-MoVeMeNt oF-SuBsTaNcEs-ThRoUgH pLaSmA-MeMbRaNe-

-MiNd MaP-

-P"asma Memb#a$eA semi-pe#meab"e ce"" memb#a$e that a""o%s %ate# a$d ce#tai$ substa$ces to mo&e i$ a$d out o the ce""

The ce""s ca$ obtai$ $ut#ie$ts a$d gases'

The ce""s $eed to e(c#ete metabo"ic %astes'

The t)pes a$d the amou$t o substa$ces ca$ be co$t#o""ed'

-SiMpLe DiF Us!oN-

o Molecules move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a

o Molecules have kinetic energy and collide with each other. o Diffusion will occur until a dynamic equilibrium is reached, that is the
concentration is the same in all regions.

o Example: Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide

- Ac!"!tAtEd DiF Us!oN-

o he transport of molecules across the outer membrane of living cell

o !ubstances such as glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids

o Example: "bsorption of digested food in the villus

-*sMoSiS-

o #smosis is the passage of water molecules from a dilute solution to a

o %ater continues to pass through the semi$permeable membrane until

o Example: "bsorption of water by root hairs through osmosis process

-AcTiVe T#A$Sp*#T-

o &eeds carrier proteins and energy. o "gainst concentration gradient. o 'arrier molecules in and out of a cell. o Examples: (ons intake by root hairs of a plant -DiF E#E$+es-

-aPpLi+aTi*$ iN eVeR)Da, LiFe-

Isotonic

Animal Cell(RED BLOOD CELL) Water diffuses into and out of the cell at equal rates. The cell retains its normal size and shape.

Plant Cell (epidermis cell) The flow of water intoand out of the cell is balanced. Cell does not change shape or size Vacuole maintains the normal size.

Hypotonic

Animal Cell (red blood cell) Water enters the cell by osmosis The cell expands and burst Haemolysis takes place

Plant Cell (epidermis cell) Water diffuses into the acuole by osmosis Vacuole expand and swell up The cell does not burst because of the rigid cell wall The cell becomes turgid The swelling of a plant cell creates turgor pressure within the cell. Turgor pressure is important to plant cells in supporting and maintaining the shape of the cells

Hypertonic

Animal Cell (red blood cell) Water lea es the cell by osmosis The cell shrinks up Crenation takes place

Plant Cell (epidermis cell) Water diffuses out of acuole by osmosis Vacuole and cytoplasm shrink !lasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall The cell becomes flaccid The process is called plasmolysis " plasmolysed plant cell can become turgid again by immersing the cell in a hypotonic solution The cell ha e undergone deplasmolysis

-+oNcE$T#At!oN -#Ad!eNt-

-+#E$At!oN-

'renation is the contraction or formation of abnormal nokta around the edges of the cells after inserted into hypertonic solution. 'renation occurs because of hypertonic environment )the cell has a solution with a lower concentration than the solution around the outside of the cells*, osmosis)diffusion of water* causing movement of water out of cells, causing reduced cytoplasmic volume. "s a result, the cells shrink. !ame process that occurs in plant cell plasmolysis which is also shrinking due to put in a hypertonic solution

-eN.,mEs-

E&+,ME!

'haracteristics

Biological catalysts that accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions

"ll en-ymes are proteins.

&eeded in small quantities.

'atalyse specific reactions.

!peed up biochemical reactions.

"ctivities slowed down by inhibitors.

Catalyse both the forward and reverse directions of specific metabolic reactions.

Re/ui#e co acto#s to u$ctio$ optimum")'

-ThE 0Lo+1 aNd 1E)2 h,p*tHeSiS oF E$3)Me AcTi*$-

-Fa+t*#S A Fe+t!$- E$3)Me AcTiViT)-

p.

$/ow p. )acidic*$ En-yme$substrate complex does not form

-.igh p. )alkaline*$ En-yme$substrate complex does not form

!uitable p. )&ormal* En-yme$substrate complex forms

EM0E1" 21E

/ow emperature
$En-yme catalysed reaction is slow. $ he movement of substrate molecules is inactive.

.igh emperature $1eaction stops.

#ptimum
$Maximum reaction $'auses rapid movement and collision between the substrate and en-yme.

temperature.

