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TheHiddenFaceofEve

NawalElSaadawi1980
TheNaked(Hidden)FaceofEve,
BeaconPress,Boston.ISBN0807067016
1. TheQuestionThatNoOneWouldAnswer
2. TheVeryFineMembraneCalled'Honour'
3. CircumcisionofGirls
4. TheThirteenthRibofAdam
5. LibertytotheSlave,ButNotfortheWoman
NOTE:Thisextractisincludedasanessentialreadingfortransformingtheworld.Youare
requestedtopurchasethebookyourselfasitis,withoutquestion,essentialreadingmaterial.
NawalElSaadawiisaleadingEgyptianfeminist,socialist,medicaldoctor,novelistandauthorofa
classicworkonwomeninIslam,TheHiddenFaceofEve.ShehadadistinguishedcareerasDirector
ofHealthEducationintheMinistryofHealthinCairo,untilshewasdismissedsummarilyfromher
postin1972,asaconsequenceofeherpoliticalwritingandactivities.Worsewastofollow,forin
1981shewasarrested,togetherwithsomethousandsofothers,forallegedcrimesagfainstthestate.
ShewasreleasedonlyaftertheassasinationofPresidentSadat.MemoirsfromtheWomen'sPrisonIII
givesheraccountofthisexperience.
PART1TheMutilatedHalf
1.TheQuestionThatNoOneWouldAnswer
IwassixyearsoldthatnightwhenIlayinmybed,warmandpeacefulinthatpleasurablestatewhich
lieshalfwaybetweenwakefulnessandsleep,withtherosydreamsofchildhoodflittingby,likegentle
fairiesinquicksuccession.Ifeltsomethingmoveundertheblankets,somethinglikeahugehand,
coldandrough,fumblingovermybody,asthoughlookingforsomething.Almostsimultaneously
anotherhand,ascoldandasroughandasbigasthefirstone,wasclappedovermymouth,toprevent
mefromscreaming.Theycarriedmetothebathroom.Idonotknowhowmanyofthemtherewere,
nordoIremembertheirfaces,orwhethertheyweremenorwomen.Theworldtomeseemed
envelopedinadarkfogwinchpreventedmefromseeing.Orperhapstheyput4omekindofacover
overmyeyes.AllIrememberisthatIwasfrightenedandthatthereweremanyofthem,andthat
somethinghkeanirongraspcaughtholdofmyhandandmyarmsandmythighs,sothatIbecame
unabletoresistoreventomove.Ialsoremembertheicytouchofthebathroomtilesundermynaked
body,andunknownvoicesandhummingsoundsinterruptednowandagainbyaraspingmetallic
soundwhichremindedmeofthebutcherwhenheusedtosharpenhisknifebeforedaughteringa
sheepfortheEid'.Mybloodwasfrozeninmyveins.Itlookedtomeasthoughsomethieveshad
brokenintomyroomandkidnappedmeftommybed.Theyweregettingreadytocutmythroatwhich
wasalwayswhathappenedwithdisobedientgirlsfikemyselfinthestoriesthatmyoldrural
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grandmotherwassofondoftellingme.Istrainedmyearstryingtocatchtheraspofthemetallic
sound.Themomentitceased,itwasasthoughmyheartstoppedbeatingwithit.Iwasunabletosee,
andsomehowmybreathingseemedalsotohavestopped.YetIimaginedthethingthatwasmaking
theraspingsoundcomingcloserandclosertome.Somehowitwasnotapproac@ngmyneckasIhad
expectedbutanotherpartofmybody.Somewherebelowmybelly,asthoughseekingsomething
buriedbetweenmythighs.AtthatverymomentIrealizedthatmythighshadbeenpulledwideapart,
andthateachofmylowerlimbswasbeingheldasfarawayftomtheotheraspossible,grippedby
steelfingersthatneverrelinquishedtheirpressure.Ifeltthattheraspingknifeorbladewasheading
straightdowntowardsmythroat.Thensuddenlythesharpmetallicedgeseemedtodropbetweenmy
thighsandtherecutoffapieceoffleshfrommybody.Iscreamedwithpaindespitethetighthand
heldovermymouth,forthepainwasnotjustapain,itwaslikeasearingflamethatwentthroughmy
wholebody.Afterafewmoments,Isawaredpoolofbloodaroundmyhips.Ididnotknowwhat
theyhadcutofffrommybody,andIdidnottrytofindout.Ijustwept,andcalledouttomymother
forhelp.ButtheworstshockofallwaswhenIlookedaroundandfoundherstandingbymyside.
Yes,itwasher,Icouldnotbemistaken,infleshandblood,rightinthemidstofthesestrangers,
talkingtothemandsmilingatthem,asthoughtheyhadnotparticipatedinslaughteringherdaughter
justafewmomentsago.Theycarriedrnetomybed.Isawthemcatchholdofmysister,whowastwo
yearsyounger,inexactlythesamewaytheyhadcaughtholdofmeafewminutesearlier.Icriedout
withaflmymight.No!No!Icouldseemysister'sfaceheldbetweenthebigroughhands.Ithada
deathlypallorandherwideblackeyesmetmineforasplitsecond,aglanceofdarkterrorwhichIcan
neverforget.Amomentlaterandshewasgone,behindthedoorofthebathroomwhereIhadjust
been.Thelookweexchangedseemedtosay:'Nowweknowwhatitis.Nowweknowwhereliesour
tragedy.Wewerebornofaspecialsex,thefemalesex.Wearedestinedinadvancetotasteofmisery,
andtohaveapartofourbodytornawaybycold,unfeelingcruelhands.'Myfamilywasnotan
uneducatedEgyptianfamily.Onthecontrary,bothmyparentshadbeenfortunateenoughtohavea
verygoodeducation,bythestandardsofthosedays.Myfatherwasauniversitygraduateandthatyear
(1937)hadbeenappointedGeneralControllerofEducationfortheProvinceofMenouflaintheDelta
regiontotheNorthofCairo.MymotherhadbeentaughtinFrenchschoolsbyherfatherwhowas
DirectorGeneralofArmyRecruitment.Nevertheless,thecustomofcircumcisinggirlswasvery
prevalentatthetime,andnogirlcouldescapehavingherclitorisamputated,irrespectiveofwhether
herfamilylivedinaruraloranurbanarea.WhenIreturnedtoschoolafterhavingrecoveredfromthe
operation,Iaskedmyclassmatesandfriendsaboutwhathadhappenedtome,onlytodiscoverthatall
ofthemwithoutexception,hadbeenthroughthesameexperience,nomatterwhatsocialclassthey
cameftom(upperclass,middleorlowermiddleclass).Inruralareas,amongthepoorpeasant
families,allthegirlsarecircumcisedasIlateronfoundoutfrommyrelativesinKafrTahla.This
customisstillverycommoninthevillages,andeveninthecitiesalargeproportionoffamilies
believeitisnecessary.However,thespreadofeducationandagreaterunderstandingamongparents
ismakingincreasingnumbersoffathersandmothersabstainfromcircumcisingtheirdaughters.The
memoryofcircumcisioncontinuedtotrackmedownlikeanightmare.Ihadafeelingofinsecurity,of
theunknownwaitingformeateverystepItookintothefuture.Ididnotevenknowiftherewerenew
surprisesbeingstoredupformebymymotherandfather,ormygrandmother,orthepeoplearound
me.Societyhadmademefeel,sincethedaythatIopenedmyeyesonfife,thatIwasagirl,andthat
thewordBint(girl)whenpronouncedbyanyoneisalmostalwaysaccompaniedbyafrown.Even
whenIhadgrownupandgraduatedasadoctorin1955,Icouldnotforgetthepainfulincidentthat
hadmademelosemychildhoodonceandforafl,andthatdeprivedmeduringmyyouthandformany
yearsofmarriedhfefromenjoyingthefullnessofmysexualityandthecompletenessoflifethatcan
onlycomefromallroundpsychologicalequilibrium.Nightmaresofasiniiiarnaturefollowedme
throughouttheyears,especiallyduringtheperiodwhenIwasworkingasamedicaldoctorintherural
areas.ThereIveryoftenhadtotreatyounggirlswhohadcometotheoutpatientsclinicbleeding
profuselyafteracircumcision.Manyofthemusedtolosetheirlivesasaresultoftheinhumanand
primitivewayinwhichtheoperation,savageenoughinitself,wasperformed.Otherswereafflicted
withacuteorchronicinfectionsftomwhichtheysometimessufferedfortherestoftheirdays.And
mostofthem,ifnotall,becamethevictimslateronofsexualormentaldistortionsasaresultofthis
experience.Myprofessionledme,atonestage,toexaminepatientscomingfromvariousArab
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countries.AmongthemwereSudanesewomen.IwashorrifiedtoobservethattheSudanesegirl
undergoesanoperationforcircumcisionwhichistentimesmorecruelthanthattowhichEgyptian
girlsaresubjected.InEgyptitisonlytheclitoriswhichisamputated,andusuallynotcompletely.But
intheSudan,theoperationconsistsinthecompleteremovalofalltheexternalgenitalorgans.They
cutofftheclitoris,thetwomajorouterlips(labiamajora)andthetwominorinnerlips(labiaminora).
Thenthewoundisrepaired.Theouteropeningofthevaginaistheonlyportionleftintact,not
howeverwithouthavingensuredthat,duringtheprocessofrepairing,somenarrowingoftheopening
iscarriedoutwithafewextrastitches.Theresultisthatonthemarriagenightitisnecessarytowiden
theexternalopeningbyslittingoneorbothendswithasharpscalpelorrazorsothatthemaleorgan
canbeintroduced.WhenaSudanesewomanisdivorced,theexternalopeningisnarrowedoncemore
toensurethatshecannothavesexualrelations.Ifsheremarries,wideningisdoneagain.Myfeelingof
angerandrebellionusedtomountupasIlistenedtothesewomenexplainingtomewhathappens
duringthecircumcisionofaSudaneseGirl.Myangergrewtenfoldwhenin1969Ipaidavisittothe
Sudanonlytodiscoverthatthepracticeofcircumcisionwasunabated,whetherinruralareas,oreven
inthecitiesandtowns.Inspiteofmyupbringingandmedicaleducation,inthosedaysIwasnotable
tounderstandwhygirlsweremadetoundergothisbarbaricprocedure.TimeandagainIaskedmyself
thequestion:'Why?Why?'ButIcouldnevergetananswertothisquestionwhichwasbecoming
moreandmoreinsistent,justasIwasneverabletogetananswertothequestionsthatracedaroundin
mymindthedaythatbothmysisterandIwerecircumcised.Thisquestionsomehowseemedtobe
linkedtootherthingsthatpuzzledme.Whydidtheyfavourmybrotherasregardsfood,andthe
freedomtogooutofthehouse?WhywashetreatedbetterthanIwasinallthesematters?Whycould
mybrotherlaughatthetopofhisvoice,movehislegsfreely,runandplayasmuchashewished,
whereasIwasnotsupposedtolookintopeople'seyesdirectly,butwasmeanttodropmyglance
wheneverIwasconfrontedwithsomeone?IfIlaughed,Iwasexpectedtokeepmyvoicesolowthat
peoplecouldhardlyhearme,orbetter,confinemyselftosmilingtimidly.WhenIplayed,mylegs
werenotsupposedtomovefreely,buthadtobekeptpolitelytogether.Mydutieswereprimarilyto
helpincleaningthehouseandcooking,inadditiontostudyingsinceIwasatschool.Thebrothers
however,theboys,werenotexpectedtodoanythingbutstudy,Myfamilywaseducatedandtherefore
differentiationbetweentheboysandgirls,especiallyasmyfatherwasMmselfateacher,never
reachedtheextentwhichissocommoninotherfamilies.Iusedtofeelverysorryformyyounggirl
relativeswhentheywereforcedoutofschoolinordertogetmarriedtoanoldmanjustbecausehe
happenedtoownsomeland,orwhentheiryoungerbrotherswouldhumiliateandbeatthemforno
reasonatall,exceptthatasboystheycouldaffordtoactsuperiortotheirsisters.Mybrothertriedto
dominateme,inturn,butmyfatherwasabroadmindedmanandtriedasbesthecouldtotreathis
childrenwithoutdiscriminatingbetweentheboysandthegirls.Mymother,also,usedtosaythata
girlisequaltoaboy,butIusedtofeelthatinpracticethiswasoftennotthecase.Whenevertills
differentiationoccurredIusedtorebel,sometimesviolently,andwouldaskmymotherandfather
whyitwasthatmybrotherwasaccordedprivilegesthatwerenotgiventome,despitethefactthatI
wasdoingbetterthanhimatschool.Myfatherandmother,however,neverhadanyanswertogive
meexcept:'Itisso...'Iwouldretort:'Whyshoulditbeso?'Andbackwouldcometheansweragain,
unchanged:'Becauseitisso...'IfIwasinanobstinatemood,Iwouldrepeatthequestionagain.
Then,attheendoftheirpatience,theywouldsayalmostinthesamevoice:'Heisaboy,andyouarea
girl.'Perhapstheythoughtthatthisanswerwouldbeenoughtoconvinceme,oratleasttokeepme
quiet.Butonthecontraryitalwaysmademepersistmorethanever.Iwouldask:'Whatisthe
differencebetweenaboyandagirl?'Attillspointmyoldgrandmother,whoveryoftenpaidusavisit,
wouldinterveneinthediscussion,whichshealwaysdescribedasbeingan'infringementofgood
manners',andscoldmesharply:'Ihaveneverinallmylifeseenagirlwithsuchalongtongueasyou.
Ofcourseyouarenotfikeyourbrother.Yourbrotherisaboy,aboy,doyouhear?Iwishyouhad
beenbornaboyhkehim!'Nooneinthefamilywaseverabletogivemeaconvincinganswertomy
question.Sothequestioncontinuedtotumaroundrestlesslyinmymind,andwouldjumptothe
forefronteverytimesomethinghappenedthatwouldemphasizethefactthatthemaleistreated
everywhereandatalltimesasthoughhebelongstoaspecieswhichissuperiortothatofthefemale.
WhenIstartedtogotoschool,Inoticedthattheteacherswouldwritemyfather'snameonmy
notebooks,butneverthatofmymother.SoIaskedmymotherwhy,andagainsheanswered,'Itisso.'
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Myfather,however,explainedthatchildrenarenamedaftertheirfather,andwhenIsoughttofmdout
thereasonherepeatedthephrasethatIknewweflbynow:'Itisso.'Isummonedupallmycourage
andsaid:'Whyisitso?'ButthistimeIcouldseefrommyfather'sfacethathereallydidnotknowthe
answer.Ineveraskedhimthequestionagain,exceptlateronwhenmysearchforthetruthledmeto
askWmmanyotherquestions,andtotalktohimaboutmanyotherthingsthatIwasdiscoveringon
theway.HoweverfromthatdayonwardsIrealizedthatIhadtofindmyownanswertothequestion
thatnoonewouldanswer.Fromthatdayalsoextendsthelongpaththathasledtothisbook.
