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The Mongols: Early Practitioners of Maneuver

Warfare

A Monograph
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LtCol Darrel C. Benfield
United States Marine Corps

School of Advanced Military Studies
United States Army Command and General Staff College
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

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The Mongols: Early Practiti oners of Maneuver Warfare
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The maj ority of the literature on maneuver warfare begins with an examination of German ' ' stormtrooper" tactics of World War One or the German
bli tzkrieg campaigns of Worl d War Two. Soviet deep maneuver campaigns and Israeli campaigns of the last half century are also frequently
referenced. This monograph explores the util ity of considering Mongol campaigns in the Thirteenth Century in the corpus of maneuver warfare
examples. In parti cular. thi s monograph explores a number of aspects of maneuver warfare stressed by Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication I
(MCDP- 1, origi nall y publi shed as Fleet Mari ne Force Manual I {FMFM-1 }) in the context of Genghi s Khan's campaign against the Khwarazm
Empire in the early Thirteenth Century.
1S. SUBJECT TERMS
Maneuver Warfare; Mongol Mil itary Campaigns
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LtCol Darrel C. Benfield
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ii

Abstract
THE MONGOLS: EARLY PRACTITIONERS OF MANEUVER WARFARE by LtCol Darrel
C. Benfield, United States Marine Corps, 41 pages.
The majority of the literature on maneuver warfare begins with an examination of German
stormtrooper tactics of World War One or the German blitzkrieg campaigns of World War
Two. Soviet deep maneuver campaigns and Israeli campaigns of the last half century are also
frequently referenced. This monograph explores the utility of considering Mongol campaigns in
the Thirteenth Century in the corpus of maneuver warfare examples. In particular, this
monograph explores a number of aspects of maneuver warfare stressed by Marine Corps
Doctrinal Publication 1 (MCDP-1, originally published as Fleet Marine Force Manual 1 {FMFM-
1}) in the context of Genghis Khans campaign against the Khwarazm Empire in the early
Thirteenth Century.

















iii

Table of Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Strategic Setting .............................................................................................................................. 7
Mongol Considerations...13
Khwarazami Considerations...14
Khwarazami pre-invasion planning16
Mongol pre-invasion planning17
Campaign against the Khwarazm Shah..20
Area of operations and topography.............................................................................................20
Opening moves...22
Next Steps...26
Campaign Analysis.33
Conclusion. .....................................................................................................................................38
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 40

1

Introduction
The year was 1206. It had been nearly a millennia since Rome was at its height of power.
Europe was mired in the Dark Ages; the Crusades to reclaim the Holy Land lay defeated as
Jerusalem fell to Saladin some twenty years prior. It would be ten more years before the signing
of the Magna Carta and some two and a half centuries before the start of the Renaissance.
Meanwhile, China was divided under the rule of three large empires, the Jin, the Song, and the Xi
Xia. These empires had endured in one form or another under various dynastic successions for
nearly a thousand years, but their fate would soon be decided by events far beyond their borders.
Even in Persia, the Khwarazm Empire was expanding to annex new territories. However, this
territorial ambition would prove its undoing as it was soon brought into contact with one of the
greatest military forces the world would ever know. Even as these three cultures contemplated
their next move, a man named Temujin had unified the nomadic tribes of eastern Eurasia
collectively referred to as the Mongols. These tribes soon began an eighty year period of
unprecedented expansion and conquest. The world would come to know this man by his title of
Genghis Khan.
The Mongol campaigns during this period of expansion are seldom studied in most
western military schools, and as a result, the keys to their incredible success are often poorly
understood, if at all. Often dismissed even by modern military students as achieving success due
to vast numerical superiority due to the fact that accounts from their bewildered opponents often
inaccurately attributed Mongol success to numerical superiority instead of technical and tactical
skill, the Mongol hordes often fought outnumbered and made up for their numbers through
highly advanced tactics and operational concepts that would be instantly recognizable to the
modern military professional. This paper argues that the Mongols were early practitioners of what
today would be called Maneuver Warfare.
2

The key works that informed this paper can be broken down into two broad categories:
histories that seek to chronicle the Mongols battles, campaigns, tactics, and organization; and
literature that address maneuver warfare theory. The Secret History of the Mongols, translated by
Urgunge Onon is one of the few primary sources that exists although it usefulness is limited by
the fact it is told in the form of an epic poem, much like The Iliad, leaving open for debate which
elements can be taken literally and which should be interpreted from an allegorical point of view.
Rashid al-Din Ata-Malik Juvainis Jami al-tawarikh (Compendium of Chronicles or Universal
History) translated into English by J.A. Boyle is the most relevant primary source for study of
Mongol operations within the Islamic world. Juvaini had detailed knowledge of the events as well
as personal relationships with many of the key actors on either side of the ledger and his account
forms the backbone of literally every contemporary study of this topic
1
. Unfortunately, few
scholars have attempted to analyze the Mongol campaigns through the lens of contemporary
military doctrine and theory. However, several works form the core of literature on the subject
and collectively do an adequate job of providing the chronology of events even if the authors
sometimes disagree as to specific dates and numbers. J.J. Saunders The History of the Mongol
Conquests, P. Brents The Mongol Empire, Robert Marshalls Storm from the East, and Douglass
Bensons dual works Six Emperors: Rise of the Mongolian Empire and Mongol Campaigns in
Asia are all valuable, relatively contemporary works that provide an insight on the Mongols and
their battle tactics
2
. Unfortunately, each one covers the entirety of the primary Mongol period of
expansion (roughly 1200-1280) and thus do not focus on any single campaign or provide analysis

1
Ala al-Din Malik Muhammad Juvaini, The History of the World Conqueror, translated by J.A.
Boyle (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958); Urange Onon, The Secret History of the
Mongols (Richmond: Curzon Press, 2001).
2
J.J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1971); Peter Brent, Genghis Khan (London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976); Robert
Marshall, Storm From the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1993); Douglas Benson, Mongol Campaigns in Asia (Mansfield: Book Masters,
2006).
3

of why the Mongols were so successful. David Morgans The Mongols provides an exhaustive
literary review that includes Chinese, Persians, European, and modern sources. Finally, Richard
Gabriels Subotai the Valliant is an invaluable source as it synthesizes both Mongol and Persian
accounts, is recently written (2004) by a retired US Army officer who speaks in terms that
resonate with contemporary military officers, and attempts to analyze some of the underlying
reasons for the Mongol battlefield triumphs
3
.
There is a considerable volume of literature on the subject of maneuver warfare but this
paper more narrowly bounds the subject by focusing on the works that influenced the writing of
Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1 (MCDP-1, also formerly known as Fleet Marine Force
Manual 1 {FMFM 1}). This relatively narrow focus was chosen due to two primary factors.
First, MCDP-1 is the capstone doctrinal publication for one of the four services within the United
States Department of Defense and is widely read by both joint and international audiences.
Secondly, much of this publication is a distillation of some of the more prominent and widely
accepted theorists on the subject, namely: Carl von Clausewitz, Sir Basil Henry Liddell Hart,
William Lind, and John Boyd.
Of these works, William Linds Maneuver Warfare Handbook was a pivotal work that
shaped Marine Corps thinking soon after its publication. Timothy Lupers superb Dynamics of
Doctrine: The Change in German Tactical Doctrine during World War One and Bruce
Gudmussons Stormtroop Tactics: Innovation in the German Army 1914-1918 argues that
German innovation late in World War One was the doctrinal forerunner of much of the modern
maneuver warfare theory
4
. Richard Hookers Maneuver Warfare: An Anthology contains a fine

3
David Morgan, The Mongols (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the
Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger Publishers, 2004).
4
Timothy Lupfer, The Dynamics of Doctrine: The Change in German Tactical Doctrine During
the First World War (Fort Leavenworth: Combat Studies Institute, 1981); William Lind,
Maneuver Warfare Handbook Boulder: Westview Press, 1985; Bruce I. Gudmundsson,

