P A R T O N E

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I ntroducti on to Cryptanal yst
CHAPTER 1
TERMI NOLOGY AND SYSTEM TYPES
Section I
Basic Concepts
1-1. Cryptology
Cryptology is the branch of knowledge which concerns secret communications in all its
aspects. Two major areas of cryptology are cryptography and cryptanalytics.
1-2. Cryptography
Cryptography is the branch of cryptology concerned with protecting communications
from being read by the wrong people. Codes and ciphers that are used to protect com-
munications are called cryptographic systems. The application of codes and ciphers to
messages to make them unreadable is called encryption. The resulting messages are
called cryptograms. The people who create and use cryptographic systems are called
cryptographers.
1-3. Cryptanalytics
Cryptanalytics is the branch of cryptology concerned with solving the cryptographic
systems used by others. The objects of cryptanalysts are to read the text of encrypted
messages and to recover the cryptographic systems used. The text is recovered for its
potential intelligence value. The systems are recovered for application to future
messages in the same or similar systems.
1-4. Signal Communications
In military applications most encrypted messages are sent by electronic means rather
than physically carried or mailed. The electronic means include those sent by wire and
those transmitted by radio. Whether wire or radio is used, they can be sent by
telephone, telegraph (Morse code), teletypewriter, facsimile, or computer. The elec-
tronic means provide greater speed than physical means, but make the communica-
tions more vulnerable to intercept by others.
FOR OFFI CI AL USE ONLY
Section II
Cryptographic Systems
1-5. Ciphers and Codes
There are two major categories of cryptographic systems, called ciphers and codes.
Nearly all military systems fall into one or the other of these categories or a combina-
tion of the two. Cipher systems are those in which the encryption is carried out on
single characters or groups of characters without regard to their meaning. Codes, on
the other hand, are more concerned with meanings than characters. The basic unit of
encryption in a code system is a word or phrase. When a message is encrypted by a
code system, code groups primarily replace words and phrases. Code groups may also
replace single characters where necessary, but the substitution for complete words is
the key distinction that separates a code from a cipher. Because of this, the
cryptanalytic approaches to codes and ciphers are quite different from each other.
a. Messages encrypted by a cipher system are said to be enciphered. Similarly,
messages encrypted by a code system are encoded. The resulting text is called
ciphertext or code text. When a cryptogram is translated back into readable form or
plaintext, it is said to be decrypted, or more specifically, decoded or deciphered.
b. The term code in this manual is given the formal meaning as explained above and
in more detail in Part Six. You will often see and hear the term code used with other
meanings that do not apply here. Code, in its more general sense, can mean any
cryptographic system or any system of replacing one set of values with another. The
terms Morse code, binary code, Baudot code, and computer code are examples of
the more general usage of the term.
1-6. Enciphered Codes
Some code systems are further encrypted by a cipher system to produce a hybrid type
called enciphered codes. This second encryption process is called superencryption or
superencipherment. Such systems are normally much more secure than singly encryp-
ted systems, but because of the added complexity take longer to encrypt and are more
prone to errors.
1-7. Other Means of Security Communications
Although most military requirements to secure communications are met through the
use of codes and ciphers, there are other approaches that can be used in special situa-
tions. One such approach is the use of concealment systems. In a concealment system,
the plaintext is hidden within another longer text by a predetermined rule or pattern.
Other approaches to concealing messages are to use invisible inks or to reduce a
message photographically to a dot-sized piece of film. Another approach is to transmit
a message from a tape played so fast that it sounds to the ear like a burst of static on
the radio. Security for all these methods depends on concealing the fact that a secret
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message is being sent at all. Once the existence of the communications is suspected or
anticipated, the security is significantly lessened.
1-8. Types of Ciphers
There are hundreds of types of cipher systems ranging from very simple paper-and-
pencil systems to very complex cipher machine or computer enciphered systems.
These can be categorized as either transposition or substitution or a combination of the
two.
a.
b.
Transposition. In a transposition system, the plaintext characters of a message are
systematically rearranged. After transposing a message, the same characters are
still present, but the order of the letters is changed.
Substitution. In a substitution system, the plaintext characters of a message are
systematically replaced by other characters. After the substitution takes place, the
order of the underlying plaintext is unchanged, but the same characters are no
longer present. In the simplest substitution systems, the replacement is consistent;
a given plaintext character always receives the same replacement character or
characters. More secure systems change the replacements so that the equivalents
change each time the same character is encrypted.
1-9. Substitution Cipher Alphabets
c :
In everyday usage, an alphabet is a list of the letters used by a language. They vary by
language. Many European and Latin American languages share the same alphabet as
ours or have minor variations. Russian, Greek, Arabic, and Oriental languages have
recognizably different alphabets. The term cipher alphabets has a slightly different
meaning. Instead of a list of characters, a cipher alphabet has two parts; a list of plain-
text characters and their cipher equivalents. In the simplest ciphers, an English cipher
alphabet will have 26 plaintext letters and 26 ciphertext equivalents, as in the example
below.
p:
a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Z C F I L O R U X A D G J M P S V Y B E H K N Q T W
p: send help
c : BLMI ULGS
In the example, p: designates plaintext and c: designates ciphertext. For clarity, the
plaintext is shown in lower case and the ciphertext in capitals. A more secure alphabet
may have more ciphertext equivalents than plaintext characters to provide for some
variation in encipherment. Whether or not there is variation, a single alphabet system
is called a monoalphabetic system. A system which gains more security by
systematically using more than one alphabet is called a polyalphabetic system.
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