References
1.Eidisafourdayfestivalwhichfollowsthemonthoffasting(Ramadan)amongMuslims.ltisan
occasionofgreatfestivities.AnotherEidisthatcelebratedaboutoneandahalfmonthslater,EidEl
Adha,theFestivalofSacrifice,inwhichasheeporlambissacrificed.Thisisarepetitionof
Abraham'ssacrificeofalambinplaceofhisson.
5.TheVeryFineMembraneCalled'Honour'
EveryfemaleArabchiId,eventoday,mustpossessthatveryfinemembranecalledahymen,whichis
consideredoneofthemostessential,ifnotthemostessential,partofherbody.However,themere
existenceofthehymenisnotinitselfsufficient.Thisfinemembranemustbecapableofbleeding
profusely,oflettingoutredbloodthatcanbeseenasavisiblestainonawhitebedsheetthenighta
younggirlismarried.Nog[rlcanbemoreunfortunatethanshewhomnaturehasendowedwithan
elastichymen,capableofwideningandstretchingatthemomentwhentheman'sfingerorMssexual
organpenetratesupwardsinthevagina,forsuchahymenwillnotbleed.Nogirlcansufferaworse
fatethanshewhomnaturehasforgottentoprovidewithahymen,orwhosehymenissodelicatethat
itistomawayandlostbyrepeatedridingonabicycleorahorse,orbymasturbation,orbyoneof
thoseminoraccidentsthathappensoofteninchildhood.Nohumanbeingcanknowgreatermisery
andhumiliationthanagirlwhosehymenisthick,deprivedofanorifice,andelastic.Forthenneither
themalefingernortheman'speniscandrawbloodasitpushesthehymenbeforeitlikearubber
membrane.Oneday,whenIstillhadmyclinicinBenha,Iwasconfrontedwithacaseofthelatter
type.My'patient'wasayounggirl,aboutsixteenyearsold,paleandsothinthatshelookedasthough
shehadbarelypassedtheageoftwelve.Itappearedtomeasthoughundernourishmenthadprevented
herbodyfromfilngoutnormally.Thehusbandwhohadaccompaniedherduringthevisitexplained
tomethattheyhadmarriedaboutayearbefore,andthatshewascomplainingofafullnessinthe
belly,whichledhimtothinkthatshewasprobablypregnant.However,whenIexaminedthegirl,I
couldnotfindanysignsofpregnancy.Ontheotherhand,Inoticedthatshehadbeenbomwitha
thick,elasticandandnonperforatedhymen.Theswellingofherbellywasthereforeduetothe
menstrualflowthathadaccumulatedinhervagina,monthaftermonth,sincetheageofpuberty,
whichshehadapparentlyreachedsometilneaftermarriage.Theabsenceofanorificeinthehymen
hadpreventedthisflowfrombeingdischargedoutofherbody.WithajabofmysharplancetImade
anopeninginthehymen,andlettheoldaccumulateddarkbloodrushoutthroughit.
Ittranspired,inthediscussionthatfollowedafterthegirlhadgotofftheoperatingtable,thatthe
husbandhadaccusedherofnotbeingavirgin,sinceshehadnotbledfromtheexternalgenitalorgans
onthenightofmarriage.Ifunmarriedshemighthavefoundherselfinanevenworsepositionwhere
othersmighthavejumpedtotheconclusionthatshewaspregnantwithanillegitimatechild,sinceher
parentswouldmostprobablyhavenoticedtheunusualswellingofherbelly.Thisremindsmeofa
storyIreadmanyyearslaterinthenewspapers.Thepolicehaddiscoveredthedeadbodyofayoung
pregnantgirl.Itwasthoughtthatshehadbeenmurderedtodefendthe'honour'ofherfamilyasvery
oftenhappensinsuchcases.However,whenthebodywasdissectedbyamedicolegalexpertinthe
mortuary,hisreportshowedthatthegirlhadnotbeenpregnant.Theswellingdetectedinherbelly
was,asinthecaseItreated,duetotheaccumulatedmenstrualflowheldbackbyathickunperforated
hymen.Ifwekeepinmindthehighpercentageofanomaliesthataffectthehymenatthetimewhen
theembryoisstilldeveloping,andwhicharethereforebomwithfemalechildren,itiseasytoimagine
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whatsufferingsagirlmayundergowithoutevenknowingwhathasgonewrong.Foritisknownthat
11.2%ofgirlsarebornwithanelastichymen,16.16%withsofmeamembranethatitiseasilytorn,
31.32%withathickelastichymen,andonly41.32%withwhatmaybeconsideredanormalhymen.'
Amotheronceawakenedmeatdeadofnightinapanic.Shewantedtoknowwhetherboilingwater
hadanyeffectonthe'membraneofvirginity',asitiscalledinArabic,sinceherchildhadfallenintoa
deeptubofboilingwaterandthewholeofherlowerhalfhadbeenimmersed.Themotherwasmore
concernedwiththepoorchild'shymenthanshewaswithherlife.Thenumberofhusbands,fathers
andmotherswhoatonetimeoranotherturnedupinmyclinictoaskmeaboutthehymenofayoung
brideordaughtercannotbecounted.Veryoftenthefatherorthemotherwouldaskmeforamedical
certificateindicatingthatthedaughterwasavirgin,orthatherhymenhadbeentornwhileshewas
playingsomesport,orasaresultofanaccident(notrelatedtosex,ofcourse).Arabsocietystill
considersthatthefinemembranewhichcoverstheapertureoftheexternalgentialorgansisthemost
cherishedandmostimportantpartofagirl'sbody,andismuchmorevaluablethanoneofhereyes,or
anarm,oralowerlimb.AnArabfamilydoesnotgrieveasmuchatthelossofagirl'seyeasitdoesif
shehappenstolosehervirginity.Infactifthegirllostherlife,itwouldbeconsideredlessofa
catastrophethanifshelostherhymen.Agirlwhodoesnotpreservehervirginityisliabletobe
punishedwithphysicaldeath,ormoraldeath,oratleastwithbeingdivorcedifsheisfoundoutatthe
timeofmarriage.Suchdivorceisofcourseaccompaniedbyascandal,usuallyrestrictedtofamily
circles,butwhichveryofteninevitablyspreadsfarandwide.Yetsuchagirlmaybecompletely
innocentofanysexualrelation,butincapableofprovingherinnocence.Thisisduetothefactthat
patriarchalclasssocietyhasimposedpremaritalvirginityongirlsandensuredthattheveryhonourof
agirl,andherfamily,iscloselylinkedtothepreservationofthisvirginity.Ifvirginityislost,this
bringsalmosteverlastingshamewhichcanonlybe'wipedoutinblood',asthecommonArabsaying
goes.
Virginityisastrictmoralrulewhichappliestogirlsalone.Yetonewouldthinkthatthefirstcriterion
ofamoralrule,ifitisindeedtobemoral,shouldbethatitappliestoallwithoutexception,anddoes
notyieldtoanyformofdiscriminationwhetheronthebasisofsex,colourorclass.However,moral
codesandstandardsinoursocietiesveryrarelyapplytoallpeopleequally.TWsisthemostdamning
proofofhowimmoralsuchcodesandstandardsreallyare.Inhistorytherulingclassesofbygone
daysimposedthemoralvaluesofabstinence,stoicismandarenunciationofworldlypleasureson
wageearnerstoensurethattheyweresatisfiedwiththeirmeagrepay,andwouldwillinglyjoinupto
fightinarmiesforthedefenceofprivilegeswhichbelongedtoothers.Intheupperclasses,however,
allwaspermittedandthevaluesofgreed,lust,extravaganceandpleasurewereallowedtoflourishon
themiseryofthemasses.Sinceitismenwhoruleoverwomen,theyinturnpermittedthemselves
whattheyforbadetowomen.Thusitwasthatchastityandvirginitywereconsideredessentialfor
women,whereasfreedomandevenlicentiousnesswerelookeduponasnaturalwheremenwere
concerned.TherearemanypeopleinArabsocietywho,tothisveryday,firmlybelievethatvirginity
canonlybedestinedforgirlsandnotforboys.Godhasprovidedthemwithahymenasameansto
provingvirginity.Suchreasoningisonlyareflectionofthebackwardnessthatprevailsinmany
aspectsofourfife.Theanatomicalandbiologicalconstitutionofhumanbeings,whethermenor
women,canhavenorelationtomoralvalues.Moralvaluesareinfacttheproductofsocialsystems
or,moreprecisely,ofthesocialsystemimposedbytheruhngclasswiththeaimofservingcertain
economicandpoliticalinterests,andensuringthatthesituationfromwhichthatclassdrawsbenefit
andpowerismaintained.Theanatomicalandbiologicalcharacteristicsofthebodyareaimedat
somethingelse,nwnelyatfulfilingcertainvitalphysiologicalfunctionsrelatedtotheprotectionand
maintenanceoflife.Bywhatfigmentofimaginationcanweprofessthatthehymenwascreatedin
ordertoblockthepassageofthemalesexualorganwhenitseekstopenetratethroughtheexternal
genitalorgansofthefemaleintothevagina,duringtheperiodpriortomarriage?Suchafunctioncan
onlybeconsideredasocialandmoralone,innowayrelatedtothevitalbiologicalandphysiological
functionsexercisedinthispartofthebody.Asamatteroffact,thehymencanbecomparedtothe
appendixsinceithasnorealbodilyfunctionstofulfil.Ifithadanimportantfunctionwewouldnot
havefoundsomanygirlsbomwithoutanyhymenatafl,orotherswithjustaremnant.Indeed,ifthe
hymenweresoimportantanorganforthepreservationofvirginity,Godornaturewouldsurelyhave
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ensuredthatallhymensbleedatthefirstcopulation,whereasinfactaveryhighproportionseemto
sufferfromaninnateanaemia.Morethan30%ofgirlshavenobleedingatallduringtheirfirstsexual
act.Whatcanthismean?SurelyGodhasnotsoughttopunishthesegirlsbynotprovidingthemwith
therightkindofhymen,withahymencapableofbleeding,thereforeofindicatingvirginity.What
justiceisitthatpunishesagirlbecauseshehadadifferentanatomicalconstitutionfromothers,ora
widerhymenalaperturethanisusuallythecase?Itiswellknownthattheorgansofthehumanbody,
whetherrelatedtothereproductivesystemortoanyothersystem,varywidelyasregardssizeand
evenshape.Nobodycompletelyresemblesanother.Nobodyisanidenticalmouldorfingerprintof
another.Eachoneofushashisorherownuniquephysicalconstitution,andleavesourown
characteristicfingerprintsonanythingwemaytouch.Thusitisthatthepenisofonemandiffers
fromthatofanother.Similarly,theapertureofthehymendiffersfromfemaletofemaleandsoftom
virgintovirgin.Whatironyoffate,therefore,ifagirlwithawidehymenalorificemarriesamanwith
adiminutivepenis!!Canthispossiblybeasufficientreasonfordivorceordisgraceorevendeath,as
itcommonlyisinsocietieswherevirginityisstillconsideredasupremevalue?Fortunatelyeducation,
andinparticulartheeducationofanincreasingnumberofgirls,aswellasthefactthatmoreandmore
femalesareseekingpaidworkoutsidethehome,arebothcontributingtorelativelyrapidchangesin
thepersonalityofArabwomen.Thesechangesaremakingthemmoreindependent,morerespectfulof
theirownmindsandbodies,lesspronetosubmittheirlivestounjustmoralvaluesimposedbyamale
dominatedsociety.Suchdevelopmentsareleadingtochangesintheattitudesofsocietytowards
women,andarebringingtolifenewgenerationsofArabyouthwherethemalesnolongerjudgeagirl
byherhymen,ortheflowofbloodonthenightofmarriage.Changeistakingplace.Butthevast
majorityofArabmenstillinsistonvirginityintheirpartneratmarriage.Agirlwhohaslosther
virginityrunsagreatdangerifitisdiscoveredatthetimeofmarriage,especiallyinUpperEgypt,
whereherfateisoftendeathatthehandsofherownfamily.Ifagirlhappenstohavebeenprovided
bynaturewithanelastichymenwinchdoesnotbleedonthefirstnightofmarriage,ignorancewillbe
herexecutioner.Fortheritualsofmarriagerequirethatdeflorationbeperformedbythehusbandwith
hisfingerandthat'redbloodbeshedonthewhitesheet'.Veryfewpeopleunderstandthatthehymen
variesintexture,sizeandconsistencyfromonegirltoanother,justasthemalesexualorgandiffers
frommantoman.Luckmayhaveitthatagirlwithanelastichymenmarriesamanwithadiminutive
sexualorganand,iffingerdeflorationisnotdone,theinferencewillbethatsheisnotavirgin,since
nobleedingwffloccur.Aneducatedhusbandwillsometimestakehisyoungwifetobeexaminedbya
doctorifhewishestoreassurehimselfofhervirginity.Sincegynaecologicalexaminationofvirginsis
rare,doctorsdonotoftengetachancetoseedifferenttypesofhymensandarethereforeliableto
makemistakes.Irememberthecaseofamedicaldoctorwhowasaskedbyanewlymarriedhusband
toexaminehisbride.Thefamilyofthebridewerewaitingoutsidetheexaminationroom,andwhen
thedoctorcameoutandinformedthemthatthegirlwasnotavirginthenewstothemwaslikea
strokeoflightning.Onedaylatershewasmurderedbyhercousindespiteherprotestationsof
innocence.Herbodywasexaminedbythecoronerandittranspiredtoolatethatthedoctor'sdiagnosis
hadbeenincorrect.Anothervictimhadbeensacrificedinthenameof'virginity'.
ManyahusbandrangthebellofmyclinicinGizaandwalkedintomyconsultationroom
accompaniedbyaweepingyounggirl.Inangrynervoustoneshewouldexplaintomethatonthefirst
nightofmarriageno'redblood'couldbediscernedaftersexualintercourse.Numerouswerethenights
whichIspentbythesideofayounggirlinasmallcountryhouseormudhutduringmyyearsinrural
Egypt,treatingahaemorrhagethathadresultedfromthelongdirtyfingernailofadayacutting
throughthesofttissuesduringtheprocessofdefloration.Forinmanyvillagesthisritualceremonyin
honourofvirginityisperformedbyanuglyoldcrone,thedayawhoearnsherlivingbyamputating
theclitorisofchildren,andtearingopenthevaginaofyoungbrides.Thefatherofthebridethenholds
upawhitetowelstainedwithblood,andwavesitproudlyabovehisheadfortherelativesassembled
atthedoortobearwitnesstothefactthatthehonourofhisdaughterandofthefamilyisintact.
