation Goal Setting = effective when the following major elements are present: Goal Acceptance

Specificity Challenge Performance Monitoring Performance Feedback = also, lesson objectives of teachers must be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable, result-oriented, time=bound)

Reaction: Despite the number of theories that affects motivation, what really matters is that the most appropriate motivation will be applied to the learner which will really motivate him to continue learning.

Module 23

Students Diversity in Motivation

Different folks, different strokes.

Students motivation is likely to vary as a function of age, culture, gender, socioeconomic background, and special education. In the choice of motivation methods, two principles are worth remembering: Students are most likely to model the behaviour they believe are relevant to their situation. Students develop greater efficacy for a task when they see others like themselves performing the tasks successfully.

Reaction: There is no single best method of motivating learners. Teachers/ Parents should choose wisely which will fit and are appropriate to their learner that will give an effective effect on their learning.

Module 24

Human Environmental Factors Affecting Motivation

Teachers Affective Traits (James Stronge) Caring Fairness and Respect Social Interactions with students Enthusiasm and Motivation for learning Attitude for the teaching Profession Reflective Practice Need to Belong a basic human need which enhances learning and performance Bullying obstruct the creation of a learning community where everyone feels he belongs

Parents as Part of the Learners Human Learning Environment Follow up status of their childrens performance. Supervise their children in their homework/project. Check their childrens notebooks. Review their childrens corrected seat works and tests papers. Attend conferences. Willing to spend on childrens projects and involvement in school activities. Participate actively in school-community projects. Confer with childrens teachers when necessary. Aware of their childrens activities in school. Meet the friends of their children. Invite their childrens friends at home.

Reaction: Parents should interfere with their childrens studies. Its not always the teacher for the parent also has their responsilbity and serves also as a factor in a learners learning environment. (Behind the parent stood the school and behind the teacher stood the home)

Module 25

The Classroom Climate

The classroom climate is a by-product of the social interactions between and among teachers and students. The conducive classroom climate is one that is business-like yet non-threatening. It is a classroom where: Expectations, rules and procedures, limits on behaviour are made clear from the very first day of school. The teacher, who is the leader, is fully aware of what is happening and is in control of the classroom proceedings and yet conveys the message that she is interested in the concerns of the students as individuals and the class as a whole; Students are made responsible for their own behaviour.

Module 26

The Physical Learning Environment

The physical learning environment has something to do with the condition of the classroom, the immediate environment of the learner. A conducive physical learning environment is one that: Allows maximum interaction between teacher and student and among the students. Allows student movement without unnecessary distraction. Allows teacher to survey the whole class. Safe, clean, orderly Well-ventilated, spacious, and adequately lighted Makes possible re-arrangement of chairs as the need arises

Reaction: It is also a very important factor in a childs learning is its setting (classroom/physical learning environment). It should be a conducive place for learning as it does not only includes the place itself but also those who resides in the place (teachers and students)

Module 27

Assessment for Learning

Assessment The process of gathering information about the students learning; then analyzing and interpreting them for the purpose of making decisions Authentic/Alternative Assessment Seeks to directly assess student performance through real-life tasks or products Encourage students to use higher order thinking skills and to be more active in constructing their own understanding. Purpose of Assessment Diagnosis = used to determine any special learning need that a learner may have Placement = Learner can be placed in the best learning environment where he can better learn and develop Effectiveness of the Program = how the program/curriculum is effective in meeting goals Student Feedback = learners strong and weak point Research Researched-Based Principles of Assessment for Learning Assessment should be a part of effective planning. It should focus on how students learn. It should be considered central to classroom practice. It should be considered as a key professional skill for teachers. It must be sensitive and constructive because assessment has an emotional impact. It should consider the importance of learner motivation. It should promote commitment to learning goals and a shared understanding of the criteria by which they are assessed. It should help learners to improve It should develop the capacity for self-assessment It should recognize all educational achievement

Reaction: In a teaching-learning situation, in order to know if the learning objectives are realized, learning outcomes of the students are being assessed. It is important tool for teacher also to pin point the strong and weak points of his students. We will not be able to justify learning without assessment, thus improvements cant be made.

Module 28

Revisiting the 14 Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Facilitating learning should be firmly anchored on the 14 learner- centered psychological principles. Students learn from one another. Teachers also learn from students. Characteristics of Learner-Centered Instruction (Eggen and Chauchak) Learners are at the center of the learning process. Teachers guides students construction of understanding. Teachers teach for understanding.

Reaction: The learner should really be at the center of the educative process, as what John Dewey would say. Meeting their needs, abilities, capabilities and interest will help the teacher find the appropriate techniques/resources in order to attain maximum teachinglearning effectiveness. Aside from that, in this teaching- learning situation, theres always teaching in learning and learning for teaching.