4

collection of articles, many of them highly influential during the development of Marine Corps
Maneuver Warfare doctrine. Richard Simpkins Race to the Swift written at the height of the
Cold War in 1985 makes a strong argument for rapid maneuver by light forces to achieve a
decision instead of relying on firepower and attrition. Additionally, works such as Frans Osingas
Science, Strategy, and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd and Robert Leonards Art of
Maneuver: Maneuver Warfare Theory and Air-Land Battle did not directly contribute to the
development of the original draft of FMFM-1 but are highly relevant for any serious student of
this topic
5
.
Before analyzing the Mongol campaign against the Khwarazm Empire in terms of the
Mongols use of maneuver warfare, it is first necessary to define what the term maneuver
warfare will mean during this analysis. There are many different opinions on the doctrinal
origins of maneuver warfare, maneuver theory, and deep shock operations that emanate from
American, German, Russian/Soviet, British, and Israeli theorists to name but a few. As previously
discussed, maneuver warfare as it will be discussed in this paper, will be roughly bounded by the
description contained within Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1 (MCDP 1). As defined in
MCDP 1, maneuver warfare has several key characteristics. First and foremost is that maneuver
warfare seeks to shatter the enemys cohesion instead of simply seeking the cumulative effect
of attrition
6
. To use a simple example from the game of chess, a player using maneuver warfare
doctrine would seek to kill his opponents king through the use of the fewest number of moves

Stormtroop Tactics, Innovation in the German Army, 1914-1918 (Westport: Greenwood
Publishing Group, 1989).
5
Richard Simpkins, Race to the Swift: Thoughts on 21
st
Century Warfare (London: Brasseys
Defence, 1985); Richard Hooker, Maneuver Warfare: An Anthology (New York: Random House,
1993); Robert Leonhard, The Art of Maneuver: Maneuver Warfare and Air-Land Battle (Novato:
Presidio Press, 1994); Frans Osinga, Science, Strategy and War: The Strategic Theory of John
Boyd (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007).
6
United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1: Warfighting (Quantico,
Marine Corps University, 1997), 73.
5

possible rather than attempting to first destroy all his other pieces. This is not to say that
practitioners of maneuver warfare shy away from the attrition of the enemys force, but that the
attrition is not an end in and of itself and must lead to a more meaningful objective. Additionally,
this attempt to shatter the enemys cohesion is focused on the morale, the mental well being, and
the confidence of ones opponent. Most importantly, the mind of the enemys commander is
under attack and the ultimate goal is panic and paralysis, an enemy who has lost the will to
resist.
7

Second, maneuver warfare theory recognizes and emphasizes that warfare is a time-
competitive process. Colonel John Boyds famous OODA loop (observe, orient, decide, act) is
an excellent example of this.
8
If a combatant is able to generate greater tempo, speed relative to
the enemy, then he will hold a decisive advantage over his opponent. As MCDP 1 states,
Especially important is maneuver in timewe generate a faster operating tempo than the enemy
to gain a temporal advantage.
9
To use another example from the game of chess, a force that
achieves a temporal advantage over its enemy would be like being able to make multiple moves
on the chess board to the opponents single move.
In order to take full advantage of this temporal element, the use of decentralized
command and control is critical. The use of decentralized command and control dramatically
speeds up the decision making cycle because subordinate commanders do not have to wait on
explicit instructions from their superiors. Instead, they act in accordance with their commanders
intent instead of relying on detailed orders that cover every imaginable circumstance. This

7
Ibid, 74.
8
John Boyd. Patterns of Conflict http://www.dnipogo.org/boyd/patterns_ppt.pdf (accessed on 10
Jan 2012)
9
United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1: Warfighting (Quantico,
Marine Corps University, 1997), 72.

6

process generates tremendous tempo when fighting a more rigid and centralized opponent as the
enemy is forced to await instructions while fleeting opportunities slip by.
The final characteristic of maneuver warfare is the desire to avoid enemy strengths,
known as surfaces, and instead seek to find or create weakness, known as gaps. Once these gaps
are located, then one can exploit them by pushing forces through to gain access to the enemys
rear area. This causes panic and disorder which is often out of proportion with the physical
destruction caused by the exploitation force. The German blitzkrieg tactics of World War II are
perhaps the most widely known example of this technique. However, it was a British Captain
named B.H. Liddell Hart who described it so famously in a series of lectures during the interwar
years. Often referred to as the expanding torrent, Hart states:
If we watch a torrent bearing down on each successive bank or earthen dam in its path,
we see that it first beats against the obstacle, feeling and testing it at all points. Eventually
it finds a small crack at some point. Through this crack pour the first driblets of water and
rush straight on. The pent-up water on each side is drawn towards the breach. It swirls
through and around the flanks of the breach, wearing away the earth on each side and so
widening the gap. Simultaneously the water behind pours straight through the breach
between the side eddies which are wearing away the flanks. Directly it has passed
through it expands to widen once more the onrush of the torrent. Thus as the water pours
through in ever-increasing volume the onrush of the torrent swells to its original
proportions, leaving in turn each crumbling obstacle behind it.
10

The current state of maneuver warfare theory is open for debate. Much of maneuver warfare
theory was adopted by the United States Army in Air-Land Battle doctrine and by the United
States Marine Corps in the original publication of FMFM-1. Proponents of maneuver warfare
would point to OPERATION IRAQI FREEDOM in 2003 as an example of how this doctrine was
validated in a high tempo offensive operation that quickly routed and destroyed Saddam
Husseins Iraqi Army. However, ten years of conducting largely static counterinsurgency

10
Basil H. Liddell-Hart, The Man-in-the-Dark Theory of Infantry Tactics and the Expanding
Torrent System of Attack http://regimentalrogue.com/misc/liddell-hart_man_in_the_dark.html
(accessed on 10 Jan 2012)
7

operations has potentially dulled this edge. This, coupled with the ever increasing technological
capability and temptation to centrally control operations will force the United States military to
reconcile whether the Army and Marine Corps desire to readopt the tenets of maneuver warfare
theory.
Strategic Setting
At the turn of the 13
th
century, East Asia was dominated by several large empires and
many smaller tribes that had carved out a semiautonomous existence from the larger empires.
Three historical Mongol enemies bordered the Mongol homeland: the Xi Xia to the south,
populated by the ethnically Chinese Tangut tribe (depicted in dark brown in figure 1); the Kara
Khitai, made up of various nomadic steppe tribes (depicted in blue in figure 1); and to their south
and southeast, the great Chin (also referred to as the Jin) Empire which was centered on the
modern day city of Bejing (depicted in yellow in figure 1).
11


(Figure 1: political map of Asia, Europe, and Africa showing the core Mongol tribes in blue and the
Khwarazm Empire in dark green)
12


11
Douglas Benson, Mongol Campaigns in Asia, (Mansfield: Book Masters, 1984), 42-46. The
Chin Empire is often referred to as the Jin Dynasty, the Song Empire is sometimes referred to as
the Han Dynasty.
12
http://mapas.owje.com/maps/11417_eurasia-in-1200.html (accessed on 5 Jan 2012)
8


As Genghis consolidated his power over the Mongol tribes in 1206 he immediately set
off to expand his kingdom at the expense of the Xi Xia and Chin Kingdoms. For over a decade he
waged a highly successful series of campaigns against these two nations, with the Xi Xia suing
for peace and the Chin capital seized by Genghis army. These successes brought the Mongols
into contact with a large and powerful neighbor to their west: the Khwarazm Empire.
13
The
Khwarazm Empire was a vast territory ruled by Khwarazm Shah Ala al-Din Muhammad.
14
The
heart of this territory was in Persia but also included the recently acquired region known as
Transoxania which lay to the east of Persia and consisted of modern-day Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan.
War between the Mongols and the Khwarazm Empire was not a foregone conclusion,
destined to happen. In fact, both Genghis Khan and the Khwarazm Shah had ample motivation to
ensure war did not occur, at least he had time to consolidate his gains. However, events quickly
unfolded that took these two great empires into a war of national survival, with tragic
consequences for the Islamic world. Three distinct periods characterize relations between the two
empires and each are briefly discussed in turn.
The two empires first came into contact with each other shortly after the Shah was able to
annex Transoxania in 1215 which roughly doubled the size of his span of control. As he was
consolidating his gains, the Shah sent an emissary to his new neighbor to the east, Genghis
Khan.
15
No record exists of what specific instructions were given to this delegation but one could