Iusedtoattendsomeofthesemarriageceremoniesinordertofollowatdosequarterswhatwastaking
place.Ononeoccasionthedayaembeddedherlongnailinthehymen,butordyafewdropsofscanty
bloodwereforthcoming.Tomyhorror,shepushedherfingerupthevaginaandthebloodwelledout
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inasteadystream.Thewhitetowelbathedincrimsonflappedoutoverthefather'shead,thedrums
beat,andfemalevoicesemittedthelongdrawnoutshrieksofjoy.Irealizedthatshehadcutthrough
thewallofthevagina.Attheendofthenight,inanswertomyquestions,sheexplainedtomethaton
marriagenightsshewasverymuchindemand.Herfame,builtuponhercapacityforbringingfortha
vigorousflowofbloodintheprocessofdefloration,hadearnedheranunusualpopularityanda
steadyincomeftomsuchauspiciousoccasions.
Whenthefingerofaruralhusbandreplacesthatofthedaya,thendeflorationbecomesevenmore
brutal.Hisonlyexperienceintheuseofhishandsisrelatedtogrippingthethickhandleoftheplough
ortheharrow.Thedayaatleasthassomenotionofthefemalebody.Andnothingcanbemorebrutal
thanathickcoarsefingerplungingmercilesslyintotheexternalopeningofthevagina,andboringup
inanunknowndirection.Thusitwasthat,onacoldwinter'snight,ayounggirlwascarriedintomy
clinicbleedingprofuselybetweenherthighs,onlyformetodiscoverthatthehusband'sfingerhad
perforatedtheinteriorvaginalwallintotheurinarybladder.Yetthisbrutalorthodoxyinrelationto
womenisaccompanied,ontheotherhand,withalmostunlimitedlicenceformen.TheArabproverb
goes:'Onlythepocketofamancanbringhimshame.'Foroursociety,therefore,@eisonlytheresult
ofpoverty,wheremenareconcemed.Maleegogrowsinproportiontothenumberofhisfemale
conquests,andhissexualrelationsareasourceofprideandoccasionsforboasting.Educationhas
contributedtogreaterenlightenmentinmattersrelatingtosexandthesituationofwomeninArab
society,andyetmanyeducatedmenstillmaintaintheirtraditionalistattitudesandvaluesinthis
sphere.Ipersonallyhavemetmanymenwhohavehigherdegreesorhavepursuedtheirstudies
abroadandtravelledwidely,yettheiremotionalandmentalconstitutionremainsrigidandbackward
insofaraswomenareconcerned.AnengineerwhohadspentfiveyearsinWestGermany,onhis
returntoEgyptnoticedwhathethoughtweresignsofpregnancyinhisseventeenyearoldsister.He
searchedherroomandfoundabottleofmedicineinthewardrobewhichhecarriedtothenearby
drugstore.Thechemistinformedhimthatthemedicinehehadbroughtforexaminationisusedin
attemptstoinduceabortion.Theengineerrushedbacktohishouseinastateofuncontrollable
agitation,seizedholdofaknifefromthekitchenandstabbedhissistertodeath.Inthepostmortem
examinationittranspiredthatshewasstillavirginandnoevidenceofpregnancywasdetectable.
Counselforthedefence,inMssubmissiontothecourt,pleadedfortheengineer'sreleaseonthe
groundsthatIdsmotiveincommittingthecrimehadbeenthedefenceofhisfamily'shonour.Hehad
beenassailedbydoubtsabouthissister'sconductandthishadledhimtocommitthecrime.His
doubtshadbeenmisplaced,buthisintentionsweregood.Thecourtsethimfreewithoutbail.3So
onceagainweseeasituationwhere,evenincaseofamurder,amanescapesretributionbecauseheis
coveredbytraditionalistconceptionsofhonour,whereastheseveryconceptionsleadtopunishment
wheregirlsandwomenareconcerned.Thelawisahnostalwaysonthesideofmen,andcourtsof
justiceveryoftendissolvemarriagesbecausethebridewasfoundtohavelosthervirginitybefore
marriage.Wherewomenareconcerned,harshnessandevencrueltyaretherulewheneverthelawis
applied.Ihaveknownacourtoflawpasssentenceonateacherbecausesheenteredabathroomin
whichherfemalecolleaguewaslyingnakedinthetubwithoutknockingonthedoor.Anothernotable
casewasthatinwhichseverelegalpunishmentwasmetedouttoaschoolteacherbecauseshetook
herclassandspentsometimewiththeminawatersidecafe.'Themurkyfatewhichawaitsagirlwho
loseshervirginityoftenforceshertofindsomewayoutofthedilemma.Thedaughterofarichfamily
cangotoagynaecologistandpayalargesumofmoneytoundergoaplasticrepairalofthehymen.
Whereasapoorvillagegirlwifldependonthesubterfugesofthedaya,whichincludefixingthedate
ofmarriageatthetimeofmenstruationorplacingasmallbagfullofchicken'sbloodattheopeningof
thevaginatoensurearedflowatthetimeofdefloration.Onedayayounggirlcametomyclinicfora
consultation.Shewascarryingafivemonthspregnancy,butwhenIexaminedherthehymenwasstill
intact.Sheexplainedtomethatthepregnancyhadoccurredafterrepeatedsuperficialsexual
intercourseandaskedmetoremovethechildthroughanabdominaloperation(aCaesereansection).I
refusedtocomplywithherrequest,sosheleft.ManyyearslaterImetheraccidentally,andshe
explainedtomethataftermyrefusalshehadbeentoanotherdoctorwhoperformedtheoperationfor
her.Nowshewasmarriedtoasuccessfulengineerandhadtwochildrenbyhim.InmyimaginationI
oftenevokethepictureofthisengineer,whomInevermet,carryingouttheritualdeflorationonthe
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firstnightofmarriagewithcare,tomakesurethathisbridewasavirgin,andhappytodiscoverthat
herhymenwasintact.Forhim,theincisionextendingperpendicularlyalongtheabdomenmattered
little,justasanincisioninherheartorliverorevenbrainwouldhavebeenoflittlesignificance,
whereasasmalltearinthehymen,amillimetrelong,wouldhavebeensufficienttoupsethiswhole
world.ThereisadistortedconceptofhonourinourArabsociety.Aman'shonourissafeaslongas
thefemalemembersofhisfamilykeeptheirhymensintact.Itismorecloselyrelatedtothebehaviour
ofthewomeninthefamily,thantohisownbehaviour.Hecanbeawomanizeroftheworstcalibre
andyetbeconsideredanhonourablemanaslongashiswomenfolkareabletoprotecttheirgenital
organs.Therearecertainmoralstandardsforfemalesandothersformales,andthewholeofsocietyis
permeatedbysuchdoublemoralstandards.Attherootofthisanomaloussituationliesthefactthat
sexualexperienceinthelifeofamanisasourceofprideandasymbolofvirilitywhereassexual
experienceinthelifeofwomenisasourceofshameandasymbolofdegradation.Itisnotdifficultto
realizetheconsequencesofthisdoublestandardofmorality.Themalesareletlooseinsearchof
sexualexperience,inanyformandnomatteratwhatprice,'inanattempttoprovetheir'virilityand
bolstertheirmasculinepride,whicharemotivesasstrongasthesatisfactionofsexualdesireperse.
Menareengagedinaperpetualchaseafterwomenandhaverecoursetodeclarationsofpassionate
love,orshoweringthemwithgifts.Intillscontinuousurgetopossessawoman,themalewflltempta
poorservant,orlandhimselfwithasyphiliticprostitute,orvictimizeayoungchild,orenticeagirl
withpromisesofmarriage.Ifthelatterbelievesinhispromisesandsurrendersherselftohipi,sheis
trapped.Forthenhewillusuallyrefusetomarryherbecauseshehaslosthervirginityandsociety
nowconsidersherafallenwoman.Sheisabandonedtothesadfateofadishonouredfemale
carryinganillegitimatechild,whereasthemalemovesontonewconquests.TWspictureistypicalof
alargesectorofurbansociety,andoftheupperdassesinruralareas.Howeverwhenweconsiderthe
workingclassinthecitiesandtowns,andthepeasantsandagriculturalTabourersinthevillages,
manyofthephenomenamentionedpreviouslyarerarelydiscernible.Earlymarriage,continuoushard
workandthedifficultiesoflifeleavelittleroomforsexuallicence,althoughothermanifestationsof
discriminationagainstwomenandsexualoppressionremainanintegralpartofsocialbehaviour.Itis
notdifficulttounderstandwhy,undersuchcircumstances,girlsliveincontinuousanxietyandfearof
losingtheirvirginity.Theupbringingof@risinArabfamiliesiscalculatedtokeepthemawayfrom
men,andtowamthemofthedangersandsubterfugestowmchtheyareliabletofallvictimsatany
moment.Physicalcircumcision,therefore,hasasitscorollaryanotherformofcircumcisionthatwe
maycall'educationalcircumcision'towhichwemustnowturn.
References
I.StatisticsoftheInstituteofForensicMedicine,Baghdad,Iraq,19401970,publishedinTheIraqi
MedicalJournaldated21February1972.2.TheIraqiMedicaljournal,articlebythemedicolegal
specialist,Dr.WasfyMohammedAli,21February1972.3.AkhbarElYom,weeklyedition,18May
1974,p.10,underthetitle:'Hekilledhissisterandthendiscoveredshewasavirgin.4.AkhbarEl
Yom,weeklyedition,6March1976,p.I0,underthetitle:'ThecourtofAppealabolishesthecontract
becausethewifewasnotavirgin.'5.AkhbarElYom,weeklyedition,9August1975,p.I0.
6.CircumcisionofGirls
ThepracticeofcircumcisinggirlsisstillacommonprocedureinanumberofArabcountriessuchas
Egypt,theSudan,YemanandsomeoftheGulfstates.Theimportancegiventovirginityandanintact
hymeninthesesocietiesisthereasonwhyfemalecircumcisionstillremainsaverywidespread
practicedespiteagrowingtendency,especiallyinurbanEgypt,todoawaywithitassomething
outdatedandharmful.Behindcircumcisionhesthebeliefthat,byremovingpartsofgirls'external
genitalorgans,sexualdesireisminimized.Thispermitsafemalewhohasreachedthe'dangerousage'
ofpubertyandadolescencetoprotecthervirginity,andthereforeherhonour,withgreaterease.
Chastitywasimposedonmaleattendantsinthefemaleharembycastrationwhichturnedtheminto
inoffensiveeunuchs.Similarlyfemalecircumcisionismeanttopreservethechastityofyounggirlsby
reducingtheirdesireforsexualintercourse..Circumcisionismostoftenperformedonfemale
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childrenattheageofsevenoreight(beforethegirlbeginstogetmenstrualperiods).Onthescene
appearsthedayaorlocalmidwife.Twowomenmembersofthefamilygraspthechfld'sthighson
eithersideandpuflthemaparttoexposetheexternalgenitalorgansandtopreventherfrom
strugglingRetrussingachickenbeforeitisslain.Asharprazorinthehandofthedayacutsoffthe
clitoris.Duringmyperiodofserviceasaruralphysician,Iwascalleduponmanytimestotreat
complicationsarisingfromthisprimitiveoperation,whichveryoftenjeopardizedthelifeofyoung
girls.Theignorantdayabelievedthateffectivecircumcisionnecessitatedadeepcutwiththerazorto
ensureradicalamputationoftheclitoris,sothatnopartofthesexuallysensitiveorganwouldremain.
Severehaemorrhagewasthereforeacommonoccurrenceandsometimesledtolossoflife.Thedayas
hadnottheslightestnotionofasepsis,andinflammatoryconditionsasaresultoftheoperationwere
common.Aboveall,thelifelongpsychologicalshockofthiscruelprocedureleftitsimprintonthe
personalityofthechildandaccompaniedherintoadolescence,youthandmaturity.Sexualfrigidityis
oneoftheaftereffectswhichisaccentuatedbyothersocialandpsychologicalfactorsthatinfluence
thepersonalityandmentalmakeupoffemalesinArabsocieties.Girlsarethereforeexposedtoa
wholeseriesofmisfortunesasaresultofoutdatednotionsandvaluesrelatedtovirginity,whichstill
remainsthefundamental

ThepracticeofcircumcisinggirlsisstillacommonprocedureinanumberofArabcountriessuchas
Egypt,theSudan,YemanandsomeoftheGulfstates.Theimportancegiventovirginityandanintact
hymeninthesesocietiesisthereasonwhyfemalecircumcisionstfllremainsaverywidespread
practicedespiteagrowingtendency,especiallyinurbanEgypt,todoawaywithitassomething
outdatedandharmful.Behindcircumcisionhesthebeliefthat,byremovingpartsofgirls'external
genitalorgans,sexualdesireisminimized.Thispermitsafemalewhohasreachedthe'dangerousage'
ofpubertyandadolescencetoprotecthervirginity,andthereforeherhonour,withgreaterease.
Chastitywasimposedonmaleattendantsinthefemaleharembycastrationwhichturnedtheminto
inoffensiveeunuchs.Similarlyfemalecircumcisionismeanttopreservethechastityofyounggirlsby
reducingtheirdesireforsexualintercourse..Circumcisionismostoftenperformedonfemale
c@ldrenattheageofsevenoreight(beforethegirlbeginstogetmenstrualperiods).Onthescene
appearsthedayaorlocalmidwife.Twowomenmembersofthefamilygraspthechfld'sthighson
eithersideandpullthemaparttoexposetheexternalgenitalorgansandtopreventherfromstruggling
liketrussingachickenbeforeitisslain.Asharprazorinthehandofthedayacutsofftheclitoris.
Duringmyperiodofserviceasaruralphysician,Iwascalleduponmanytimestotreatcomplications
arisingfromthisprimitiveoperation,whichveryoftenjeopardizedthelifeofyounggirls.The
ignorantdayabelievedthateffectivecircumcisionnecessitatedadeepcutwiththerazortoensure
radicalamputationoftheclitoris,sothatnopartofthesexuallysensitiveorganwouldremain.Severe
haemorrhagewasthereforeacommonoccurrenceandsometimesledtolossoflife.Thedayashadnot
theslightestnotionofasepsis,andinflammatoryconditionsasaresultoftheoperationwerecommon.
Aboveall,thelifelongpsychologicalshockofthiscruelprocedureleftitsimprintonthepersonality
ofthecMIdandaccompaniedherintoadolescence,youthandmaturity.Sexualfrigidityisoneofthe
aftereffectswhichisaccentuatedbyothersocialandpsychologicalfactorsthatinfluencethe
personalityandmentalmakeupoffemalesinArabsocieties.Girlsarethereforeexposedtoawhole
seriesofmisfortunesasaresultofoutdatednotionsandvaluesrelatedtovirginity,whichstillremains
thefundamentalcriterionofagirl'shonour.Inrecentyears,however,educatedfamilieshavebegunto
realizetheharmthatisdonebythepracticeoffemalecircumcision.Neverthelessamajorityof
familiesstfllimposeonyoungfemalechildrenthebarbaricandcrueloperationofcircumcision.T'he
researchthatIcarriedoutonasampleof160Egyptiangirlsandwomenshowedthat97.5%of
uneducatedfamiliesstillinsistedonmaintainingthecustom,butthispercentagedroppedto66.2%
ainongeducatedfamilies.'WhenIdiscussedthematterwiththesegirlsandwomenittranspiredthat
mostofthemhadnoideaoftheharmdonebycircumcision,andsomeofthemeventhoughtthatit
wasgoodforone'shealthandconducivetocleanlinessand'purity'.(Theoperationinthecommon
languageofthepeopleisinfactcalledthecleansingorpurifyingoperation.)Despitethefactthatthe
percentageofeducatedwomenwhohaveundergonecircumcisionisonly66.2%,ascomparedwith
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97.5%amonguneducatedwomen,eventheformerdidnotrealizetheeffectthatthisamputationof
theclitoriscouldhaveontheirpsychologicalandsexualhealth.Thedialoguethatoccurredbetween
thesewomenandmyselfwouldrunmoreorlessasfollows:'Haveyouundergonecircumcision?'