E&+,ME '#&'E& 1" (#&

(f the concentration of an en-yme increases, more en-ymes are available.

"t low en-yme concentration, the en-yme catalysed reaction is slow.

he en-yme$catalysed reaction will increase if there is more substrate supplied.

his is because more active sites are available.

(f the substrates are catalysed totally by en-ymes, the reaction will stop.

!23! 1" E '#&'E& 1" (#&

"t 4.56 en-yme concentration

"t 4.76 en-yme concentration

More substrates will collide with the en-yme.

he concentration of en-yme becomes limiting factor to the concentration of substrate. 1eaction of 4.76 en-yme concentration is lower than 4.56 en-yme concentration.

he high concentration of substrates will raise the reaction to maximum rate until not enough en-yme supply.

%hen the substrate concentration increases, the en-ymes$catalysed reaction increases.

-gRaPh-

-tHe UsEs oF eN.,mEs(ndustry 8ish and Meat (ndustry Dairy (ndustry 2ses 0rotease $1emoval of fish skin. $Meat tenderi-ation. 1ennin $Milk protein coagulant in cheese production. /ipase $2sed in cheese ripening. /actase $9ives lactose$free milk products through hydrolysis 3aking (ndustry of lactose. "mylase $3reaks down starch into maltose. 0rotease $3reaks down and decrease proteins in biscuit manufacture. 9lucose #xidase 3rewing (ndustry $Maintains dough stability. "mylase $3reaks down starch into glucose. 0rotease $3reaks down protein into amino acids. 'ellulose Bio"ogica" Dete#ge$ts extile (ndustry $0revents cloudiness during the storage of beers. P#otease4 Lipase a$d Am)"ase -Remo&a" o o#ga$ic stai$s a$d #esista$t sta#ch #esidues' "mylase

$1emoval of starch that is applied to threads of /eather anning (ndustry 0aper (ndustry fabrics to prevent damage. 0rotease $1emoval of hairs from animal hides and softens leather. "mylase and /igninase $0roduce smoother paper by filling in the gaps between fibres with partial breakdown of starch. 0rocessing 8ood $1emove lignins from pulp. rypsin and "mylase $ o pre$digest a few baby foods and convert starch Medical "nalysis to glucose syrup. rypsin $1emoves blood clots and cleans the wound.

-+eLL d!&!s!oN-

-+eLL c,cLe-

-MiToSiS-

-Me!oSis-

-MiToSiS-

', #:(&E!(!

$Meaning$ he process of cytoplasm division in a parent cell to form two daughter cells at the end of mitosis.

'ytokinesis will start before nuclear division is completed.

he organelles and other contents of the parent cell will distribute between two daughter cells.

-+)To5iNeSiS !$ A$ aNiMaL +eLL-

-c,t*1!$Es!s iN pLaNt +eLL-

-TeT#Ad +hRoMoSoMe-

-BiVaLeNt +hRoMoSoMe-

-cLoNi$- * aNiMaLs-

-+oMpA#!s*$ BeT%EeN MiToSis aNd Me!oSis-

Similarities Meosis ;. " cell division process 5. &uclear division happen Mitosis Difference Meiosis Aspects/Items !omatic cells Place of occurrence 9onadic cells 0roduce cells for growth Role 0roduce gamete and tissue repair #ne Number of divisions wo Does not occur Synapsis of #ccurs during 0rophase homologue of Meiosis 7 to form chromosomes tetrads Does not occur rossing over #ccurs during 0rophase ! hiasma formation" of Meiosis 7 wo Number of daughter 8our cells formed at the end of division Diploid)5n*, same Number of .aploid)n*, half the number of chromosomes in number of chromosomes in parent daughter cell chromosomes of the cell parent cell (dentical to parent cell #enetic composition &on identical to the in daughter cell parent cell and to each other &o variation produced #enetic $ariation 0roduces genetic variation 1emain Ploidy %evel 1educe n 5n n 5n n 5n 5n n n n