13
Richard N. Frye, The Golden Age of Persia: the Arabs in the East (London: Phoenix, 2000),
95-100.

14
Will be referred to as Khwarazm Shah, Muhammad, or simply the Shah for the
remainder of this monograph.
15
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers Ltd, 1979), 2-3.
9

surmise their job was to ascertain the nature of their neighbor and assess their capabilities and
intentions. As this Khwarazami emissary was traveling through Mongol-occupied areas of China
they came upon the former Chin capital of Chung Tu which had been captured and brutally
sacked by the Mongols in 1215. Upon nearing the city, the Khwarizami emissary observed the
following scene of devastation and death:
Despite the citys submission, the besieging soldiers got out of hand, and unable to resist
the lure of so gigantic a prize, sacked a great part of the capital and slew many thousands
of the inhabitants. A Khorezmian embassy to the Mongol Khan, which passed by Chung
Tu a few months later reports that the bones of the slaughtered formed whole mountains,
that the soil was greasy with human fat and that the rotting bodies brought on an illness
from which many of the embassy died.
16

The reaction of the Shah to this account is lost to history; however it would seem that he
should have taken at least three lessons from their report. First, the Mongols were capable of an
extremely high threshold of violence and destruction upon their chosen enemy. Although scenes
like the one reported by the Khwarazami emissary were not altogether uncommon during this
timeframe, the Shah had inherited much of his kingdom and was able to conduct a relatively
bloodless annexation of his recent acquisitions. Also, during his attempt to subjugate the Abbasid
Caliphate of Bagdad and force the Sultan to acknowledge him as the ruler of all of Islam, the
Shahs army was turned back by the harsh conditions and did not even participate in a pitched
battle.
17
Thus, the Shahs rule had passed largely without engaging in anything resembling the
total war that his delegates had witnessed in China.
The second lesson should have been that the Mongols were no mere cavalry force,
capable only of swooping down on defenseless caravans and towns. In fact, the Mongol army had
rapidly evolved into an all-arms force which was equally at ease fighting battles of maneuver

16
Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and His Conquest of North China (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Press, 1950),178.
17
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers Ltd, 1979), 3-4.
10

upon the open steppe or conducting siege warfare of large, walled cities. This account describes
Chung Tus physical defenses and provides some idea of the scale and sophistication of Mongol
siege craft required to breach and overthrow these types of defenses:
Even in China, a land of great cities, the Chin capital was considered very large and its
defenses exceptional. The walls, which were constructed of stamped clay and crowned
with crenellated brick battlements, measured 54 li (approximately 18 miles) in
circumference and attained a height of 40 feet. Their width is unrecorded, but judging
from existing remains it must have been considerable. Those of present Peking, which are
undoubtedly rather bigger, are 40 feet across the top and at least 50 feet at the base.
Piercing the walls of the city were twelve gates, some say thirteen, and in addition to the
fortifications protecting them, 900 towers and a triple line of moats.
18

The third lesson is arguably more easily overlooked given the distances the Mongols were
operating from their home territory. However, the Shah was soon to discover that the Mongols
unique brand of warfare provided them with a degree of mobility that is perhaps unparalleled in
the history of warfare. This mobility was not simply tactical mobility that allowed them to attack
and flee quickly, but operational and strategic reach that allowed the Mongols to covered vast
distances and project considerable combat power in a relatively short period of time. In this
instance, the Mongols pulled the majority of their forces out of China, moved them to Mongolia,
and then moved against the Khwarazm Empire all within a two year period.
19
The sheer distances
involved were vast with a total distance of roughly 2400 miles between the northern Chinese
battlefields and the edge of the Shahs empire.
20
In the end, it was the Shahs inability to process
these potential lessons learned gathered by his emissary that caused him to grossly underestimate
Mongol capabilities.

18
Desmond Martin, The Rise of Chingis Khan and His Conquest of North China (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Press, 1950),168.
19
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 72-75.

20
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ (accessed on 20 February 2012)
11

The second period of contact between the two empires is an interesting one to consider.
In the year 1218 Genghis Khan launched a punitive campaign against the Naiman tribes who had
resisted him during previous campaigns. He dispatched two forces with roughly 20,000 troops
each. The first was the main effort under the command of his son Jebe whose mission was to
subjugate the Naimans and specifically ensure the death of their renegade leader, Kuchlug. The
second columns mission was to serve as a covering force in case the Khwarazm army attempted
to intercede on the Naimans behalf as the Naimans had previously paid a tribute to the Shah for
protection. This force, commanded by another of Genghis sons Jochi, penetrated across the Tien
Shan and the Pamir Mountains into the Fergana valley, which was part of the Shahs recently
acquired territory.
21
During this incursion into the Shahs territory, Jochis force clashed with
elements of the Shahs army. Although the Mongols were eventually driven off, they inflicted
heavy casualties on the Shahs army. Apparently this clash convinced the Shah that his army
would be at a disadvantage if they fought the Mongols in open warfare and helped shape some of
his strategic and operational decisions that would have great consequences for the upcoming
campaign.
22

Despite the fact that the Mongols and the Khwarazami army had met on the open
battlefield, this incident did not provoke immediate war. In fact, the engagement heralded the
third and final chapter of pre-war negotiations between the two empires. After the campaign
against the Naiman tribesmen had concluded in the annexation of what is modern-day
northwestern China, the great Khan dispatched his own emissaries to the Shah seeking to

21
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 70-72.

22
Ibid., 72.
12

formalize trade relations.
23
The great Silk Road, which in reality was not a road in the
contemporary fashion but a web of routes, cities, and water sources that spread from Europe into
Asia, ran for thousands of miles inside both these empires borders. Control of this road had long
been a financial boon for those cities and territories and both nations stood to benefit from this
trade.
24

The Shah made no formal acceptance or declination of these political and economic
gambits, although it does appear that he suspected Genghis true intentions. Whatever the
Mongols true intent was, in the same year a large trading caravan arrived at the border city of
Otrar. The governor of Otrar accused the Mongols traders of being spies, sent to sow panic and
fear in his city. Although it is possible, even probable that Genghis would have sought to gain
intelligence on his potential enemies by debriefing the traders, it is doubtful they were spies in the
strict sense of the word. In any case, with the blessings of the Shah, the governor of Otrar had the
merchants slaughtered. One survivor made it back to tell the tale of the massacre.
25

In a move that highlighted Genghis predisposition to not wage a war against the
Khwarazm Empire, at least not yet, he dispatched three emissaries to see the Shah. Genghis asked
for retribution and for the governor of Otrar to be punished, which likely meant execution.
However, the Shah had apparently made up his mind that war with the Mongols was inevitable.
He killed one of the ambassadors and burned the beards of the other two who returned to tell the
Khan that the Shah had chosen war. This series of events placed these two great empires on a

23
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers, 1979), 5.
24
German Fedorov-Davydov, The Silk Road and the Cities of the Golden Horde (Berkley: Zinat
Press, 2001), 8.

25
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers Ltd, 1979), 5.

13

collision course that resulted in the destruction of the Khwarazm Empire and rule of this region
by the descendents of the Mongols for centuries thereafter.
Mongol Considerations
Despite the affront committed by the Shah, the strategic timing was far from ripe as
Genghis Khan pondered the decision to war to war in 1218. First and foremost, the Mongols were
involved in a protracted war with the Chinese. In fact they were at war with two distinct Chinese
states at the time of the war with the Khwarazm Empire. The Xi Xia Empire, which was situated
along the northwestern border between China and Mongolia, had been at war with the Mongols
for ten years. Although the Mongols clearly held the upper hand in 1218, the Xi Xia still had to
be considered a threat and in fact were not completely subjugated by the Mongols until 1226.
26

The second of these Chinese states was the Chin Empire, which lay further to the south of
Mongolia. It was far larger and held significantly more military potential than the Xi Xia. The
Mongols had been campaigning against the Chin since 1211 with literally dozens of large-scale
battles and sieges and hundreds of smaller engagements. The Mongols had repeatedly achieved
success on the battlefield only to have the Chinese raise yet another army from the seemingly
inexhaustible reserve of manpower to oppose them. As previously mentioned, the Mongols
successfully besieged and captured the Chin capital of Chung Tu in 1215. The Chin however
simply relocated their capital further south and continued to fight. The Chin were not completely
defeated until 1234.
27

Another Mongol consideration was the fact that they had been continuously at war since
the turn of the century, either pacifying other local nomadic tribes or in conflict with the large