'Yes.''Howoldwereyouatthetime?''Iwasachild,aboutsevenoreightyearsold.''Doyou
rememberthedetailsoftheoperation?''Ofcourse.HowcouldIpossiblyforget?''Wereyouafraid?'
'Veryafraid.Ihidontopofthecupboard[inothercasesshewouldsayunderthebed,orinthe
neighbour'shouse],buttheycaughtholdofme,andIfeltmybodytrembleintheirhands.''Didyou
feelanypain?''Verymuchso.ItwaslikeabumingflameandIscreamed.Mymotherheldmyhead
sothatIcouldnotmoveit,myauntcaughtholdofmyrightarmandmygrandmothertookchargeof
myleft.TwostrangewomenwhomIhadnotseenbeforetriedtokeepmefrommovingmythighsby
pushingthemasfarapartaspossible.Thedayasatbetweenthesetwowomen,holdingasharprazor
inherhandwhichsheusedtocutofftheclitoris.IwasscaredandsufferedsuchgreatpainthatIlost
consciousnessattheflamethatseemedtosearmethroughandthrough.''Whathappenedafterthe
operation?''Ihadseverebodilypains,andremainedinbedforseveraldays,unabletomove.Thepain
inmyexternalgenitalorgansledtoretentionofurine.EverytimeIwantedtourinatetheburning
sensationwassounbearablethatIcouldnotbringmyselftopasswater.Thewoundcontinuedto
bleedforsometime,andmymotherusedtochangethedressingformetwiceaday.'Vhatdidyou
feelondiscoveringthatasmallorganinyourbodyhadbeenremoved?''Ididnotknowanything
abouttheoperationatthetime,exceptthatitwasverysimple,andthatitwasdonetoallgirlsfor
purposesofcleanliness,purityandthepreservationofagoodreputation.Itwassaidthatagirlwho
didnotundergotillsoperationwasliabletobetalkedaboutbypeople,herbehaviourwouldbecome
bad,andshewouldstartrunningaftermen,withtheresultthatnoonewouldagreetomarryherwhen
thetimeformarriagecame.Mygrandmothertoldmethattheoperationhadonlyconsistedinthe
removalofaverysmallpieceoffleshfrombetweenmythighs,andthatthecontinuedexistenceof
tillssmallpieceoffleshinitsplacewouldhavemademeuncleanandimpure,andwouldhavecaused
themanwhomIwouldmarrytoberepelledbyme.''Didyoubelievewhatwassaidtoyou?''Of
courseIdid.IwashappythedayIrecoveredfromtheeffectsoftheoperation,andfeltasthoughI
wasridofsomethingwmchhadtoberemoved,andsohadbecomecleanandpure.'Thoseweremore
orlesstheanswersthatIobtainedfromallthoseinterviewed,whethereducatedoruneducated.Oneof
themwasamedicalstudentfromEinShamsSchoolofMedicine.Shewaspreparingforherfmal
examinationsandIexpectedheranswerstobedifferent,butinfacttheywerealmostidenticaltothe
others.WehadquitealongdiscussionwhichIreproducehereasIrememberit.'Youaregoingtobea
medicaldoctorafterafewweeks,sohowcanyoubelievethatcuttingofftheclitorisftomthebodyof
agirlisahealthyprocedure,oratleastnotharmful?''ThisiswhatIwastoldbyeverybody.AHthe
girlsinmyfamilyhavebeencircumcised.Ihavestudiedanatomyandmedicine,yetIhavenever
heardanyoftheprofessorswhotaughtusexplainthattheclitorishadanyfunctiontofulfilinthe
bodyofawoman,neitherhaveIreadanythingofthekindinthebookswhichdealwiththemedical
subjectsIamstudying.''Thatistrue.Tothisdaymedicalbooksdonotconsiderthescienceofsexasa
subjectwhichtheyshoulddealwith.Theorgansofawomanworthyofattentionareconsideredtobe
onlythosedirectlyrelatedtoreproduction,namelythevagina,theuterusandtheovaries.Theclitoris,
however,isanorganneglectedbymedicine,justasitisignoredanddisdainedbysociety.''I
rememberastudentaskingtheprofessoronedayabouttheclitoris.Theprofessorwentredintheface
andansweredhimcurtly,sayingthatnoonewasgoingtoaskhimaboutthispartofthefemalebody
duringexaminations,sinceitwasofnoimportance.'Mystudiesledmetotryandfmdouttheeffectof
circumcisiononthegirlsandwomenwhohadbeenmadetoundergoit,andtounderstandwhatresults
ithadontheirpsychologicalandsexuallife.ThemajorityofthenormalcasesIinterviewedanswered
thattheoperationhadnoeffectonthem.Tomeitwasclearthatinthefaceofsuchquestionsthey
weremuchmoreashamedandintimidatedthantheneuroticcaseswere.ButIdidnotallowmyselfto
besatisfiedwiththeseanswers,,andwouldgoontoquestionthemcloselyabouttheirsexuallifeboth
beforeandafterthecircumcisionwasdone.OnceagainIwflltrytoreproducethedialoguethat
usuallyoccurred.
'Didyouexperienceanychangeoffeelingorofsexualdesireaftertheoperation?''Iwasachildand
thereforedidnotfeelanything.''Didyounotexperienceanysexualdesirewhenyouwereachild?'
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'No,never.Dochildrenexperiencesexualdesire?''ChiIdrenfeelpleasurewhentheytouchtheir
sexualorgans,andsomeformofsexualplayoccursbetweenthem,forexample,duringthegameof
brideandbridegroomusuallypractisedunderthebed.Haveyouneverplayedthisgamewithyour
friendswhenstillachild?'Atthesewordstheyounggirlorwomanwouldblush,andhereyeswould
probablyrefusetomeetmine,inanattempttohideherconfusion.Butaftertheconversationhadgone
onforsometime,andanatmosphereofmutualconfidenceandunderstandinghadbeenestablished,
shewouldbegintorecountherchildhoodmemories.Shewouldoftenrefertothepleasureshehadfelt
whenamanofthefamilypennittedhimselfcertainsexualcaresses.Sometimesthesecaresseswould
beprofferedbythedomesticservant,thehouseporter,theprivateteacherortheneighbour'sson.A
collegestudenttoldmethatherbrotherhadbeenwonttocaresshersexualorgansandthatsheusedto
experienceacuteenjoyment.Howeverafterundergoingcircumcisionshenolongerhadthesame
sensationofpleasure.Amarriedwomanadmittedthatduringintercoursewithherhusbandshehad
neverexperiencedtheslightestsexualenjoyment,andthatherlastmemoriesofanyfonnof
pleasurablesensationwentbacktwentyyears,totheageofsix,beforeshehadundergone
circumcision.Ayounggirltoldmethatshehadbeenaccustomedtopractisemasturbation,buthad
givenitupcompletelyafterremovaloftheclitorisattheageoften.Thefurtherourconversations
went,andthemoreIdelvedintotheirlives,themorereadilytheyopenedthemselvesuptomeand
uncoveredthesecretsofchildhoodandadolescence,perhapsalmostforgottenbythemoronly
vaguelyrealized.BeingbothawomanandamedicaldoctorIwasabletoobtainconfessionsfrom
thesewomenandgirlswhichitwouldbealmostimpossible,exceptinveryrarecases,foramanto
obtain.FortheEgyptianwoman,accustomedassheistoaveryrigidandsevereupbringingbuiltona
completedenialofanysexuallifebeforemarriage,adamantlyrefusestoadmitthatshehasever
known,orexperienced,anythingrelatedtosexbeforethefirsttouchesofherhusband.Sheis
thereforeashamedtospeakaboutsuchthingswithanyman,eventhedoctorwhoistreatingher.My
discussionswithsomeofthepsycmatristswhohadtreatedanumberoftheyounggirlsandwomenin
mysample,ledmetoconcludethatthereweremanyaspectsofthelifeoftheseneuroticpatientsthat
remainedunknowntothem.Thiswasdueeithertothefactthatthepsychiatristhimselfhadnotmade
thenecessaryefforttopenetratedeeplyintothelifeofthewomanhewastreating,ortothetendency
ofthepatientherselfnottodivulgethosethingswhichherupbringingmadeherconsidermattersnot
tobediscussedfreely,especiallywithaman.
InfactthelongandvariedinterchangesIhadovertheyearswiththemajorityofpractising
psychiatristsinEgypt,mycloseassociationwithalargenumberofmymedicalcolleaguesduringthe
longperiodsIspentworkinginhealthcentresandgeneralorspecializedhospitalsand,finally,the
fouryearsIspentasamemberoftheNationalBoardoftheSyndicateofMedicalProfessions,have
allledmetothefirmconclusionthatthemedicalprofessioninoursocietyissifllincapableof
understandingthefundamentalproblemswithwhichsickpeopleareburdened,whethertheybemen
orwomen,butespeciallyiftheyarewomen.Forthemedicalprofession,likeanyotherprofessionin
society,isgovernedbythepolitical,socialandmoralvalueswhichpredominate,andlikeother
professionsisoneoftheinstitutionswhichisutilizedmoreoftenthannottoprotectthesevaluesand
perpetuatethem.Menrepresentthevastmajorityinthemedicalprofession,asinmostprofessions.
Butapartfromthis,thementalityofwomendoctorsdifferslittle,ifatall,fromthatofthemen,andI
haveknownquiteanumberofthemwhowereevenmorerigidandbackwardinoutlookthantheir
malecolleagues.Arigidandbackwardattitudetowardsmostproblems,andinparticulartowards
womenandsex,predominatesinthemedicalprofession,andparticularlywithintheprecinctsofthe
medicalcollegesintheUniversities.Beforeundertakingmyresearchstudyon'WomenandNeurosis'
atEinShamsUniversity,IhadmadeapreviousattempttostartitattheKasrElEiniMedicalCollege
intheUniversityofCairo,buthadbeenobligedtogiveupasaresultofthenumerousproblemsIwas
madetoconfront.Themostimportantobstacleofallwastheoverpoweringtraditionalistmentality
thatcharacterizedtheprofessorsresponsibleformyresearchwork,andtowhomtheword'sex'could
onlybeequatedtotheword'shame'.'Respectableresearch'thereforecouldnotpossiblyhavesexasits
subject,andshouldundernocircumstancestmnkofpenetratingintoareasevenremotelyrelatedtoit.
OneofmymedicalcolleaguesintheResearchCommitteeadvisedmenottoreferatalltothe
questionofsexinthetitleofmyresearchpaper,whenIfoundmyselfobligedtoshifttoEinShams
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University.Hewarnedmethatanysuchreferencewouldmostprobablyleadtofundamental
objectionswhichwouldjeopardizemychancesofgoingaheadwithit.Ihadinitiallychosentodefine
mysubjectas'ProblemsthatconfrontthesexuallifeofmodernEgyptianwomen',butafterprolonged
negotiationsIwasprevailedtodeletetheword'sexual'andreplaceitby'psychological'.Onlythus
wasitpossibletocircumventthesensitivitiesoftheprofessorsattheEinShamsMedicalSchooland
obtaintheirconsenttogoaheadwiththeresearch.AfterIobservedtheveryhighpercentagesof
womenandgirlswhohadbeenobligedtoundergocircumcision@orwhohadbeenexposedto
differentformsofsexualviolationorassaultintheirchildhood,Istartedtolookforresearch
undertakeninthesetwoareas,eitherinthemedicalcollegesorinresearchinstitutes,butinvain.
Hardlyasinglemedicaldoctororresearcherhadventuredtodoanyworkonthesesubjects,inview
ofthesensitivenatureoftheissuesinvolved.Thiscanalsobeexplainedbythefactthatmostofthe
researchcarriedoutinsuchinstitutionsisofafonnalandsuperficialnature,sinceitssoleaimisto
obtainadegreeorpromotion.Thepathofsafetyisthereforetheonetochoose,andsafetymeansto
avoidcarefullyallsubjectsofcontroversy.Nooneisthereforepreparedtofacedifficultieswiththe
responsibleacademicandscientificauthorities,ortoengageinanyformofstruggleagainstthem,or
theirideas.Norisanyonepreparedtofaceuptothosewholaydownthenormsofvirtue,moralsand
religiousbehaviourinsociety.Alltheestablishedleadershipsinthearearelatedtosuchmatterssuffer
fromapronouncedallergytotheword'sex',andanyofitsimplications,especiallyifithappenstobe
linkedtotheword'woman'.
NeverthelessIwasfortunateenoughtodiscoverasmallnumberofmedicaldoctorswhohadthe
couragetobedifferent,andthereforetoexaminesomeoftheproblemsrelatedtothesexuallifeof
women.Iwouldliketocite,asoneoftherareexamples,theonlyresearchstudycarriedoutonthe
questionoffemalecircumcisioninEgyptanditsharmfuleffects.ThiswasthejointeffortofDr.
MahmoudKoraimandDr.RushdiAmmar,bothftomEinShamsMedicalCollege,andwhichwas
publishedin1965.Itiscomposedoftwoparts,thefirstofwhichwasprintedunderthetitleFemale
CircumcisionandSexualDesire,andthesecond,underthetitleComplicationsofFemale
Circumcision.Theconclusionsarrivedatasaresultofthisresearchstudy,whichcovered651women
circumcisedduringchildhood,maybesummarizedasfollows:
(1)Circumcisionisanoperationwithharmfuleffectsonthehealthofwomen,andisthecauseof
sexualshocktoyounggirls.Itreducesthecapacityofawomantoreachthepeakofhersexual
pleasure(i.e.orgasm)andhasadefinitethoughlessereffectinreducingsexualdesire.
(2)Educationhelpstohmittheextenttowhichfemalecircumcisionispractised,sinceeducated
parentshaveanincreasingtendencytorefusetheoperationfortheirdaughters.Ontheotherhand,
uneducatedfamiliesstfllgoinforfemalecircumcisioninsubmissiontoprevailingtraditions,orinthe
beliefthatremovaloftheclitorisreducesthesexualdesireofthegirl,andthereforehelpstopreserve
hervirginityandchastityaftermarriage.
(3)Thereisnotruthwhatsoeverintheideathatfemalecircumcisionhelpsinreducingtheincidence
ofcancerousdiseaseoftheexternalgenitalorgans.