Mitosis

-$UtRiTi*$-

-BaLaNcEd DiEt-

-ThE HuMaN Di-eSt!&E S)StEm-

-Fo*d Di-eSt!oN-

!ite of digestion Mouth cavity !tomach Duodenum

Digestive <uice !aliva 9astric <uice 3ile salts 0ancreatic <uice

p. =.>$ =.? 7.A 7.A B.=$ ?.= B.7$ ?.5 B.7$ ?.5 B.7$ ?.5 B.= B.= B.= B.=

8ood class digestion starch@water maltose protein@waterpolypeptides caseinogen@watercasein 8ats emulsion starch@watermaltose polypeptides@waterpeptides lipid droplets@waterfatty acids@glycerol

(leum

(ntestinal <uice

maltose@waterglucose@glucose lactose@waterglucose@galactose sucrose@waterglucose@fructose peptides@wateramino acids

-Di-eSt!oN oF +eL"uLoSe !$ A RuMiNaNt-

-Di-eSt!oN oF +eL"uLoSe !$ RoDeNtS-

-AbSoRpTi*$ aNd AsSiMiLaTi*$ oF NuT#!eNtS-

9/2'#!E

"M(&# "'(D!

8"

, "'(D!,

9/,'E1#/, C( "M(&! ",D,E,: o "bsorbed into blood o "bsorbed into blood o "bsorbed capillaries, transported to liver via vein. o 2sed o Excess into o (n for hepatic portal capillaries, transported to liver via vein. cellular o 2sed in the hepatic portal lacteal, into

transported

in the bloodstream to body cells. o Ma<or of membrane. )phospholipids*. components plasma

respiration. converted

synthesis of plasma membrane. and o Excess delaminated, for urea excreted. o (n cell, used to

glycogen

is o Excess and stored tissue energy. as

fats in

are

stored in liver. cell, used

adipose reserved

cellular respiration.

make en-ymes and hormones.

&'P(S )* N+&RI&I)N

A+&)&R)P,I

,(&(R)&R)P,I

P,)&)S'N&,(&I (-A.P%(/ &R((

,(.)S'N&,(&I (-A.P%(/ BA &(RIA

,)%)0)I

SAPR)P,'&I (-A.P%(/ *+N#I

PARASI&I (-A.P%(/ RA**%(SIA

,(RBI$)R)+S

ARNI$)+R)+S

).NI$)+R)+S

-Ph*t*s,$ThEs!s-

-LeA StRu+tU#E-

-FuNcTi*$-

0arts 2pper Epidermis 0alisade Mesophyll !pongy Mesophyll /ower Epidermis !toma

8unctions $0revents loss of water. $0rotects the underlying cells from in<uries. $Ma<or sites of photosynthesis. $"bsorbs sunlight. $"llows diffusion of water and gases through leaves. $0rotects against water loss and the leaf from damage. $Maintains the shape of leaves. $"llows gaseous exchange between atmosphere. leaf and the

9uard 'ells Dylem Cessel 0hloem /amina 'uticle

$Excess water evaporates through stomata. $'ontrol opening of stomata pores. $ ransports water and mineral salts to the leaves. $0rovides mechanical support to the plants. $ ransports the products of photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of plants. $ ranslucent to visible light. $1educes water loss by evaporation. $Enables the leaf to trap sunlight.

-AdApTaTi*$S oF LeA

*# *pTiMaL Ph*t*s,$ThEs!s-

External 8eatures: o he wide, flat and thin lamina provides a large surface area for the maximum absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide. o he leaf is positioned at right angle to sunlight and arranged in a mosaic pattern to absorb maximum sunlight. o 2pper epidermis is translucent to allow sunlight to pass through it easily.

(nternal 8eatures: o 0alisade Mesophyll cells contain a lot of chloroplasts and closely packed for maximum absorption of sunlight. o Dylem and phloem are long and continuous tubes that can transport water and products of photosynthesis efficiently. o !pongy Mesophyll cells are arranged loosely for diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the leaf and environment. o Many stomata at lower epidermis to allow the exchange of gases

-DaR1 A$D Li-hT ReAcTi*$-

-DiF E#E$+eS bEt6eE$ Li-hT ReAcTi*$ aNd DaR1 ReAcTi*$-

/ight 1eaction 0hotolysis reaction which requires light energy 9rana of chloroplast 0hotolysis of water %ater and sunlight