26
Douglas Benson, Mongol Campaigns in Asia (Mansfield: Book Masters, 1984), 183.

27
Stephen Turnbull, Genghis Khan and the Mongol Conquests 1190-1400 (Oxford: Osprey
Publishing, 2003), 11.
14

Chinese empires. Thus, as Genghis considered his options he faced the specter of a two-front war
with two enormous kingdoms that possessed vast resources. Most scholars agree that Genghis did
have some idea of the relative strengths and weaknesses of the Khwarazm Empire. In some cases
this information was gleamed through the small diplomatic and military engagements between the
two peoples, but notably Genghis also received detailed information on the fractures within the
Shahs political system from highly placed yet disaffected subjects of the Shah.
28
In the end,
perhaps the prize was too alluring or the affront to Genghis honor too great to avoid war. The die
had been cast, and the Mongols would now give their full attention to their neighbor to the west.
Khwarazami Considerations
To be sure, if the Mongols ever doubted if war with the Shah was the best strategic
choice, the Shah had a multitude of reasons to avoid war. To understand some of these reasons,
one must first seek to understand the political and demographic restraints that the Shah operated
under. The Khwarazm Empire was not at all a homogeneous one, but instead contained two very
distinct entities. The heart of the original empire was in Persia and correspondingly the majority
of the people from this region were ethnically Persian. These people generally lived a sedentary
lifestyle in cities or in small villages where they tended their crops. However, the recently
annexed region of Transoxania was largely made up of nomadic Turkish peoples. These two
distinct ethnicities did not share common lifestyles or political systems and thus their cooperation
could only be compelled by the point of the sword. This, coupled with the fact that the Turkish
leaders in Tranoxania had been deposed and imprisoned, did not make for a harmonious
relationship between the two halves of the empire.
29


28
David Morgan, The Mongols (New York: Basil Blackwood, 1986), 53.

29
Leo De Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1999),
125-126.

15

To further exacerbate these fractures, the Shah himself was of Turkish decent as his
mother was a descendant of the ethnically Turkish Qipchaq tribe. Furthermore, his mother
apparently wielded considerable if not dominant political power as she held the loyalty of the
Turkish mercenaries which made up the most capable elements of the army. Finally, the Shahs
army had not been forced to campaign against a foe that rivaled it in size and capability, having
only needed to use its imposing bulk to force weaker states to come under the Shahs dominion.
As Morgan summarizes:
The states weaknesses were speedily revealed under such a strain taken together with
the acute tensions that existed between the Turkish and Persian elements in the army,
seems to have made Muhammad reluctant to concentrate his forces against the Mongols,
lest his armys first act should be his own deposition.
30

The one potentially unifying force that the Shah might have utilized was religion. Although
distinctly different by ethnicity and culture, the Turks and Persians did share their Islamic beliefs.
Unfortunately for the Shah, he had already attempted a campaign against the Abbasid Caliphate
in Bagdad in an attempt to install his own spiritual ruler of Islam but was turned back by fierce
storms in the high mountain passes in the winter of 1216.
31
As a result, not only was he unpopular
with many of his subjects due to secular politics, but because the Caliph of Bagdad was the leader
of the Islamic community and was using his influence to undermine the Shahs authority to rule
based on a religious basis.
Despite the many sound reasons that could have led the Shah to conclude that the time
was not ripe to wage war against the Mongols, he instead convinced himself that he could, at a
minimum, withstand a Mongol invasion, and could likely defeat the Mongols decisively. This


30
David Morgan, The Mongols (New York: Basil Blackwood, 1986), 53.

31
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers, 1979), 4.
16

victory would then put him into position to further his influence and annex yet more territories.
This decision would have tragic consequences for his people and for him personally.
Khwarazmi Pre-invasion planning
As the Shah contemplated the inevitable Mongol invasion, it is likely he considered the
primary Mongol avenue of approach into his kingdom to be the one than skirted the northern edge
of the Tien Shan range and entered into Khwarazm from the northeast. This approach allowed
any invader to move his army from water source to water source and precluded the necessity to
cross any large deserts or high mountains. However, he made no preparations against the use of
the old Silk Road route that Jochi had recently used to penetrate into the Fergana Valley. Another
assumption the Shah appeared to have made is that the Mongols were launching a punitive
campaign against the governor of Otrar, who had precipitated this crisis by slaughtering the
Mongol caravan. This would allow the brunt of the Mongol attack to be dissipated on the
periphery of the Shahs kingdom and would protect his political and economic seat of
Samarkand. Finally, the Shahs inability to trust his armys loyalty and capability in open warfare
proved to decisively influence his decision on the disposition of his army. As De Hartog states:
The reason Sultan Ala adin made no attempt to mobilize a Turkestani national army
probably has to do with the nature of those forces, for they were politically feudal in
character, and therefore militarily decentralized and unaccustomed to coordinated
operations in field warfare. Since Ala adin was not only uncertain of his enemys troop
strengths but also the reliability of his own feudal army, he was understandably reluctant
to risk everything on one decisive battle at the border.
32

Although the Shah has been roundly criticized in both modern and ancient accounts of this
campaign, the disposition of his army seems entirely sensibly given the circumstances.
33


32
Leo De Hartog, Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1999),
127.
33
Ala al-Din Ata Malik ibn Muhammad Juvaini, The History of the World Conqueror, translated
by J.A. Boyle (Cambridge: Harvard Press, 1958), 116.

17

However, he did make two fatal assumptions that would prove to be incorrect and would lead to
his empires sudden and total destruction. First, he completely underestimated the Mongols
operational mobility and their ability to operate in climates and accept privations that would
destroy most armies. As the discussion of the campaign will reveal, the Shah had a very specific
expectation of how the campaign would unfold and was entirely unprepared for the Mongols
ability to coordinate large formations separated by hundreds of miles.
Secondly, the Shah felt he could deploy his army and protect his population in large
fortified towns and force the Mongols to lay siege to them. He clearly hoped this would tie down
large Mongol forces as they invested the various towns and that the Mongol siege craft was not
advanced enough to breach the large and modern stone walled defenses. However, as previously
discussed, Mongol siege technology had greatly improved during their campaigns in China and
this highly organized and capable siege train would have little difficulty in breaching the walls of
dozens of cities inside Khwarazm.
34
Ultimately, the Shahs decision to fight defensively provided
the Mongols with the operational time and space which they used to great effect as they planned
their concept of operations for the upcoming campaign.
Mongol Pre-invasion planning
As Genghis Khan and his chief military planner Subotai began developing their concept
for the invasion of Khwarazm, their first order of business was to ensure that this campaign did
not result in a complete loss of momentum or reversal of fortune in China. Thus, they left
Mukhali, a trusted subordinate, in charge of the campaign against the Chin Empire. His mission
was simple in concept yet potentially challenging in execution. Most importantly, he was to
ensure the Chin were unable to counterattack and recoup the losses they had suffered in the


34
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 76.
18

previous ten years of war. Secondly, if the Chin did not attempt to retake lost ground, he would
harry the Chin and provide them with limited breathing space needed to rebuild their armies. He
had to achieve these operational objectives while ensuring he assumed minimal risk of his force
becoming decisively engaged and defeated.
35

The strategic risk the Mongols were assuming in doing this was not insignificant.
Mukhalis force would be quite isolated from the Mongol main body operating against the Shah
with little hope of reinforcement if it came to grief in northern China. Mukhali was obviously a
highly trusted general as he would, for all practical purposes, be out of contact with Genghis for
the duration of his campaign due to the fact that the airline distance from Chung Tu, China to
Samarkand in Khwarazm is approximately 2500 miles or roughly the same distance as New York
City to Los Angeles.
36
Although Mukhalis operations against the Chin do not directly impact the
operations against Khwarazm, it is brought up here only to illuminate the point that the Mongols
placed great confidence in their subordinate commanders and expected them to be able to operate
within the framework of their commanders intent, even at the operational and strategic levels.
After securing their strategic rear area, the next challenge the Mongols faced was to be the
method and timing of an extremely long approach march they would have to make to reach the
borders of the Shahs land. Operational surprise regarding the initial route of the invasion would
be difficult if not impossible to achieve as the main body would be forced to travel through the
Dzungarian Gate in modern-day eastern Kazakhstan and follow the northern Silk Road route
which would lead into the northern border of Khwarazm along the Syr Darya River.
37


35
Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1991), 121.