(4)Femalecircumcisioninallitsformsanddegrees,andinparticularthefourthdegreeknownas
PharaonicorSudaneseexcision,isaccompaniedbyimmediateordelayedcomplicationssuchas
inflammations,haemorrhage,disturbancesintheurinarypassages,cystsorswellingsthatcanobstruct
theurinaryfloworthevaginalopening.
(5)MasturbationincircumcisedgirlsislessfrequentthanwasobservedbyKinseyingirlswhohave
notundergonethisoperation.
IwasabletoexchangeviewswithDr.MahmoudKoraimduringseveralmeetingsinCairo.Ilearnt
ftomhimthathehadfacednumerousdifficultieswhileundertakinghisresearch,andwasthetargetof
bittercriticismfromsomeofhiscolleaguesandfromreligiousleaderswhoconsideredthemselves
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Ethiopia,Kenya,Tanzania,Ghana,GuineaandNigeria.ItwasalsopractisedinmanyAsiancountries
suchasSriLankaandIndonesia,andinpartsofLatinAmerica.Itisrecordedasgoingbackfarinto
thepastunderthePharaonicKingdomsofAncientEgypt,andHerodotusmentionedtheexistenceof
femalecircumcisionsevenhundredyearsbeforeChristwasbom.Thisiswhytheoperationas
practisedintheSudaniscalled'Pharaonicexcision'.FormanyyearsItriedinvaintofindrelevant
sociologicaloranthropologicalstudiesthatwouldthrowsomelightonthereasonswhysuchabrutal
operationispractisedonfemales.HoweverIdiddiscoverotherpracticesrelatedtogirlsandfemale
childrenwhichwereevenmoresavage.Oneofthemwasburyingfemalechildrenaliveahnost
immediatelyaftertheywereborn,orevenatalaterstage.Otherexamplesarethechastitybelt,or
closingtheapertureoftheextemalgenitalorganswithsteelpinsandaspecialironlock.'Thislast
procedureisextremelyprimitiveandverymuchakintoSudanesecircumcisionwheretheclitoris,
externallipsandinternallipsarecompletelyexcised,andtheorificeofthegenitalorgansclosedwith
aflapofsheep'sintestinesleavingonlyaverysmallopeningbarelysufficienttoletthetipofthe
fingerin,sothatthemenstrualandurinaryflowsarenotheldback.Thisopeningisslitatthetimeof
marriageandwidenedtoallowpenetrationofthemalesexualorgan.Itiswidenedagainwhenachild
isbornandthennarroweddownoncemore.Completeclosureoftheapertureisalsodoneona
womanwhoisdivorced,sothatshehterauybecomesavirginoncemoreandcanhavenoseyual
intercourseexceptintheeventualityofmarriage,inwhichcasetheopeningisrestored.
Inthefaceofallthesestrangeandcomplicatedproceduresaimedatpreventingsexualintercoursein
womenexceptifcontrolledbythehusband,itisnaturalthatweshouldaskourselveswhywomen,in
particular,weresubjectedtosuchtortureandcruelsuppression.Thereseemstobenodoubtthat
society,asrepresentedbyitsdominantclassesandmalestructure,realizedataveryearlystagethat
sexualdesireinthefemaleisverypowerful,andthatwomen,unlesscontrolledandsubjugatedbyall
sortsofmeasures,willnotsubmitthemselvestothemoral,social,legalandreligiousconstraintswith
whichtheyhavebeensurrounded,andinparticulartheconstraintsrelatedtomonogamy.The
patriarchalsystem,whichcameintobeingwhensocietyhadreachedacertainstageofdevelopment
andwhichnecessitatedtheimpositionofonehusbandonthewomanwhereasamanwasleftfreeto
haveseveralwives,wouldneverhavebeenpossible,orhavebeenmaintainedtothisday,withoutthe
wholerangeofcruelandingeniousdevicesthatwereusedtokeephersexualityincheckandhmither
sexualrelationstoonlyoneman,whohadtobeherhusband.Thisisthereasonfortheimplacable
enmityshownbysocietytowardsfemalesexuality,andtheweaponsusedtoresistandsubjugatethe
turbulentforceinherentinit.Theslightestleniencymanifestedinfacingthis'potentialdanger'meant
thatwomanwouldbreakoutoftheprisonbarstowhichmarriagehadconfinedher,andstepoverthe
steelylimitsofamonogamousrelationshiptoaforbiddenintimacywithanotherman,whichwould
inevitablyleadtoconfusioninsuccessionandinheritance,sincetherewasnoguaranteethatastrange
man'schildwouldnotstepintothewaitinglineofdescendants.Confusionbetweenthechildrenofthe
legitimatehusbandandtheoutsiderloverwouldmeantheunavoidablecollapseofthepatriarchal
familybuiltaroundthenameofthefatheralone.Historyshowsusclearlythatthefatherwaskeenon
knowingwhohisrealchildrenwere,solelyforthepurposeofhandingdownhislandedpropertyto
them.Thepatriarchalfamily,therefore,cameintoexistencemainlyforeconomicreasons.Itwas
necessaryforsocietysimultaneouslytobuildupasystemofmoralandreligiousvalues,aswellasa
legalsystemcapableofprotectingandmaintainingtheseeconomicinterests.Inthefmalanalysiswe
cansafelysaythatfemalecircumcision,thechastitybeltandothersavagepracticesappliedtowomen
arebasicallytheresultoftheeconomicintereststhatgovemsociety.Thecontinuedexistenceofsuch
practicesinoursocietytodaysignifiesthattheseeconomicinterestsarestilloperative.Thethousands
ofdayas,nurses,paramedicalstaffanddoctors,whomakemoneyoutoffemalecircumcision,
naturallyresistanychangeinthesevaluesandpracticeswhichareasourceofgaintothem.Inthe
Sudanthereisaveritablearmyofdayaswhoeamalivelihoodoutoftheseriesofoperations
performedonwomen,eithertoexcisetheirextemalgenitalorgans,ortoaltematelynarrowandwiden
theouterapertureaccordingtowhetherthewomanismarrying,divorcing,remarrying,havingachild
orrecoveringfromlabour.6Economicfactorsand,concomitantly,politicalfactorsarethebasisupon
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whichsuchcustomsasfemalecircumcisionhavegrownup.Itisimportanttounderstandthefactsas
theyreallyare,andthereasonsthathebehindthem.Manyarethepeoplewhoarenotableto
distinguishbetweenpoliticalandreligiousfactors,orwhoconcealeconomicandpoliticalmotives
behindreligiousargumentsinanattempttohidetherealforcesthatlieatthebasisofwhathappensin
societyandinhistory.IthasveryoftenbeenproclaimedthatIslamisattherootoffemale
circumcision,andisalsoresponsiblefortheunderprivilegedandbackwardsituationofwomenin
EgyptandtheArabcountries.Suchacontentionisnottrue.IfwestudyChristianityitiseasytosee
thatthisreligionismuchmorerigidandorthodoxwherewomenareconcernedthanIslam.
Nevertheless,manycountrieswereabletoprogressrapidlydespitethepreponderanceofChristianity
asareligion.Thisprogresswassocial,economic,scientificandalsoaffectedthelifeandpositionof
womeninsociety.ThatiswhyIfirmlybelievethatthereasonsforthelowerstatusofwomeninour
societies,andthelackofopportunitiesforprogressaffordedtothem,arenotduetoIslam,butrather
tocertaineconomicandpoliticalforces,namelythoseofforeignimperialismoperatingmainlyfrom
theoutside,andofthereactionaryclassesoperatingftomtheinside.Thesetwoforcescooperate
closelyandaremakingaconcertedattempttomisinterpretreligionandtoutilizei'tasaninstrument
offear,oppressionandexploitation.Religion,ifauthenticintheprinciplesitstandsfor,aimsattruth,
equality,justice,loveandahealthywholesomelifeforallpeople,whethermenorwomen.Therecan
benotruereligionthataimsatdisease,mutilationofthebodiesoffemalechildren,andamputationof
anessentialpartoftheirreproductiveorgans.
IfreligioncomesfromGod,howcanitordermantocutoffanorgancreatedbyHimaslongasthat
organisnotdiseasedordeformed?Goddoesnotcreatetheorgansofthebodyhaphazardlywith@uta
plan.ItisnotpossiblethatHeshouldhavecreatedtheclitorisinwoman'sbodyonlyinorderthatitbe
cutoffatanearlystageinlife.ThisisacontradictionintowhichneithertruereligionnortheCreator
couldpossiblyfan.IfGodhascreatedtheclitorisasasexuallysensitiveorgan,whosesolefunction
seemstobetheprocurementofsexualpleasureforwomen,itfollowsthatHealsoconsiderssuch
pleasureforwomenasnormalandlegitimate,andthereforeasanintegralpartofmentalhealth.The
psychicandmentalhealthofwomencannotbecompleteiftheydonotexperiencesexualpleasure.
Therearestillalargenumberoffathersandmotherswhoareafraidofleavingtheclitorisintactinthe
bodiesoftheirdaughters.Manyatimetheyhavesaidtomethatcircumcisionisasafeguardagainst
themistakesanddeviationsintowhichagirlmiybeled.Thiswayofthinkingiswrongandeven
dangerousbecausewhatprotectsaboyoragirlfrommakingmistakesisnottheremovalofasmall
pieceoffleshfromthebody,butconsciousnessandunderstandingoftheproblemsweface,anda
worthwhileaiminlife,anaimwhichgivesitmeaningandforwhoseattainmentweexertourmind
andenergies.Thehigherthelevelofconsciousnesstowhichweattain,thecloserouraimsdrawto
humanmotivesandvalues,andthegreaterourdesiretoimprovelifeanditsquality,ratherthanto
indulgeourselvesinthemeresatisfactionofoursensesandtheexperienceofpleasure,eventhough
theseareanessentialpartOfexistence.Themostliberatedandfreeofgirls,inthetruesenseof
liberation,aretheleastpreoccupiedwithsexualquestions,sincethesenolongerrepresentaproblem.
Onthecontrary,afreemindfindsroomfornumerousinterestsandthemanyrichexperiencesofa
culturedlife.Girlsthatsuffersexualsuppressio%howeveraregreatlypreoccupiedwithmenandsex.
Anditisacommonobservationthatanintelligentandculturedwomanismuchlessengrossedin
mattersrelatedtosexandtomenthanisthecasewithordinarywomen,whohavenotgotmuchwith
whichtofilltheirfives.Yetatthesametimesuchawomantakesmuchmoreinitiativetoensurethat
shewfllenjoysexandexperiencepleasure,andactswithagreaterdegreeofboldnessthanothers.
Oncesexualsatisfactionisattained,sheisabletotumherselffullytootherimportantaspectsoflife.
Inthelifeofliberatedandintelligentwomen,sexdoesnotoccupyadisproportionateposition,but
rathertendstomaintainitselfwithinnormalhmits.Incontrast,ignorance,suppression,fearandall
sortsoflimitationsexaggeratetheroleofsexinthelifeofgirlsandwomen,andcauseittoswellout
ofallproportionandtoendupbyoccupyingthewhole,oralmostthewhole,oftheirlives.
CircumcisionofGirlsReferences1.Thisresearchstudywascarriedoutintheyears1973and1974in
theSchoolofMedicine,EinShamsUniversity,underthetitle.,WomenandNeurosis.2.Female
CircumcisionandSexualDesire,MahmoudKoraimandRushdiAmmar,(EinShamsUniversity
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Press,Cairo,1965).3.ComplicationsofFemaleCircumcision,thesameauthors,(Cairo,1965).4.See
DawlatElNissaa,AbdelRahmanElBarkouky,firstedition,(RenaissanceBookshop,Cairo,1945).5.
DesmondMorris,TheNakedApe,(Corgi,1967).p.76.6.RoseOldfield,'Femalegenitalmutilation,
fertilitycontrol,women'sroles,andpatrilineageinmodernSudan',AmericanEthnologist,Vol.11,
No.4,November1975.
TheThirteenthRibofAdam
Tothisveryday,manypeopleinArabcountries,andevenallovertheworld,literallythinkthatEve
wasthefirstwomantoappearonthefaceoftheEarth.TheyalsobelievethatshewasbornofAdam
andgrewoutofoneofhisribs,asthestorygoesinthesacredbooksfiritofJudaism,then
Christianity,andfinallyIslam.Theyarenotawareofthefactthatwomentrodourplanetbeforethese
monotheisticreligionsdescendeduponmenandlongbeforethehumanracecametoknowanything
aboutAdamandEve.Ifwereturntoancienthistory,manyimportantfactsrelatedtothepositionof
womanathomeandinsocietywillberevealed.We'willalsodiscoverthatthechangesaffectingher
statusandrolewereintimatelyrelatedtothewayinwhichthesocialandeconomicstructureof
societyevolved.Theunveilingofthisrelationshipbetweentheeconomicandsocialinfrastructureof
societyandthepositionoccupiedbywomanconstitutesthekeytounderstandingthereasonsforthe
downwardpaththatfinallyledheratthetimeofJudaismtoasituationwhereshebecameamererib
inthebodyofman.TheancientEgyptiancivilizationismorethan5,000yearsoldandhistoricaUy
precedestheadventofJudaism,thefirstofthethreemonotheisticreligions.Wehavebeenableto
studyitintheremainsofcities,temples,andotherconstructionsleftbehind,inthewritingsinscribed
onpapyrusandinnumeroussculptures,drawingsandengravings,remarkablypreservedtothepresent
day.TheancientEgyptianshadtheirownreligions,andtheirownreligiouspracticesandrituals,
beforethemonotheisticreligionsmadetheirentryonthescene.Judaismwasinfluencedinmanyways
bythereligionofthePharaohsandinparticularthemonotheisticleaningsofAkhnatoun'ssun
worship.InthesuccessivedynastiesofthePharaonicera,periodswereknownwhenthewomenof
EgyptoccupiedaWghplacebothintheaffairsoftheircountryandintherealmofreligion.Ahnost
throughoutthethousandsofyearsduringwhichancientEgyptflourishedonthebanksoftheNile,
femalegodsreignedsidebysidewithmalegodsoverthedestiniesofhumanbeings.Theconceptof
religiondevelopedinthehumanmindlongbeforethemonotheisticreligionscametobeknown.
Primitivehumanbeingscreatedtheideaofgodsintheworld,oratleastofsomeobscureforces
beyondtheirunderstanding,endowedwithcapacitiesthattheydidnotpossess.Theseforces
influenced,orevencontrolledthelivesofpeople,sincetheycouldbegenerousandbestowrain,good
harvests,andsufficientfooduponthemiftheysowisfiedOntheotherhand,muchharmandevil
mightbethefateofpeopleattheirhands,whichwerealsocapableofsowingstorms,diseaseand
death,ffistoricalstudiesindicatethatthemostancientofallgodswerefemale.InPharaonicEgypt
goddessesruledovermanyareasandparticipatedwithmalegodsindecidinghumandestinies.We
mayciteasexamples:Maait,theGoddessofTruthandNaiyet,theGoddessofWarandFloods,Isis,
Sikhmet,Hathourandmanyothers.Theelevationofwomentotheheightsoccupiedbygoddesses
wasareflectionoftheirstatuswithinsocietybeforethesystemscharacterizedbythepatriarchal
family,landownershipanddivisionintosocialclassescameintobeing.Withtheadventofthese
systemsthestatusofwomengraduallydroppedoveraperiodoftime,butvestigesofthematriarchal
system,moreorlessimportant,continuedtosurviveinfeudalorslavesocietiessuchasthatofthe
Pharaohs.