Differences ype of reaction

Dark 1eaction 3iochemical reaction which does not require light energy !troma of chloroplasts 1eduction of carbon dioxide 'arbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, electron, " 0 and &"D0. 2ses " 0 &o "fter the light reaction 0roduces glucose and water

/ocation of process 0rocess involved 1aw materials required

8orms " 0 ,es (n the presence of light only 0roduces water and oxygen

Energy "bsorption of light ime of occurring 0roduct output

-Fa+t*#S A Fe+t!$- Ph*t*S)NtHeSiS-

-Te+hNoLo-i+aL DeVeLoPmE$T iN Fo*d P#*cEsSiNg-

0rocessing Methods 'ooking

o .igh

0rinciples temperature can

kill

the

microorganisms in the food which

0ickling with sugar, salt and vinegar

can cause food spoilage. o Makes the food

becomes

hypertonic causing microorganisms to lose water by osmosis and die of dehydration. o "cetic acid of vinegar )low p.* can

2ltra .eat reatment)2. *

kill the microorganisms. o .ugh temperature will kill all the bacteria and their spores in the food. o .igh temperature will kill most of the bacteria )except lactic acid and bacteria* and maintain the taste of milk. o 0asteurisation can preserve the

0asteurisation

Drying

nutrients and taste of milk. o 'ausing dehydration in food so that the microorganisms cannot survive. o %ithout water, microorganisms will be killed or become spores which are inactive.

8ermentation

o 8ermentation

produces

ethanol

which will kill the microorganisms. o %ater will be absorbed by the concentrated and 'anning ethanol from food microorganisms through kills the

osmosis. o .igh temperature microorganisms.

o he vacuum created in the sealed can may prevent the food in the 1efrigeration can from contamination. o 'old storage microorganisms become and keeps the food fresh. causes inactive

-ReSp!#At!oN-

,0E #8 #8 ,0E 1E!0(1" (#& (#& 1E!0(1"

"E1#3(' "E1#3(' (s the the breakdown breakdown of of (s glucose in in the the presence presence glucose of oxygen with the of oxygen with the release of of a a large large release amount of of chemical chemical amount energy. energy.

(s the the breakdown breakdown of of (s glucose in in the the absence absence glucose of oxygen oxygen with with the the of release of a small release of a small amount of of chemical chemical amount energy. energy.

"&"E1#3(' "&"E1#3('

'ompleteoxidation oxidationof of 'omplete glucosein inthe thepresence presence glucose of oxygen to form carbon of oxygen to form carbon dioxide, water and dioxide, water and energy. energy.

(ncompleteoxidation oxidationof of (ncomplete glucose in the absence of glucose in the absence of oxygento toform formlactic lacticacid acid oxygen and energy )in muscle and energy )in muscle cells*or orethanol, ethanol,carbon carbon cells* dioxideand andenergy energy)in )in dioxide yeast*. yeast*.

>? molecules molecules " "0 0 are are >? produced. produced. 5?E?kF kFenergy energyis isreleased. released. 5?E? #ccurs in the mitochondria. #ccurs in the mitochondria.

5 molecules molecules of of " "0 0 are are 5 produced. produced. 574 kF kF energy energy is is released released 574 )during fermentation* and )during fermentation* and 7A4kF )during anaerobic 7A4kF )during anaerobic respiration in in the the muscle muscle respiration cells*. cells*.

-+hEm!cA" E/UaTi*$ FoR AeRoBi+ ReSp!#At!oN-

C6H12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O+ Energy(ATPmolecules)

-+hEm!cA" E/UaTi*$ FoR AeRoBi+ ReSp!#At!oN-

C6H12O62C3O6O3+Energy(150 kJor2ATP)

-FeRmE$TaTi*$-

-E/UaTi*$ !$VoL&Ed-

-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#Es iN P#*t*.*a-

o o o

he proto-oa, for example 0aramecium and "moeba are unicellular organisms. hese inactive small organisms have no respiratory structure. he whole external surface of these organisms acts as an efficient respiratory surface.

o #xygen diffuses into the cell and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cell through the plasma membrane down the concentration gradient. o "s the external surface of these organisms is fully permeable to the gases, these organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio.