36
Distances based on Google map.
37
Richard Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 77.

19

Dzungarian Gate
Approximate Outline
of Khwarazm Border
Samarkand
Bukhara
Otrar

(Figure 2: Map of Mongol route to Khwarazm Empire with modern borders superimposed for ease
of reference. Map background exported from Google Earth with additions by the author.)

This route was approximately 2000 miles in length and would take months to traverse.
Furthermore, the Mongol army had to be ready to fight a campaign at the end of this epic journey.
Genghis and Subotai thus made three critical decisions that would have dramatic impact on the
upcoming campaign. The first was to make the approach march from Mongolia across the vast
steppes to Khwarazm during the winter. Although, this caused significant privation during the
long march, it allowed the Mongols to arrive on the Shahs borders just as the spring grasses were
beginning to grow. The presence of plentiful fodder allowed their mounts to gain health prior to
the outset of actual combat operations while simultaneously obviating the need for the Mongols
to feed their horses from a centralized logistics system. The fact they could simply graze as the
campaign developed provided the Mongols with unmatched tactical and operational mobility.
20

The second key decision undertaken by Genghis and Subotai was the dispatch of another
of the Khans sons, Jagatai, as an advance party along the intended route of movement.
38

Although this northern Silk Road route was heavily traveled by caravans and such, Jagatais force
ensured that the route was completely secure and that bridges were built over the more
demanding river crossing sites. It is said that Jagatais men built over 48 bridges which allowed
horses, camels, and even the rare wheeled wagons to cross while expending a minimal amount of
energy. In todays military vernacular, it could be said that these shaping actions allowed
Genghis main body to conduct a simple administrative move instead of being forced to conduct a
lengthy movement to contact.
The final decision made by Genghis and Subotai is that they would seek to exploit the
immobility of the Shahs army by not only attacking along the most likely avenue of approach but
along four distinct axis of advance. By spreading his already outnumbered force, Genghis was
assuming considerable risk. However, he felt he had gauged the Shahs intentions to fight a
relatively static campaign correctly. The relative immobility of the Shahs army mitigated the risk
to the Mongols force and allowed Genghis to execute one of the more breathtaking campaigns in
the history of warfare in terms of its scale and complexity.
Campaign against the Khwarazm Shah
Area of Operations and Topography
Before delving into the details of the campaign, a brief description of the area of
operations is in order. The nature of this area is first and foremost defined by its vast size.
Stretching from the deserts west of the Aral Sea in the west, the high mountain passes over the
Tien Shan range and the Pamir Mountains in the east, the Amu Darya River in the south and the

38
Ibid., 75.

21

grass steppes beyond the Syr Darya River in the north, it is a region that encompasses over four
hundred thousand square miles. By comparison, this is roughly the same size of modern-day
France, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands combined. Genghis forces were stretched along
the north and eastern arch of this area and deprived him the benefit of interior lines. To continue
the comparison to the European land mass, it would be as if Genghis western flank was in Brest,
France and his eastern flank was in Berlin, Germany.
39

The second topographic characteristic of this area is that it is a land of climatic extremes.
In the east, where the Mongols moved against the Shahs right flank in the Fergana Valley, the
mountain passes along the southern Silk Road Route top out at an astonishing height of over
11,500 feet. These passes are typically choked with heavy snowfall during the winter months and
deep into the spring.
40
In west, along the shores of the Aral Sea sits the Kyzyl Kum desert, a
highly inhospitable area to mount a military operation with little to no grassland or water until
one reaches the banks of the Amu Darya or Syr Darya Rivers.
The cities that dot this vast landscape are found in three areas: the Amu Darya River
valley, the Syr Darya River valley, and along the western flanks of the Tien Shan where water is
more plentiful due to mountain runoff and the climate more temperate. Of these cities, chief
among them were Bukhara, once the seat of the Samanid Empire and the intellectual center of the
Islamic world, and Samarkand which was the principal trading center in the region. Samarkand
had grown fabulously wealthy due to its central location along the Silk Road:
By some accounts it was a magnificent city of some 500,000 inhabitants, a community of
craftsman, merchants, Chinese artisans, leather workers, goldsmiths and silversmiths. In
the fields beyond the city walls aubergines and melons were grown, to be packed in snow
inside lead-lined boxes for export. The streets were lined with shady trees, cooled by

39
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ (accessed on 20 Feb 2012)
40
Elevations derived from Google map
22

fountains and decorated with gardens, and under the Khwarazm Shah Samarkand became
one of the most magnificent cities in Asia.
41

In addition to its economic importance, the Shah had recently chosen to make Samarkand his
capital city, making it not only the economic hub but the political center of gravity as well.
Opening Moves
As discussed earlier, the Shah had chosen to deploy his troops in various garrison cities
throughout the region. As the Mongols neared his frontier in early 1220, the Shah finished his
preparations and awaited the attack. There were 50,000 men stationed in Otrar along the northeast
border, ready to absorb the initial blows of the Mongol advance. 20,000 soldiers remained in
Bukhara to help secure his rear area. The largest contingent was an impressive garrison of
110,000 men in Samarkand of which 50,000
42
were elite Turkish mercenaries with the Shah
himself personally in command.
43
It also appears that the Shah sensibly maintained a robust
mobile reserve of some 50,000 loyal Turkish mercenaries.
44
Their exact location as the campaign
began is lost to history but one can logically assume that they would have been under the
command of a trusted subordinate and deployed perhaps near the mouth of the Fergana Valley.
There it would have been within striking distance of the northern border cities, the Fergana
Valley where the Shahs men had battle Jochi two years prior, and within easy reach to reinforce
the capital of Samarkand as required. Finally, the remaining elements of the Shahs 400,000 man

41
Robert Marshall, Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1993), 49.
42
All troops strengths are approximate.
43
Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1991), 132-
33.

44
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 78.

23

army were dispersed in small garrisons in the lesser cities throughout the kingdom such as Herat,
Balkh, Merv, and Nishapur.

Approximate Outline
of Khwarazm Border
Jochi
Jebe
Juji
Genghis &
Subotai
Samarkand
Bukhara
Otrar

(Figure 3: Map of Mongol columns as they advanced into Khwarazm Empire with modern borders
superimposed for ease of reference. Map background exported from Google Earth with additions by
the author.)

As the Mongols completed their lengthy approach march, they began to divide their
already outnumbered command of 150,000 men into various elements, each with their own
distinct and important mission. The first element to detach comprised of some 10,000 men under
the command of Jebe, one of Genghis oldest and most trusted subordinates. Jebe was instructed
to penetrate into the Shahs territory in the vicinity of the Fergana Valley.
45
There he was to draw

45
Ibid., 78.
24

out as many of the Shahs forces as possible and keep them fixed to the east where they would be
out of position to reinforce to the north or to the west, where the main attack would eventually
originate.
Scholars are mute on the exact route that Jebe took but two seem plausible. The first
would involve him detaching from the Mongol main body even before they reached the
Dzungarian Gates and moving along the southern Silk Road towards Kashgar, then crossing into
the Fergana Valley from the south. Another more plausible route would see Jebe detaching from
the main body somewhere in the vicinity of the modern city of Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan and moving
south through the Tien Shan range. This northern route would have required Jebe to brave high
mountain passes that approached 10,000 feet and do so during the winter when they were sure to
be choked with snow. However, the Mongols showed they could navigate this terrain as these
passes were not quite as high as the pass they would eventually cross to reach the Fergana
Valley.
46
The northern route also provided the obvious advantage of keeping Jebe in close
contact with Genghis until the last possible moment, thus easing command and control issues
although the Mongols certainly show in this campaign their willingness to have independent
elements operating well beyond what most other armies would be comfortable with.
Interestingly, once Jebe had reported back that he had found his way through the passes,
Genghis and Subotai quickly made the decision to heavily reinforce this supporting effort with an
additional 20,000 men under the command of Genghis son Juji.
47
This provided Jebe with the
additional combat power to engage a much larger Khwarazm force, and also gave him operational
flexibility to further subdivide his force and wreak havoc and create the illusion that this was a
much larger and more decisive element of Genghis army.