Thepatrilinealsystem,whichidentifieschildrenaccordingtothefatherandensuresthattheycarryhis
nameandinherithisproperty,onlyevolvedattheselaterstages.Earliersocietiestendedtofollow
matrilinealpatternswherethemotherwastheheadofthefamily,andwherechildrenwerelinkedin
descenttothewomanwhohadgivenbirthtothem.Thesesocietieswerethereforegovemedbywhat
isknownasthematriarchalsystem.'IntheearlyperiodsofancientEgyptiancivilization,alegitimate
soncarriedhismother'snameandinheritancewasoftenmatrilineal(throughthemother'shne),since
itwastheeldestdaughterandnotthesonwhoinherited.2TheGreekhistorian,Herodotus,mentions
thattheLukiansnamedthesonafterhismother.Tacitus,theRomanhistorian,pointsoutthatthe
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Germanictribesusedtogiveprimaryimportancetothesister.InthepreIslamicera,someoftheArab
tribesalsofollowedmatrilinealpractices.InAsiaandAfricaafewtribesremainwhostillfollowthe
samepattem.Itisawellknownfactofhumanhistorythattheelevatedstatusofwomaninsociety,
andinreligion,wasrelatedtothefactthatchildrencarriedhername.Underthematriarchalsystem
womenoccupiedahighsocialpositionandevenascendedthethroneofthegods.Themonopoly
establishedbymalegodswasrelatedtothepatriarchalsystem,andthenamingofchildrenafterthe
fatherinsteadofthemother.Thelegalsystemsrelatedtofamilystructures,inheritanceandthe
namingofchildrenarealsoareflectionofsocioeconomicrelationshipsinasociety.Economiclifein
theearlystagesofhumanhistorywasdependentonverysimpleandrestrictedactivitiessuchas
pickingfruitsandnuts,diggingorpullinguprootsftomtheearth,catchinglizardsandrats,orhunting
certainanimals.Theseprimitiveactivitiesobligedhumanstomigratecontinuouslyfromoneplaceto
theotherinsearchoffoodandsuitablehuntinggrounds.'Meformsofsubsistenceleftnoroomfora
surplusandthecontinuednomadiclifemadeprivatepropertyoutofthequestion.Intheabsenceof
privatepropertypeoplewerenotdividedintoclasses,intorulersandruled.Theywereallequal
membersofthecommunity.Simultaneouslynodivisionoftabourhadyetarisenbetweenindividuals,
orbetweenmenandwomen.Itwasasocietywithoutclasses,withoutdifferentiation,withoutmasters
andslaves.4
Letourneaumaintainsthatinallprobabilityitwaswomanwhofirstdiscoveredthenewtechnologyof
agriculture,duetoherlongexperienceinpickingfruitsandnuts,andextractingrootsfromthe
groundsItwasalsowomenwhofirsttookoverthefunctionsofagricultureandthusmaintained,and
evenreinforced,theirfavourableeconomicstatus,reflectedinsocialstatus,matrilinealparental
relationsandamatriarchalsystem,allofwhichwereprevalentintheearlystagesoftheagricultural
era.
Intheseprimitiveagriculturalsocietieswomenplayedanimportantroleinthesocialeconomy,were
equaltomenwithinthepoliticalstructuresandoccupiedafrontlinepositioninsofarasthefamily
systemandmarriagewereconcerned.Clanswerematriarchal,childrenwerenamedafterthemother
andwereenrolledinthemother'sclanandexogamy,thatismarriageoutsidetheclan,wastherule.In
viewoftheroleofwomeninthesocialeconomy,themanaftermarriagemovedovertohiswife's
house,workedinthecommunalfieldsthereandbecameanadditionalmemberofthetabourforcein
herclan.Theneedforanexpandingtabourforcealsoexplainsthepracticeofadoptioninthesetribes.
Anyclanhadtherighttoadoptasmanyprisonersofwarasrequired.Theybecameapartoftheclan
andworkedinitsfields.'Theeconomicimportanceofwomanismanifestinthefactthatshewasfree
toseparatefromherhusbandbyapersonaldecisiononherpartwithoutmutualagreement.The
husbandwasthenobligedtoleavehiswife'shouseholdandclanandreturntohisownfamilyand
people.Thechildren,however,wereleftbehindwiththemother.Womenwerealsoequalwithmenas
farasleadershiproleswithinthepoliticalstructureswereconcernedandalsoheadedreligiousrituals,
ceremoniesandformsofworship.Religiouscustomsandpracticesdidnotdifferentiatebetweenmen
andwomeninanyway.'However,aftersometime,itbecamepossibleformenandwomentosettle
downinoneplace.Agriculturebecameasteadysourceoffood.Whenmethodsandtechniques
improved,itbegantoyieldasurplusandtheexploitationofotherpeople'slabourbecamea
possibility.Theideaofprivateproperty,especiallyinland,spreadandreplacedthecommunal
ownershipoftheclanandwithittherighttoremainonthelandgenerationaftergenerationinorderto
cultivateit.8Privatepropertyledmantodeprivewomenoftheirprerogativeinnamingtheirchildren
afterthemselves.Hisaimwastoidentifyhischildrenandhanddownhispropertytothemafterhis
death.Propertyandinheritancethereforedestroyedthefoundationofmatriarchalandmatrilineal
systemsandledtothedivisionofsocietyintosocialclasses.
Withtheexpansionofprivatepropertytheseancientsocietiesbecamesharplydifferentiatedintotwo
mainsocialclasses:thelandownersandmastersofslavesontheonehand,whoconstituteda
minorityandthevastmajorityofslaves,whoownednothingnoteventhemselves,ontheother.
Thesedevelopmentswereaccompaniedbyaparalleldegradationinthestatusandpositionofwomen,
whofirstintherulingclassesoflandownersandconcomitantlyintherestofsocietypassedunderthe
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economic,socialandreligiousdominationofmen.Womenlosttheirpreviousreligiousprestigeand
ceasedtooverseeandheadreligiousritualsandceremonies.Manmonopolizedreligionforhisown
purposesandmalegodsprevailed,whereaswomensliddowntothelowestrungsofreligiousstatus.
Thisprocessranparalleltothedevelopmentofprivateproperty.Theoldstructureswerereplacedby
systemsbasedonexploitationandwomenwererelegatedtothebottomordersofsociety.With
increasingmaledominationthepatriarchalsystemstartedtoholdswayasanaccompanimenttothe
divisionofsocietyintolandowners(ormasters)andslaveswhowerethepropertyofmasters.9
Thefatherbecametheheadofthefamily,thepaterfamilias,anditsreligioushead.Hepresidedover
religiousritualsandceremonies.Withthepatriarchalfamilytheworshipofancestorsbecamefinally
establishedasameansofreinforcingthepositionofthefather.'oThefatherafterhisdeaththusroseto
thelevelofthegods,whereaswomenwereplacedonthesamelevelasherdsofcattlewhosemaster
holdstheirlifeanddeathinhishands.Themotherandherchildrenbecameakintotheproperty,land
andslavesownedbythefather.ThewordfamiliaamongtheancientRomansinfactmeantthefields,
houses,moneyandslaveswhichconstitutedaman'srichesandproperty,andwhichhppasseddown
thelineasaninheritance.Thewomanwaspartofthisfamilia,thatis,partofhispossessions.To
elaborateindetailonthehistoryofwomeninancientsocietiesoronthecultoffemaleworshipand
goddesseswouldbeadeviationfromthemainthemeofthisbook,whichisthesituationof
contemporarywomeninArabandIslamicsociety.Neverthelessanapproachwhichseekstodealwith
thepresentwithoutthrowinganylightonthepastisingravedangerofmissing,ormisinterpreting,
someofthefundamentaltruthsrelatingtowomenintheArabworld.Thepresenthasitsrootsinthe
past,justasthefuturedevelopsfromthepresent.Inthissenseourknowledge,ourunderstandingof
societyandourdestinyareallinfluencedtoanimportantextentbywhathasprecededinhistory.Itis
notpossibletograspwhywomenliveastheydointheArabcountries,nortoshowthewayoutof
theirpredicament,ifwedonotgobackinhistorytoreligion.Justasitisnotpossibletoknowwhy
womenwererelegatedtoaninferiorpositioninreligionifweknownothingabouttheirstatusand
situationinthesocietiesandcivilizationsthatprecededthethreemainmonotheisticreligions.Totake
thisargumentfurther,itisthereforewrongtoattemptastudyofwomeninArabandIslamicsociety
withoutreferringtoChristianityandJudaism,bothofwhichprecededIslamandinfluencedittoa
verymarkedextentinmanyaspectsrelatedtoitsfundamentalconceptsandteachings.Itisequally
erroneoustodealwiththemonotheisticreligionsandthepositionoccupiedbywomentherein,ifwe
donottracethepathsthatconnectthemwiththereligionsbelongingtoasifllmoredistantandmisty
past.
ThestoryofAdamandEvewasborninJudaism,andthroughJudaismarosetheideathatwomanwas
sinfulandthatsinwassex.Withthisideatheseparationbetweenspirit(orsoul)andbodywas
consecratedandcanonizedforalltime.ChristianityfollowedinthewakeofJudaism,andwenteven
furtherinsmeltingandmouldingtheironfettersofprejudiceandrigidityintheattitudesandvalues
relatedtowomenandsex.ToreinforcethesefettersandensuretheireternityJesusChristtheMessiah
wasmadetobebomasacredmale,alordsochastethatwomenwereforbiddentohimandsexual
relationswiththemwereanexperiencethathewasnevertoknow,oreventoseek.Furthermorehe
wasmadetobebomasexuallyfromthewomboftheVirginMarywhohadneverknowntheembrace
ofaman.GodfilledherwiththebreathofhisspiritandtheembryooftheMessiahdevelopedquietly
inthesilenceofherwomb.Thesereligiousconceptsandthoughtsleadinevitablytotheseparationof
humanbeingsfromtheirbodiesandfromreallife.ThusarosethephenomenonwMchwastobe
calledthe'alienatedexperienceofreality'asanexpressionindicatingthesplittingofhumanlifeinto
two.Henceforwardtwofundamentallycontradictorynotionsoflifeweretobelockedinstruggleall
throughtheagesuptothepresentday.First,wastheancientorprimitivehumanisticnotionwhich
believesintheessentialgoodnessofthehumanbodyanditsfunctions,andwhichderivesitsroots
fromthereligionsofAncientEgyptthatgavegreatemphasistothevitality,generosityandrichnes
embodiedinthephysicalqualitiesofbothmenandwomen.Asecondnotionwhichspreadits
influencewidelyafterJudaismandChristianity,andwhichleadstothealienationofthebodyftom
reality,encouragesanescapistattitudetowardstheobjectivematerialworld.Herethealienationisin
relationtothematerialworld,whethersubjectiveorobjective,wheretheterm'material'isusedinits
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philosopmcalsenseandnotinthemundanesenseusuallyattachedtoit.Humanbeingsescapeintothe
worldofspirits,souls,ideasandillusionsdivorcedfromreality,andbasetheirconceptionofthe
worldandthemselvesonan'idealist'approach.'Idealism'againinaphilosophicalsensehasveryoften
beenwilfullyconfusedwith'ideals'or'noblemotives'whereasinfactthereisnonecessaryrelation
betweenthetwo.ThewomaninChristianitywasonceagainsacrificedatthealtar.Avictimofthe
JudaicJehovahandofthehighlypatriarchalreligiouspracticesrelatedtoJudaism,shenowfella
victimtothecultoftheVirginMaryandthechastityofaChristraisedabovethehumanlevelof
desiresandphysicalneeds.Shewascaughtandcrushedbetweenthetwomillstonesofthisstruggle
betweenthebodyandthespiritorsoul,or,toexpressitdifferently,betweengoodasemanatingfrom
thespiritandevilwithitsrootsandsustenanceinthebody.Godhadcreatedmaninhisownimage,
andGodwasspirit.Womanontheotherhandwasthebody,andthebodywassex.Manalonewasa
completeportrayaloftheGodoftheHeavens,onearth,butwomancouldneverbecomecomplete
untilespousedtoaman,forthroughmarriagewoman'sbodywasatleastendowedwithahead.This
headwasherhusband.IntheOldTestamentitispossibletotracetheoriginofthisbeheadedand
distortedimageofwoman.ManwasallowedtopraybeforeGodwithoutcoveringhisheadsincehe
resembledtheCreatorandwasakintoHim.Awoman,however,wasenjoinedtocoverherhead
whertprayingbecause,accordingtoacommonreligiousinterpretation,sheunlikemanwasfound
lackinginsomethingessential.Shewasabodywithoutahead.Sincethemaindifferencebetweena
humanbeingandananimalhesinthehead,orinotherwordsthebrain,onlymancouldbeconsidered
acompletehumanbeing.Womanwasonlyananimalbodydominatedbypassion,sensualityandan
insatiablelust,carryingwithinherselfevilasanintegralpartofhernature,aconsecrationofGod's
willandanembodimentofSataninthehumanbeing.Alltheprophetsknowninhistory,allthehigh
priests,andmonksandfriarsandftockedservitorsofreligionweremen,dedicatedtoservingGodand
requiredtoshunwomenforalllifesincewomenweredescendedfrornSatan.ArtistsoftheMiddle
Ageshaveleftbehindmanypaintingsanddrawingsdepictingwomenkneelingonthegroundbehind
Satanandtryingtokisshisposterior.Inthe13thCenturySaintThomasAquinasandAlbertos
Magnus,whowereconsideredthemostprominenttheologiansofthetime,propoundedtheideathat
womenwerecapableofhavingsexualrelationswithSatan.TheInquisitionanditstribunalssearched
diligentlyforthewomenwhohadsleptwithSatansothattheycouldbeburntalive.Therewere
certainsignsandsymptomscarefullydefinedbytheseconscientiousdispensersofjustice.Theywere
calledthesignsofSatanand,oncediscernedinthevictim,constitutedirrefutableevidenceofSatan's
imprint.ArabmenbothinthepreIslamicandIslamicerasenjoyedagreatdegreeofsexualfreedom
whetherwithinthefamilythroughmultiplemarriagesanddivorce,oroutsideitthroughsexual
relationswithconcubinesandwomenslaves.Thiswasnotanexclusivecharacteristicofthelifeof
Arabmenbutholdstrueforothersocietiesaswell.Menhaveaccordedthemselvesthiswidedegree
ofsexualfreedomeversincethepatriarchalsystemandpatriarchalrelationswereestablishedin
society.Thespecialprivilegesofmenarenotrelatedtotheirgeographicaldistribution,ortothe
countryfromwhichtheycame,ortotheculturesoftheEastortheWest,butrathertothe
socioeconomicstructuresofsociety.Thereforewhenasocietyremainspatriarchalandcharacterized
byclassdistinctionsanddivisions,menareaccordedrightsandfreedomsofwhichwomenare
deprived.YetthosewhohavewrittenabouttheArabs,andinparticulartheschoolsofimperialistand
orientalistthought,havechosentoglossoverthisfundamentaltruth.Insodoingtheyhaveshown
eitheranincompleteunderstandingofthefactorsthatgoverntherelationsbetweenmanandwoman,
oraconsciousandpremeditatedbiaswhichmakesthemportraytheEastandtheArabsinan
unfavourablelight.TothemthesexualfreedompractisedbyArabmenisauniquephenomenon
unknowninotherpartsoftheworld,andIslamtheonlyreligionthathasmadeofwomentheobjects
ofsexualpleasureformen.TothemtheArabmaleisexceptionalinthefactthathepractises
polygamyorextramaritalrelationsasanormalpartofhislife.Andyetaflmen,inallcornersofthe
earth,andinalltheknownperiodsofhistorysincetheworldfirstwitnessedtheascendancyofthe
patriarchalsystemoverthemoreancie,ntmatriarchalsociety,havepractisedsexwithwomenother
thantheirwives,eitheropenlyorinsecret,sometimesslippingunderadarkdoorway,andatother
timesflauntingtheirmistressesforalltosee.Christianityviewedsexuallaxitywithgreaterseverity
thananyotherreligion,andimposedvirginitynotonlyonJesusChristandhismother,Mary,butalso
onthemenwhodonnedthevestmentsortherobesofreligiontobecomepriestsormonksorfriarsin
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theserviceofGod.YetdespitetheorthodoxyandsexualstrictnessinherentinChristianity'steachings,
historyisanuncomprondsingwitnesstothefactthatthe'holymenofGod'hadrecoursetodiverse
andvariedwaysofexpressingandsatisfyingtheirsexualneeds,andthatprostitutionflaredupas
neverbeforeintheperiodsknownforthepredominanceofpuritanicalattitudesandvalues.Luther's
Reformationwaspartlyanattempttocorrecttheabusesthathadbecomerampantwithinthechurch."