-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#Es !$ !$Se+t-

o he muscles in the abdomen contract and relax to force air in and out of the trachea rhythmically. o his is because the volume and the pressure in the abdomen are different. o During (nhalation: $ he abdominal muscles relax. $ he valves of spiracles open. $0ressure in trachea decrease. $"ir goes into the body of insect. o During exhalation: $ he abdominal muscles contract. $ he valves of spiracles close. $0ressure in trachea increases. $"ir goes out from the body of insect.

-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#E !$ AmPh!b!aNs-

'oetaneous 1espiration o Main supply of oxygen for amphibians. o "s its skin is thin, permeable, moisted and well supplied with blood capillaries, oxygen dissolves into the blood capillaries. 3uckle 1espiration o "s the buckle cavity and the pharynx are covered with a thin epithelium, the diffusion of gases is easier. o Centilation of the buckle cavity influences the air pressure in the buckle cavity and influences the breathing mechanism. 0ulmonary 1espiration o 0ulmonary respiration is carried out when cutaneous respiration and buckle respiration do not supply enough oxygen. o Each frog has a pair of lungs which are moist and has a network of blood capillaries on tiny alveolus.

-ThE HuMaN ReSp!#At*#, S)StEm-

-!$HaLaTi*$ 7 E(HaLaTi*$-

(nhalation 'ontracts 1elaxes 2p and towards 'ontracts (ncreases /ow (nhaled into the lungs /ow .igh 8lattens

"spects External intercostals muscle (nternal intercostals muscle Movement of rib cage "ction of diaphragm Colume of thoracic cavity "ir pressure of thoracic cavity 8low of air (nternal air pressure External air pressure !hape of diaphragm

Exhalation 1elaxes 'ontracts Down and inwards 1elaxes Decreases .igh Exhaled from the lungs .igh /ow 'urves upwards

--aSe*uS E(+hA$-e !$ ThE A"Ve*LuS-

--aSe*uS E(+hA$-e-

-ReSp!#At!oN !$ pLaNt-

-E$DaNgE#Ed Ec*s,sTeM-

-6aTeR p*"LuTioN-

Biological agents

$0olluted by bacteria, proto-oa, virus $'holera)bacteria Cibrio*, .epatitis ")virus*

hemical fertili1ers

hemical to2ins

Physical agents Radioactive 3aste

$0olluted by phosphates, nitrates $'aused by e2cessive use of chemical fertili-ers $Encourage excessive growth of aquatic plant $0olluted by 7.(norganic toxic )'u, 'r, +n etc.* 5.#rganic toxic )pesticides* $'ause cancer and gene mutation, body organs damage $0olluted by discharge of grease and oil, solid sediments $0revent sunlight and oxygen from penetrate through water $contaminate waterways

-EuT#*pH+aTi*$-

 " process where a body of water )e.g. pond or lake* becomes rich in dissolved nutrients )phosphates or nitrates* either naturally or due to the human activity. he organic and inorganic wastes that enter a river or lake enrich the water nutrients. 0hotosynthesi-ing organisms particularly algae grow rapidly. his result in population explosion known as algal bloom. .igh density of algae reduces light intensity to penetrate through water. his lead to the death of other photosynthetic organisms. he decomposition of these dead organisms by bacteria causing severe depletion of water dissolved oxygen. his causing the death of other aerobic organisms such as fish, prawns etc.

-Bi*"*gi+aL o8)-eN DeMaNd 9BoD:-

he total amount of oxygen used by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi which decompose organic matter in such sample water. he lo3er the 3#D value, the higher the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, vice versa.

The presences of organic materials in water increase the growth of microorganisms.

&ncrease of the #$% alue.

'

#$%
) *

The life of the li ing organisms is affected and in danger.

The dissol ed oxygen in water decreases.

+xamples of waste materials and pollution.

Hea y metal ,oils ,ediments +xcessi e fertilizer

Effects

-!ollution increase BOD of ri er. -.ots of bacterial activities decomposing the organic waste materials that present.

-,olid sediments will clog up the ri er flow. -/i ers become shallow. -Flash floods will happen when it is raining hea ily.

Se5oLaH MeNeNgAh Sa!$S TuA$5u S)Ed PuT#A ;<;;; 5aNgA#4 pE#LiS'

b!oLo-) FoLi* =;<;

FaRhA$A BiNt! #UsLi