46
Elevations derived from Google map
47
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 79.
25

The second prong and second largest contingent of Genghis army was assigned the
critical task of fixing the Shahs attention on the most obvious and likely avenue of approach
along his northeastern border. Again, the chroniclers fail to reveal its exact size and composition
but it is known that Jochi was in overall command. Jochis mission was to attack the Shahs
frontline defenses along the Syr Darya River, fix his attention here, and most importantly
convince the Shah that this was the Mongols main effort. This mission required the full
repertoire of generalship as Jochi had to simultaneously lay siege to Otrar and its garrison of
50,000 men while actively demonstrating along a several hundred mile front to make it appear he
was probing for a weak spot to exploit. Additionally, the mission required a gamblers courage
and to face down the majority of the Shahs army while Genghis main effort moved around the
Shahs western flank.
48
Finally, the exquisite timing between this fixing attack and Genghis main
body despite the hundreds of miles of physical separation is truly impressive and gives account to
Jochis skill as a operational level commander.
As mentioned, the exact force size is unknown but it had to have been a considerable
force. Assuming that the Mongol army had roughly 150,000 troops available and the combination
of Jebe and Juji totaled 30,000 troops, one could estimate that Jochi would have had between
50,000 and 70,000 men under his command. It is likely his force would have been closer to the
former number as Genghis would have wanted to retain the preponderance of his force for the
decisive blow. Once he shut the 50,000 defenders of Otrar inside the Mongol siege lines, it would
have provided him the opportunity to pull some of his troops to conduct reconnaissance, security,
and offensive operations throughout the remainder of his area of operations. Furthermore, it is
plausible that Jochi had direct control of the preponderance of the Mongol siege equipment as

48
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers, 1979), 12.

26

Jebe could not have transported this equipment through the high mountain passes. However, it
seems likely that Genghis did bring some siege equipment with his column as he did conduct two
short siege operations against Bukhara and Samarkand although he would not have wanted to
encumber his force with excessive amounts of heavy equipment. These factors, coupled with the
Shahs preconceived notion that this would be the axis of advance for Genghis main effort and
the tactical and operational mobility, allowed Jochi to keep the Shahs attention fixated to his
north.
The third element of Genghis army was under his personal command and would strike
the decisive blow in this campaign. It is likely this force approached 70,000 men which gave it
the combat power needed to quickly overcome any resistance found in the open field and still
have the strength to quickly besiege and breach any city fortresses it might encounter along the
way. Mongol spies and disaffected Khwarzami citizens had informed Genghis and Subotai of
another route into the heart of the Shahs kingdom: an unguarded and an entirely unexpected
route. As Jochi began his fixing attack along the Shahs northern border, Genghis swung his main
body far to the west, around the northern and western shores of the Aral Sea to emerge near the
terminus of the Amu Darya River as it divides up into a delta before flowing into the southern end
of the Aral Sea.
49
Once here, Genghis was directly in the Shahs rear area, operating in a lush
river valley that provided water and fodder for his mounts, with no force of any significance
between him and the Shahs capital of Samarkand.
Next Steps
One of the most remarkable aspects of this campaign is the Mongols ability to
coordinate greatly dispersed maneuver elements and achieve near perfect timing. Nowhere was
this talent more in evidence than with the eastern maneuver elements commanded by Jebe and

49
Ibid., 13.
27

Juji. As the campaign began in earnest, these forces completed their epic march over the Tien
Shan Range and into the Fergana Valley, they were the first element of the Mongol army to
penetrate into the Shahs territory. Their arrival must have surprised the Shah somewhat, not
because the direction was entirely unexpected since this was basically the same route used by
Jochi two years prior, but the Shah had seldom seen anyone capable of crossing the high
mountain passes during the winter. Additionally, it must be assumed he expected the main
Mongol thrust to enter his kingdom from the northeast as this was the most likely avenue of
approach.
In any case, the sudden appearance of 30,000 Mongol horsemen at an unexpected place
and time must have been unsettling to the Shah. He quickly made the fateful decision to dispatch
his entire mobile reserve, some 50,000 highly trained and loyal Turkic mercenaries, to deal with
this incursion.
50
The decision to dispatch a force of some kind to address this threat to his eastern
flank is a logical one given what the Shah likely knew at the time. However, the fact he deployed
his entire reserve to deal with the first Mongol gambit was, in hindsight, an unmitigated disaster.
This move robbed the Shah of the one force capable of meeting a large Mongol contingent on the
open battlefield and holding their own. Furthermore, the operational significance of the Fergana
Valley is dubious. A glance at the topography shows that the Mongols could have been bottled up
at the valleys western mouth and all other routes simply lead back over the mountains. Although
Fergana was, and still is, one of the most agricultural rich areas in the region, any damage done
by the Mongols could likely have been quickly rebuilt after the campaign. One is reminded of
Admiral Halseys decision to attempt to engage the Japanese carriers while leaving the landing

50
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 78.

28

force uncovered during the Battle of the Leyte Gulf during World War II.
51
In any case, the
Shahs decision to deploy the entire mobile reserve to deal with a small force that is operating in
an area that was not operationally critical proved to be one of the decisive moments of the entire
campaign.
Of course, this development is exactly what Genghis and Subotai had hoped to
accomplish as now the balance of operational mobility swung even more into the Mongols favor.
With the Shahs attention fixed to the east, Jebe and Juji would have to keep it there. The first
decision they undertook was to give battle to the Shahs elite reserve in the Fergana Valley.
Although their force had been greatly weakened by their trek through the mountains, these
commanders correctly deduced that they needed to risk a pitched battle in order to accomplish
their mission of fixing a large contingent of the Shahs army inside the Fergana Valley.
52

Details of this battle are sparse, but the Shahs troops came close to decisively defeating the
Mongols although both sides suffered heavy casualties. This defeat forced Jebe and Juji to
withdraw, however the Shah once again made a critical error. Instead of following up his victory
with pursuit, he allowed the Mongols to reconstitute and regain the initiative by leaving one force
under Jebe in the Fergana Valley who dispatched Juji further south to menace the Shahs rear area
and sow confusion to the south of the capital. The boldness and risk associated with this decision
cannot be understated as it required to Jebes force to actively operate yet avoid decisive

51
The Battle of Leyte Gulf was a naval battle fought in 1944 between the United State Navy and
the Imperial Japanese Fleet. Admiral Halsey was in overall command of a large amphibious
landing on the Philippine island of Leyte as well as the covering force whose mission was to
protect the landings. Halsey, feeling he had an opportunity to engage and decisively destroy the
Japanese Navy, left the landing uncovered and chased a Japanese decoy fleet. This decision
nearly led to the destruction of the landing force and has been widely criticized by scholars who
have written on this subject.
52
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 78-79.
29

engagement in order to fix the Shahs reserves inside the Fergana Valley. However, apparently
Jebe sensed the timidity of the Shah and correctly deduced that he could further divide his force.
At this point, the Shah erroneously must have thought that the campaign was proceeding
much as he expected. Although the first Mongol thrust was from an unexpected timing and
direction, he had turned it aside and secured his flank. Unfortunately, much like General Hooker
at the Battle of Chancellorsville when General Lee divided his forces twice in the face of a
numerically superior enemy, he was blind to Genghis true designs.
53
The next Mongol attack fell
in an expected direction as Otrar and the other smaller cities along the in Syr Darya River came
under attack from Jochis columns. This did not greatly concern the Shah as he felt secure in his
assumption that Otrar was sufficiently provisioned and its garrison could hold out in its strong
citadel until relieved later. Thus, the Shah did nothing, not realizing that the attack to the north
was not the main effort and not appreciating that his reserves were completely out of position to
the east.
Probably the first indication to the Shah that things were amiss was Jujis reappearance
far to the south along the Amu Darya River. As mentioned earlier, Jebe and Juji split their forces
after the battle against the Shahs elite Turkish mercenaries in the Fergana Valley. Jebe remained
there to continue to fix the Shahs reserves in place. Juji was able to slip away, cross the
mountains and work his way to the southwest from the headwaters of the Amu Darya River, past
the modern-day site of the city of Dushanbe and the current border between Afghanistan and