OneofhisobservationswasthatalargepartoftherevenueoftheCatholicChurchwasdrawnftom
theduespaidbybrothels.TohimitappearedthattheChurchwasworkinghandinhandwithSatan
sinceitsverysustenanceseemedtocomefromoneofhisfavouriteoccupations.Fromthemoneyof
thesebothels,fromthesweatofwomen'sthighs,werebuiltthe'beautifulhousesofGod'where
peoplecametoworshipandpray.Revenueslargelydrawnftomsubscriptionsandcharitycameftom
menwhodippedtheirhandsintotheirpocketsanddroppedafewpiecesofsilverorbronzeintothe
woodenboxesofthechurchbeforecontinuingontheirwaytothebrothel.Forwasitnot
understandablethattheyshouldseekGod'smercyandforgivenessbeforesinningwithafellow
woman?Prostitutionwasunknownuntilthepatriarchalfamilyestablisheditselfinsociety.12Itwas
theonlypossiblesolutiontoasituationinwhichasinglehusbandwasimposedoneverymarried
womanwhereasthemanwasfteetohavesexualrelationswithwomenotherthanhiswife.Theneed
aroseforacategoryofwomenwithwhomthemencouldpractiseextramaritalintercoursewhenever
theyfeltthedesire,andwithitwasbornoneoftheoldestoccupationsintheworld,anoccupation
assignedexclusivelytowomen,andforwhichtherewasnoaltemativesince,initsabsence,with
whomcouldthemalepractise1dssexuallicence?Thusitwasthatthepatriarchalsystemestablished
thesocialinstitutionwhichcametobeknownasprostitution,andsidebysidewithitanewsocial
category,the'illegitimatechild'thefruitofsexualrelationsbetweenmanandtheprostitute.The
prostituteandtheillegitimatechildbecamethesacrificialvictimsslaughteredatthealtarofthe
patriarchalgod.Itwastheywhoweremadetopaythepriceforthebirthofthepatriarchalfamily,its
survivalanditsreinforcement.Menontheotherhandwereexempt,exonerated.Nopricewaspaidby
them,noreputationsullied,nosufferingincurredfortheprivilegeofanunshackledsexualfreedom
andafree,orahnostfree,tickettopleasure.Nothingexcepttheprocessofdehumanizationand
alienationwhichwastobethecommonlotofbothmenandwomenthroughoutthelongcenturies,
sincethepeopleoftheearthwerefirstdividedintoclasses,andoncedividedintoclassesexperienced
whatitmeanttobedifferentiatedaccordingtosex,race,creedandcolour,andthesumoftheir
worldlypossessions.Thecommonlotofmenand@omen,fragmentedintobodyandmind,matter
andspirit,beliefandaction,andtornasunderbythedoublestandardsthatcuthkeaswordthroughthe
personality.
TomymindtheArabmenwereperhapsmorestraightforwardandhonestthanothermenhavebeen.
Theydidnottrytoconcealtheirsexuallifebehindheavycurtains,orasmokescreenofpuritanical
values.Theyreflectedtheirrelationshipswithwomencreativelyandwithoutinhibitionsinliterature
andpoetry.
Idonotbelongtothecategoryofpeoplewhobelievethattoseeksexualpleasureisasin,nordoI
thinkitpossibletoconsidermenandwomenwhoinsistonattainingsexualsatisfactionandfulfihnent
asafflictedwithsomeformofdeviationordepravity.Onthecontrary,itisChristianandVictorian
puritanismandorthodoxywhichconsidersexualpleasureanddesiretobetheworkofthedevil,
whichareatfaultandareadeviationfromwhatisnaturaltothehumanbeing.Suchattitudeswere
takensofarthattherecameatimewhenanewbornchildwasconsideredimpureuntilitreceiveda
Christianbaptism.TheyWerealsothebasisonwhichgrewuptheasexualrigidityoftheChurch
characterizedbyasetofcold,severeCalvinisticvaluesrelatedto'renunciationoftheworld',chastity,
virginityand'sexualsin'.
Thesevalues,however,wereappliedinrealhfeandpracticenottotherulingclassesbutonlytothe
ruled,nottomenbutonlytowomen,andnottotherichbutonlytothepoor.Theyactedasshackles
uponthemindandfettersaroundthebody,makingitaflthemoreeasyfortheforcesofreaction,
oppression,anddictatorshiptodominateanddomesticatethevastmassesofrhenandwomenliving
undertheiryoke.Thepatriarchalfamilywasoneoftheimportantsocialchangesthatpavedtheway
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forthedivisionofsocietyintomastersandstaves,andacornerstoneinthestructureoftheancient
empiresbuiltoncolonization.Inthesameway,thepuritanicalvaluesoftheChristianChurchat
differentstagesofitsdevelopmentwereutilizedtoenforcesystemsbuiltonoppressionandarestill
partofthearsenalofheavyweaponswhichmaintainacontinuousbarrageinthewaragainstthe
revolutionarystrugglesofwomen,colouredraces,andtheexploitedclasseslivingundersemifeudal
orcapitalistsystemswhichhavedrawntheirmainsupportftomimperialismandneocoloniahsm.
Historyhasshownthecloselinkthatexistsbetweeneconomicsandreligion,betweeneconomic
relationships(andneeds)andthemoralandsexualvaluesthatpredominateinagivensociety.These
valueschangeindifferentperiods,underdifferentsocialsystems,andwiththehistoricalevolutionof
countries.Economicnecessitiesandneeds,whichareintumreflectedinpoliticalchangesand
imperatives,actasacrucialfactorinmouldingthevaluesthatgovemourlivesandinfluenceour
sexualethics.AsanexampleofeconomicnecessityengenderedbythegrowthofEuropeancapitalism
atthebeginningoftheindustrialerafindingitsexpressionandlegitimisationinthesphereofhigh
morality,wemaycitetheconceptofsublimation,whichbecameascientifictheorycherishedasone
oftheachievementsoftheFreudianschoolofpsychoanalysis.Thebasicsolidfactsbehindthis'noble'
idea,however,areprobablyverydifferenttowhatitspropagatorsanddisciplesthoughtthemtobe.
Societyatthattune,andwithittherisingcapitalistclass,wasinurgentneedofthegreatestpossible
physicaleffortonthepartoftheworkersinthemushroomingfactoriesandindustrialareas.This
physicaleffort,thesourceofprofitandcapitalaccumulation,wasparticularlynecessaryatastage
wheresophisticatedtechnologyandmachinerywerestilltobediscoveredandinvented.Itwas
imperativethateverydropofsweatandeveryounceofenergybeextractedfromthebodiesof
workers,andthiswasonlypossiblethroughmaximisingthedegreeofmaterial,socialandreligious
oppression.Animportantweaponinthearmouryofexploitationwasthecreationofsacredvalues
whichmadeoutoftoilasupremevirtue.Asaninevitablecorollarytoalifeoftoil,life'spleasuresand
sexhadtobesacrificed,andtheonlywaywastodepictthemasunworthy,degrading,lowerformsof
humanactivity,whichweremoresuitedtotheworldofanimalsthantothatofmenandwomen.Thus
itwasthatcapitalistaccumulationwasaccompaniedduringthisperiodbypuritanicalvalues,rr)orals
andnormsofbehaviourwhichfoundtheirorigininarigidCalvinisticProtestantism.Atalaterstage,
however,whenindustrialsocietieswitnessedarapidadvanceintechnologyandmachinery,when
humanphysicaleffortwasnolongersomuchindemand,whenstandardsoflivinghadrisenand
hoursofworkhaddropped,whenproductionhadbeenmultipliedahundredfoldandconsumption
hadmaderapidstrides,thepuritanicalvaluesandmoralcodeswhichtaughtrenunciationand
abstentiontotheworkingmanandwomanlosttheirsignificanceandtheirfunction.Inanerawhen
thecryformoreconsumptionbecametheorderoftheday,topreachthebibleofsacrificeandthe
ethicsofnonconsumptionbecameoutofplace.Fromthenonwards,menandwomenhadactivelyto
beexhortedtofollowthepathofworldlydesireandpleasure,togivefreereintotheirphysicalneeds,
andtoworshipthefetishofconsumption.Itwasalsonecessarytodivertthehumanrace,which
unfortunatelywasTeamingandunderstandingmorerapidlythaneverbefore,fromponderingtoo
deeplyonthereasonsforitswoes,lestpeoplediscoverwhatandwhowasresponsibleforthehunger
anddeprivationfromwhichtheysuffered.Itiseasytounderstandwhysegregationandtheveilwere
imposeduponwomenatalaterstageofIslam,whereasintheearlierstageswomenwereallowedto
moveaboutfreelyandexposetheirfacesforalltosee.Eventoday,someoftheArabcountriesstill
maintainthecustomsthatdevelopedinlaterIslamicsociety.Segregationandtheveilwerenotmeant
toensuretheprotectionofwomen,butessentiallythatofmen.AndtheArabwomanwasnot
imprisonedinthehometosafeguardherbody,herhonourandhermorals,butrathertokeepintactthe
honourandthemoralsofmen.Inaddition,thefactthatmenfelttheneedtoprescribesuchcustoms,
andtokeepthewomenawayfromparticipationinnormallifeseemstoexplodethemythofthe
powerfulmaleandthedefencelessandweakfemale.Thetyrannyexertedbymenoverwomen
indicatesthattheyhadtakenthemeasureofthefemale'sinnatestrength,andneededheavy
fortificationstoprotectthemselvesagainstit.Tomymind,Islamicculturerestsontheabove
premises,namelythatwomanispowerfulandnotweak,positiveandnotpassive,capableof
destroyingandnoteasilydestructible,andthatifanyoneneedsprotectionitisthemanratherthanthe
woman.However,thisisonlyoneaspectofthesituation,fortruthismanysided.Ontheotherside
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liesthefactthatthisinnateresilienceandstrengthofthewomanbredfearintheheartofprimitive
man.Anditwasthisfear,oreventerror,thatledhimtooppressandsubjugateherwithallmeansat
hisdisposal,betheyeconomic,social,legalormoral.Allthesemeanshadtobemobilizedand
synchronizedtoplaceathisdisposalanoverbearingandformidablearmoury,usedexclusivelyto
conquertheindomitablevitalityandstrengththatlaywithinwomen,readytoburstoutatany
moment.Thebuildingupofthisannourywasalogicalconsequenceofaspecificsituation.Forthe
potentialforcethatlieswithinabeingitselfdecidesthecounterforcerequiredtoholdhimorher
downandtosuppresstheircapacityforresistance.Itisnotdifficulttounderstand,therefore,whythe
severestandmostviolentoflawswerethosethatgovemedthesexuallifeofwomen,anddecided
whatwaspermissibleandwhatwasimpermissibleforher.Burningaliveandassassinationwere
sometimesamercifulpenaltyfordisobediencetotheselaws.Therearemenofscienceand
anthropologistswhobelievethatprimitivewomanwastoopowerfultobesubduedbythelawslaid
downbymen,andthatsheputupaviolentandlongdrawnourresistanceagainsttheestablishmentof
thepatriarchalsystemduringitsearlystages,andindefenceofthewidefreedomsandpossibilitiesof
naturalexpressionshehadenjoyeduntilthen.MaryJaneScherfeybelievesthatoneofthefactorsthat
delayedtheonwardmarchofmalepatriarchalcivilizationformorethan6,000years,wasthe
powerfulsexualnatureofprimitivewoman.13
Itisalsonotdifficulttounderstandwhy,eventoday,therearemenwhowillkillawomanifshe
overstepsthelimitsoftheprescribedsexuallawsormoralcodesimposeduponher.Weoftenhear
aboutthefather,brotheroruncleinUpperEgyptwhokilledthedaughterbecause,onthenightofher
marriage,deflorationdidnotyieldtheexpectedpatchesofredbloodonawhitecloth,orabouta
husbandshootinghiswifebecausehesawherwithanotherman.