53
The Battle of Chancellorsville was a battle in northern Virginia during the U.S. Civil War
between General Lees Confederate Army of Northern Virginia and General Hookers Union
Army of the Potomac. Although Lee was outnumbered over two to one, he twice divided his
force in the face of Hookers army and launched a daring attack that smashed Hookers flank
which eventually compelled Hooker to withdraw north of the Rappahannock River, thus ending
the campaign. Chancellorsville is widely viewed by scholars as an example of the dangers of
surrendering the initiative to an opponent, even one that is numerically inferior.
30

Uzbekistan.
54
When he emerged north of the city of Balkh and began destroying the undefended
towns along the Amu Darya River, the shock to the Shah had to be considerable.
Jujis force was relatively small, only 20,000 men, but he was able to wreak great havoc
in the Shahs rear area. The Shah had no way of knowing the exact size of Jujis force, only that
his rear area was completely exposed and that the Mongols were not playing according to the
script that he had written prior to the campaign. At this moment of crisis, the Shah did nothing.
His reserves remained inactive in the Fergana Valley, he made no attempt to transfer from his
garrison at Samarkand, reconstitute his reserve force and attempt to restore the security of his rear
area. One could make the logical conclusion that it is at this moment that the great Khwarazm-
Shah, the Second Alexander, the chosen prince of Allah began to lose his nerve.
Just at the moment that things apparently could not get any worse that is exactly what
happened. Like a thunderclap, Genghis main force completed its march through the Kyzyl Kum
desert and reappeared along the Amu Darya River some 300 west of Samarkand.
55
It is clear
based on the disposition of the Shahs army prior to the start of the campaign and his action soon
after Genghis appearance on his western flank, that the Shah never contemplated this type of
envelopment in his murkiest dreams. It was now obvious that this was not a punitive campaign
solely against the governor of Otrar to avenge the murdered merchants and diplomats. This was a
war of national survival and Genghis meant to destroy not only the Shahs kingdom, but the Shah
as well.
Genghis moved quickly up the Amu Darya valley while his horses and men regained
their strength from the lengthy march through the desert. Within a few days he was within 30 or

54
Richard A. Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 80.

55
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers, 1979), 13.
31

so miles from Bukhara and he turned east away from the river to reach the citys outskirts. After a
short siege, the city fell and its garrison were slaughtered, its walls pulled down, most of the
citys dwelling burned, and its citizens forced to pay heavy tributes to avoid certain death. It is
said Genghis himself mounted the pulpit in the largest mosque and told the citizens It is your
leaders who have committed these crimes, and I am the punishment of God.
56

At this point things had gone from bad to worse for the Shah. Just as Genghis was
descending on Bukhara, word reached his ears that Otrar had fallen, an event which would free up
a Jochis force of 50,000 men to move across the Syr Darya River and reinforce Genghis main
column as it began to near Samarkand. The Shah realized at this moment that he must flee or die,
and he chose flight rather than certain death in the inevitable siege and sack of Samarkand. From
this moment until his eventual death less than a year later, he was hounded by Genghis men as
he fled from city to city until he finally died of pleurisy on a small island in the southern Caspian
Sea, dressed in rags taken from one of his servants. As Robert Marshal stated, it was a most un-
regal performance.
57

Shortly after, Genghis arrived at the gates of Samarkand to complete the encirclement of
the Shahs last remaining army that was any threat to his forces. Due to the unwise decision by
the garrison commander to march out and face Genghis in open battle beyond the citys walls, the
large army was quickly cut down to half of its original 120,000 man size. After a sizable
contingent of 30,000 nomadic tribesmen unilaterally surrendered to the Mongols in the hopes
they would be viewed as kinsman and spared, the citizens of Samarkand had no choice but to
throw their gates open and surrender in an attempt to win the Great Khans leniency. Ultimately,

56
Ala al-Din Ata Malik ibn Muhammad Juvaini. The History of the World Conqueror, translated
by J.A. Boyle (Cambridge: Harvard Press, 1958), 105.

57
Robert Marshall, Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1993), 53.
32

the nomadic tribesmen were killed because Genghis viewed their actions as treacherous to their
liege.
58
Tens of thousands skilled craftsmen and laborers were marched away into captivity while
the remainder of the citizens were permitted to buy their freedom for the sum of 200,000 dinars.
59

At this point the campaign was, fall all intents and purposes, over. Genghis dispatched a
special corps of troops commanded by Subotai to pursue and kill or capture the Shah. Subotai
pursued the Shah with great vigor, only pausing to destroy the occasional town foolish enough
not to surrender. Subotais men nearly captured the Shah on multiple occasions and last sighted
him as he fled aboard a small skiff as he fled towards his final resting place of the island of
Abeskum on the Caspian Sea.
60
While conducting this pursuit it became obvious to Subotai that
the western half of the Shahs empire posed little threat for the creation of a new army or any
significant insurrection against Genghis forces. As in other territories he had already occupied,
Genghis kept his policy of religious tolerance and administration by the indigenous people. This,
coupled with the fact that the Shah was an immensely unpopular ruler, made the subjugation of
what is modern-day Iran straightforward and relatively bloodless. In the south and east, however,
it would turn out to be a different matter.
As Subotai conducted his pursuit to the west, part of Genghis army fanned out to the
south as Genghis main body remainder in the vicinity of Samarkand. They were in search of the
Shahs charismatic son Jelal-ad Din, who had begun to raise a new army amongst the warlike
tribes in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan. Jelal-ad Din was able to defeat a small Mongol
contingent but Genghis, buoyed by the news from Subotai that his western flank was secure,

58
James Chambers, The Devils Horsemen, The Mongol Invasion of Europe (London: Cassell
Publishers Ltd, 1979), 17.
59
Ibid., 17.
60
Richard Gabriel, Subotai the Valiant: Genghis Khans Greatest General (Westport: Praeger
Publishers, 2004), 85.

33

moved against him with the bulk of his army. What followed was perhaps one of the most
destructive campaigns waged against the citizenry of a region as has been recorded in history.
City after city was destroyed and their inhabitants put to the sword in an effort to ensure that no
one in this region would dare challenge the Mongols authority to rule. Saunders estimates that
the death toll reached into the millions, More lives were lost, probably, than in any similar
conflict of such duration, a mere three years The cold and deliberate genocide practiced by the
Mongols has no parallel save that of the ancient Assyrians and modern Nazis.
61
Jelal-ad Din
was eventually defeated by Genghis along the banks of the Indus River, and although he escaped
for a short time before being killed, all resistance to the Mongols in what used to be the
Khwarazmi Empire was over.
62

Campaign Analysis
One of the most remarkable characteristics that defined Mongol military operations,
particularly during the campaign against the Khwarazm Shah, was their use of decentralized
command and control. Use of such a decentralized command and control system gave the
Mongols an enormous advantage over their enemies in terms of generating faster tempo and
taking advantage of fleeting opportunities. Few campaigns prior to the advent of modern
command and control equipment like the radio operated over such vast distances while requiring
split second timing between the far flung maneuver elements. One is left to wonder how they
were able to accomplish this seemingly impossible feat.
First, distances to the Mongol army were not as daunting as to other armies due to their
impressive operational mobility. Obviously they were a horse-borne force, but there is more to it

61
J.J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 1971), 55-56.

62
Paul Ratchnevsky, Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1991), 135.

34

than simply attributing their success to superior horse flesh. Each Mongol soldier had multiple
mounts that moved behind the main force to account for fatigue, injury, and battlefield losses.
This allowed the Mongols to make lengthy approach marches with relative ease and, most
importantly, be fresh enough to fight a pitched battle despite the distances traveled. Genghis
campaign against the Khwarazm Empire contains many excellent examples of this to include Jebe
and Jujis engagement with the Shahs reserves in the Fergana Valley after the Mongols had
crossed one of the most daunting mountain ranges in the world during the wintertime.
Equally importantly the Mongols were well adapted to this type of warfare and practiced it
extensively. As Marshall vividly describes, the Mongols would:
string an entire division of the army along what might be described as a starting line,
sometimes 130 km (80 miles) long. On a signal the entire complement, fully armed as if
for battle, and would ride forward at a walk towards a finish line hundreds of kilometers
away Over the following days the massed cavalry would march forward, sweeping or
herding before them all the game they encountered along the way During the hunt, as
the riders approached the finish line the flanks would begin to ride ahead of the centre,
and so slowly describe a massive arc. Still further on, the flanks would turn and ride
towards each other, thus trapping all the game that had been herded over the hundreds of
kilometers of countryside... Throughout the exercise officers rode behind their men,
shouting orders and directing their movementsThe Mongols also employed an
extremely effective and reliable system of signals, through flags, torches and riders who
carried messages over great distances. This eventually provided them with one of the
greatest advantages they ever took to the field: reliable and effective communications. It
enabled all the Mongol units to remain in constant contact with each other and, through
their remarkable corps couriers, under the control of a single commander.With
exercises like this the Mongols developed a regime that enabled them to train and
maintain an extremely professional army something of a novelty for the thirteenth
century.
63

Although it would be easy to read this passage and assume that this in fact meant that the
Mongols were operating under centralized command and control, this was not the case and should
not be confused with a highly disciplined force. The Mongols were skillful at using commanders
intent, a mechanism by which a commander can at once generate tempo through decentralized

63
Robert Marshall, Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1993), 40-41.
35

operations yet achieve unity of action.
64
This intent provided the conherence that allowed them to
act in consonance with the overall operational design when they were out of direct
communication with their commander.
The Khwarazm campaign is replete with excellent examples of this type of command and
control style. No less than four major maneuver elements, five if one counts the large force left in
China, were required to operate for extended periods of time out of direct contact with Genghis
and Subotai. To add to the level of complexity, Jochi, Jebe, and Juji each had very nuanced
missions that could have ended disastrously for the Mongols. Even the arguably simplest of these
missions, Jochis task to lay siege to Otrar and fix the Shahs attention along the most likely
avenue of approach could have become a victim of its own success and subsequently thrown off
the timing of whole campaign. One is reminded of the United States Marine Corps attack into
Kuwait during OPERATION DESERT STORM that drove the Iraqi Army completely out of
Kuwait instead of achieving its desired purpose of fixing the Iraqis and allowing the coalitions
main effort to encircle and destroy the Iraqi Army.
65

Another maneuver warfare characteristic that appears during this campaign is the
Mongols deliberate targeting, and ultimately shattering, the cohesion of the Shahs army. As
previously discussed, the Shahs army had the potential to come unhinged due to its demographic
composition, competing loyalties, and uneven quality. Even so, it is apparent that Genghis and
Subotai went to lengths to accentuate these rifts and fight the campaign in such a manner that it
maximized these disadvantages. Furthermore, the use of surprise at the operational level was the

64
United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1: Warfighting (Quantico,
Marine Corps University, 1997), 77-78.

65
James. G Burton, Pushing Them Out the Back Door, U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings (June
1993): 37-42.
36

decisive cause of the Shahs armys unraveling. As stated in MCDP-1, surprise is a state of
disorientation resulting from an unexpected event that degrades the enemys ability to resist.
66

By first allowing the Shah to observe a large force operating along an expected avenue of
approach and then deceiving him as to the true location of his main effort, Genghis greatly
enhanced the shock value of surprise. Jujis appearance to the south of Samarkand was the first
indication that the campaign was not going according to the Shahs preconceived notions. Soon
thereafter, in what B.H. Liddell-Hart described as one of the most dramatic surprises in the
whole history of war,
67
Genghis appeared with his main effort force 300 miles behind the Shahs
front lines and began to ravage his rear area. If the Shah retained any aspirations of still winning
this campaign, they completely evaporated at this moment. Additionally, although none of the
chroniclers makes specific mention of it, the effort on the morale of the common soldier in the
Shahs army had to be devastating. It is easy to argue that the coincidental capitulation of Otrar to
the north and the brief siege of Samarkand, despite its garrison that numbered over 100,000, can
be attributed the Shahs army learning of the appearance of the Mongols in their rear area which
led to their demoralization and ultimately to their defeat.
The final maneuver warfare characteristic that stands out about the Mongol campaign
against the Khwarazm Empire is their use of the concept of surfaces and gaps. Had the campaign
been conducted in the manner the Shah reasonably expected, Genghis would have moved his
army through the Dzungarian Gate, along the north edge of the Tien Shan Range and into
Khwaram from the northeast. There he would have encountered the formidable defenses of the
various cities along the Syr Darya River. Instead Genghis chose to divide his already

66
United States Marine Corps, Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1: Warfighting (Quantico,
Marine Corps University, 1997), 42.

67
Basil H. Liddell-Hart, Great Captains Unveiled (London: William Blackwood and Sons, 1927),
56.
37

outnumbered army so as to probe for the gaps in the Shahs defense instead of attacking into a
prepared defensive position.
Needless to say, the decision to do this did not come without considerable risk. Each of
Genghis small maneuver elements were forced to spend extensive time operating outside the
mutual support of another element and thus could have been brought to decisive engagement and
destroyed piecemeal. Furthermore, Genghis plan required exquisite timing and therefore ran the
risk of exposing his elements to the overwhelming combat power that the Shah could potentially
bring to bear by operating on interior lines. Often such plans come to grief when faced with
Clausewitzs fog and friction and one can think back to the Japanese battle plan at the battle of
Midway as a classic example of a plan that was too reliant on the enemy doing exactly what was
expected of him
6869
. In this case, history shows that Genghis took the measure of his man and felt
the rewards justified the risks.
Beyond simply moving his forces into gaps that already existed, Genghis did a masterful
job of creating what Leonard would refer to as positional dislocation.
70
By first moving Jebe
into the Fergana Valley he achieved the purpose of pulling the Shahs elite reserves away from
the decisive area where the campaign would be decided. After engaging Jebe in an inconclusive
engagement, they remained fixed in the Fergana Valley and did not participate in any meaningful

68
Carl von Clausewitz, On War, translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1984), 119-121.

69
The Battle of Midway was a naval battle during World War Two between the United States
Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy. Despite having an overwhelming advantage in every class
of ship, the Japanese spread their force over the entire Pacific Ocean in an attempt to deceive the
Americans as to the true location of their aim, which was to seize Midway Island. The Americans
correctly deduced the true aim of the Japanese attack and were able to inflict a crippling defeat on
them. This battle is often cited by scholars as an example of an overly complex plan that was too
reliant on the enemy doing exactly what he was expected to do.
70
Robert Leonhard, The Art of Maneuver: Maneuver Warfare Theory and Air-Land Battle
(Novato: Presidio Press, 1994), 67.

38

way in the remainder of the campaign. It was as if they had ridden off the map. Additionally,
Jochis ability to deceive the Shah as to the direction of the Mongols main effort attack played a
crucial role in allowing Genghis to penetrate unseen deep into the Shahs rear area.
Conclusion
In the final analysis, the Mongols skillfully executed a bold and imaginative campaign
plan that brought them decisive victory against an army nearly three times their size in just a few
months of fighting. In addition to their martial skill at the tactical level, the Mongols
accomplished this through the use of operational level techniques that are recognizable to todays
modern military practitioner as maneuver warfare. Instead of attacking where the Shah was
strongest, they assumed great risk and divided their army in order to penetrate into the physical
gaps left by their enemy. Additionally, their movements tied down the only forces the Shah might
have used to regain the initiative once the full scope of the Mongol plan was revealed. Their
operational tempo, accentuated through the use of decentralized command and control, gave the
Shah little time to think and redeploy his forces when the situation turned from bad to worse.
Finally, their use of surprise helped shock and demoralize the Shah as well as his army, thus
ending the campaign before the considerable weight of numbers could be brought to bear.
The study of the Mongol period of expansion from 1206-1281 is one that is sadly
neglected in the American militarys study of warfare. Although the sheer carnage and
destruction wrought by the Mongol conquests of China, Persia, and Eastern Europe could cause
some to shy away from celebrating their military prowess, the Mongols treatment of their
enemies was consistent with the mores of the era and should not distract from the overall value of
their contributions to the study of warfare. A study of this period in general, and the campaign
against the Khwarazm Shah in particular, would greatly enrich the professional education of any
officer seeking to understand the operational level of war. As the volume of books on this subject
that are published increase, the United States military would be well served to expand beyond it
39

current comfort level of the American Civil War, World War Two, and the Napoleonic
campaigns and add a study of 13
th
Century Mongol warfare into the curriculum. The result would
be the addition of another Great Captain to the Western lexicon: Genghis Khan. More
importantly, it would provide another excellent example of a highly successful military enterprise
that incorporated so many of the characteristics that modern armies seek to possess.





















40

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