TheThirteenthRibofAdamReferences1.Foradescriptionofthematriarchalsystemseethe
writingsofBachofen,FrederichEngels,Morgan,E.SidneyHarfland,W.H.R.RiversandRobert
Briffault.2.SeeElMaraElArabiafiMisrElKadeema(WomeninAncientEgyptianHistory),by
WilliamNazir,(DarElKalamPublications,1965),p.34.3.TarikhElArabKablElIslam(Historyof
theArabsbeforeIslam),Vol.5,GawadAli,(ReligiousPublicationsoftheIraqiScientificCouncil,
1955),p.258ff.4.SeeFrazer,Shapiro,SpencerandGillen,Thomas,Diamond,Letourneau,Property
ItsOriginandDevelopment(London,1892)foranaccountofthelivesof'Bushmen'inSouthern
AfricaandAboriginesinAustralia.5.SeethewritingsofLetourneau,Crossland,RobertLoy,
IntroductiontoAnthropologicalCivilizations,(NewYork,1947).6.SeeLouisMorgan,Frazer,Gross
andothers.7.SeeSarwatElAssiyuti,TheFamilySysteminrelationtoEconomyandReligion,(Arab
RenaissancePublications,Cairo,1966),p.II0.8.Letourneau,PropertyItsOriginandDevelopment,
pp.49,3667.AlsoSarwatElAssiyuti,op.cit.,p.112.9.FrederichEngels,OriginoftheFamily,
PrivatePropertyandtheState.10.CrossiandAliBadawi,AbhasfitarikhElSharai(Studiesinthe
HistoryofReligiousLaws),(LegalandEconomicReview,1931),pp.731,746.AlsoSarwatEl
Assiyuti,op.cit.,p.115.11.Enarationesinimosewa,pp.43,344,2535..12.T.E.James,
Prostitutio@andtheLaw,(W.Heinemann),Ellis,Prost,andShurtz.13.MaryJaneSherfey,The
NatureandEvolutionofFemaleSexuality,(VintageBooks,1973),pp.137140.
LibertytotheSlave,ButNotfortheWoman
Themonotheisticreligions,inenunciatingtheprinciplesrelatingtotheroleandpositionofwomenin
life,aswehaveseen,drewinspirationandguidancefromthevaluesofthepatriarchalandclass
societiesprevalentatthetime.Theseclasssocietieswerebuiltonthedivisionmainlyintolandowners
andslaves,whethermenorwomen.ThemessagesthatwerecarriedtotheirpeoplesbytheProphets
Moses,JesusandMahometintheiressencewereacalltorevoltagainsttheinjusticesoftheslave
system.Tnie,thereweredifferencesinthecontentandtheformoftheirrevolutionaryteachingsdue
tothefactthateachwasbornatadifferenttimeandinadifferentsocietywithitsownsocialand
economiccharacteristics.Buttheyallhadincommonthisrebellionagainsttheevilsandinjusticesof
slavery.Itvariedinextentanddepth,yetwasalwaysthere.Asaresult,sincethepositionofwomen
wascloselyrelatedtothesocialandeconomicrelationshipspredominantatthetime,itwasnatufal,
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thatanyattempttoresisttheinjusticessufferedbypeople,andtochangethestructurethatwasthe
basisofsociety,wouldoverflowandencompassthepositionofwomentoagreaterorlesserdegree.
ThiswasparticularlytrueintheearlierstagesofthetransformationsresultingftomJudaism,
ChristianityandIslam.Neverthelessthepositionofwomenremainedinferiortothatofmen,inall
threereligions,butespeciallyinJudaism.AHebrewhouseholdwasembodiedinthepatriarchal
family,undertheuncontestedandundividedauthorityofthefatherwhowasverymuchlikethe
Romanheadofthefamilia.Eachhouseholdamongthe'SonsofIsrael'wascomposedofanumberof
wivesandconcubines,theirchildrenandthewivesofthemalesons,thegrandchildren,andthe
slaves.'Theheadofthislargehouseholdwasthefatherwhowasknownastheroshe.Heenjoyed
absolutejuridicalandlegalauthority,chosehisheiraccordingtohissolewishesanddisposedofhis
daughtersincompletefreedomsinceitwashisrighttosellanyofthemtowhoeverwouldpaythe
pricehewanted.'Thelifeofachilddependedonhiswillsincehecouldputanendtoitwheneverhe
sodesired,'orofferthechildasasacrificetoGod.'ThebiblicalstoryofIsaac,thesonwhoyieldedto
AbrahamhisfatherwhenthelatterdecidedtosacrificehimtoJehovah,iswellknown.Thisrightover
lifeanddeathextendedtoallthosewholivedinthehouseholdandoverwhomthefatherwieldedhis
absoluteauthority.Forexamplehecouldkillthewidowofhissonbyburningherifshecommitted
adulteryafterhavinglostherhusband.ThewomaninaJewishhouseholdwaspartofthefamiliaasin
Rome,thatisanintegralpartofthefather'sinheritancecomposedofmoney,propertyandslaves.The
householdcomprisedthewomen,themaleslaves,thefemaleslaves,thebulls,thedonkeysandother
things.'Thehusbandwascalledthelordormasterofthewomen'andtheyaddressedhimas'my
lord'."Thebirthofasonwasanoccasionforrejoicingwhereasthebirthofadaughterbrought
sadnessandlamentation."Yetdespitethetightfetterstowhichawomanhadtosubmit,themanwas
freetohaveasmanywivesandconcubinesashedesiredsexuallyandcouldevenhaveintercourse
withhisdaughters.ThetwodaughtersofLottooktumsinsleepingwiththeirfatheruntiltheyboth
becamepregnantandboresons.MoabandBennamiJacob'tookuntohimself'twosisters."Aman
coulddivorcehiswomanatanytimeandtheOldTestamentrecountshowAbrahamexpelledhisslave
HagirtheEgyptianandhersonfromhishouseholdandlefttheminthedesertwithnothingbutsome
breadandagoatskinofwater.Theywanderedovertheburningsandsuntiltheywerelosttheywere
neverheardofagain.
Polygamywaswidelypractisedbythe'SonsofIsrael',especiallyamongthericherfamiliesandkings.
Davidisknowntohavemarriedmanywomenandinadditiontohavekeptaretinueofslavesand
concubines.14Rehoboammarried18womenandowned60concubinesandthroughthemhad28
sonsand60daughters."AndAbigahwaxedmightyandmarried14wivesandbegat22sonsand16
daughters.16ButSolomonexcelledandsurpassedalltheotherkingsforhemarried700women,and
kept300concubines.17Hebeganhiskinglylifewiththemurderofhiselderbrotherbecausethe
lattertriedtocompetewithhimintheinheritanceoftheirfather'sharem.'8Inoppositiontothealmost
unlimitedsexualfreedomaccordedtomen,womenwereseverelyrestricted.Virginitywasan
essentialconditionbeforeamanwouldmarryawoman,andifshewasunabletoprovehervirginity
hewouldimmediatelydivorceher.However,whencorruptionandimmoralitybecamerifeattheend
ofthe7thCenturyB.C.,theman'srighttodivorcewasnolongerallowedincertaincases.Firstly,if
thehusbandaccusedhiswifeunjustlyofnotbeingavirginbeforemarriage,thefatherandmother
couldarrangetodisplaythemarksofhervirginityonaclothbeforetheeldersofthecity,uponwhich
theseelderswouldundertaketopunishthehusbandandimposeuponhimafineof100piecesof
silver,tobepaidtothefatherofthegirlinrecompenseforhavingspoiltthereputationofa'virginof
Israel'.Themanwasthenobligedtoacceptherashiswifeandforbiddentodivorceherfortherestof
hisdays.'9Secondly,ifthegirlwasavirginandthemanhadindulgedinpremaritalsexualrelations
withher,hewouldhavetoagreetopaythefather50piecesofsilver,tomarrythegirlandnotto
divorceherforthe'restofhisdays'.20Ifawomandivorcedbyherhusbandmarriedasecondman,
whoinhisturndivorcedher,ordied,leavingherawidow,herfirsthusbandwasnotallowedto
remarryhersince'shehasbeendefiled'.21
ThepeopleofIsraelinthosedaysgroanedundertheburdensandoppressionofaslavesociety,ruled
bylandownerswhomonopolizedtheland,thecattleandthetabourofthemenandwomen.The
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familywashighlyautocraticandpatriarchal,ruledbytheironhandofthefather.Inaddition,athird
categoryofoppressorshadarisenthepriestswhohadannexedtothemselveswidesocialpowers
whichtheyusedtoenhancetheirauthorityandmaterialposition.Oneofthepracticesthatwas
commonwasthatofthe'bitterwater'.Awomansuspectedofinfidelitybyherhusbandwasdraggedto
thepriestandsubmittedtogruesometorturewhichwassupposedtoproveherculpabilityor
innocence.Shewasstrippedofherclothesuptothebelly,divestedofallornaments,andthetressesof
herhairwereletloose.Shewasthencoveredinaheavyblackclothtiedbyaropetoherbreasts,and
madetoundergothetestofthe'bitterwater'.22'Misconsistedofamixturepreparedbythepriestand
composedofsacredwater,thesweepingsofthetempleandtheinkdissolvedfromapieceofclothon
which,heinvoked,inwriting,everlastingdamnationuponherweresheprovedtobeguilty.Shewas
madetodrinkt@sloathsomeandnauseatingpotionfromanearthenwarepotandifanysignsor
symptomsofillnessappeared(swellingofthebellyandrottingofthethigh)shewasconsideredguilty
andeligibletoanyoftheformsofpunishmentusedagainstadulterers.Theattitudeofsocietytowards
adulteryhasvariedaccordingtotheeconomicandsocialconditionsprevalentatthedifferentstagesof
humandevelopment.Primitivetribesandmatriarchalsocietiesusedtoaccordsexualfreedomtoboth
menapdwomen.However,withthedevelopmentofprivatepropertywhichreinforcedthe'passionof
acquisitivenessandownership'andthedevelopmentofthepatriarchalsystem,thehusbandbeganto
demandcompletefidelityofhiswife,whichmeantthatnoothermanwastocomeanywherenearher.
Menalsoexpectedchastityandvirginityinthegirlstheyweretomarry.Thepatriarchalsocietiesof
theearlydaysestablishedasystemofproceduresfordealingwithadulterouswomenwhichwere
inspiredby,anddrawnftom,theirautocraticoppressivesocialstructuresandthecrueltyrannyof
maledominance.ThemenwhoruledthedestiniesofthepeopleofIsraeldecidedthatawomanwho
committedadulteryshouldbedonetodeatheitherbyburningheraliveasJehovahtriedtodowithhis
son'swife,Thamar,orbyhurlingstonesatheruntilthelastbreathoflifehadfledfromhercrushed
andbleedingbody.23ThiswastheruleordainedintheBookofDeuteronomy.24Theman,however,
couldfornicatewithasmanywives,concubinesandslavegirlsashewished,andcommitathousand
adulterieswithimpunity.RomanlawdifferedlittlefromJudaiccustomssinceitalsogavethemanthe
rightoflifeanddeathoverhiswomanifshecommittedadultery.Islamicsociety,initstum,was
characterizedbyapatriarchalsystembuiltonprivatepropertyandaclassstructurecomposedofa
minoritywhoownedtheherdsofsheep,camelsandhorsesandwhoastraderstravelledfarandwide
overthecommercialroutesoftheArabpeninsula,andamajoritywhowereslavesinterspersedwitha
fewindependentplebians.AuthorityinIslambelongedtothemanasheadofthefamily,tothe
supremeruler,ortheKhalifa(politicalleader),orImam(religiousleader),ortheWali(governorofa
province),orawitness.Allthesepositionscouldonlybeoccupiedbymen.Islaminheritedftom
Judaismthepenaltymetedouttoadulterouswomen,namelythatofbeingstonedtodeath.Infact
womenwereknowntohavebeensubjectedtothissavageandmercilessdeathduringthefifeofthe
ProphetMahometandlateronintheearlystagesofIslamicexpansion.TheKoranstipulatesthatboth
partnersinadultery,themanandthewoman,shouldbestonedtodeath.However,thefactthataman
couldhaveanynumberofwives,concubinesandwomenslavesathisbeckandcallmeantthatthe
richerormorepowerfulmendidnotneedtohaverecoursetoillegaladultery.Theownerofnumerous
herdsorofthecamelcaravans,themenwithinfluenceandpoweroverothers,couldchangetheir
wivesatwillandmarrynewwomenwhenevertheysettheireyesonabeautifulface,orayounggirl,
orashapelyslavewaitingtobesoldinthemarket.Whyshouldamancommitadulteryifitishisright
todivorcehiswifeatanymomentandmarryanotherwoman,andtokeepuptoatotaloffourwives
atonetimeandanynumberofconcubinesorgirlslaveshisrighthandcouldafford?Thereligious
lawsorsharia,therefore,weremeanttobeappliedonlytowomenwhentheydaredtochallengethe
patriarchalsystemwhichonlyallowedawomanonehusband,afamilyandaroof,oralternativelyleft
heravirginandspinstertotheendofherdaysshouldnomandecidetopurchaseormarryher.The
religiouslawswerealsomeanttopunishpoorermen(whoownedonlyafewsheeporweresmall
artisansandtraders),andhiredtabourersandslaves,allofwhomoftenfounditdifficulttomarry,or
whoselimitedresourcesimposedafidelitythatlackedconvictionandpreventedthemfromchanging
wives,ormarryinguptofour,orowningtheslavesandconcubineswhomtheywouldwatch,with
envyintheireyes,beingboughtandsoldinthemarketplace.Christianity,however,differsfrom
JudaismandIslaminthatitwasmoresevereinrestrictingthesexualfreedomnotonlyofwomen,but
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alsootmen.JesusChriststartedbyapplyingtherulestohimself,andissaidtohavepractised
completeabstinencethroughouthisshortbutstormy,eventfulandfascinatinglife.Hethereforenever
married,likehismothertheVirginMarywhoneverknewwhatitwastolieinaman'sembraceasthe
storygoesintheNewTestament.JesusChristwentasfarastosay:'Yehaveheardthatitwassaidby
themofoldtimes,thoushaltnotcommitadultery.ButIsayuntoyouthatwhosoeverlookethona
womantolustafterherhathcommittedadulterywithheralreadyinhisheart.'!2'Untiltheadventof
Christianity,JewishmenusedtoapplythepreceptsofJudaismasembodiedintheOldTestamentand
whichpennittedahusbandtodivorcehiswifewithouthavingtogivereasonsforsuchastep.The
NewTestament,astheBookofMatthewtellsus,disavowsthispracticeasbeingcontrarytothe
wishbsofGod:'ThePhariseesalsocameuntohim,temptinghim,andsayinguntohim:Isitlawfulfor
amantoputawayhiswifeforeverycause?Andheansweredandsaidunto,them:Haveyenotread
thathewhichmadethematthebeginningmadethemmaleandfemale?Andsaid,forthiscauseaman
shallleavefatherandmotherandshallcleavetohiswife,andtheytwainshallbeoneflesh?
Whereforetheyarenottwainbutoneflesh.WhatthereforeGodhathjoinedtogetherletnomanput
asunder.'26
JesusChrist,however,opposedthestoningtodeathofawomanwhocommittedadulteryand
preventedthePhariseesfromenforcingthispunishmentinasayingthathasbecomefamous:'LetMm
whoiswithoutfaultthrowthefirststoneather.'Christianity,likeJudaismandIslam,wasborninthe
wombofapatriarchalslavesocietywhereRomehadtheupperhandandextendedherempireto
distantlands,includingPalestine.Christwas,nodoubt,arevolutionaryleaderwhoexpressedthe
aspirationsandhopesoftheslavesandpoorersectionsofsociety.Heopposedthewealthyelements
oftheJewishpeoplewhowerehandinglovewiththeRomanauthorities.Hestoodupagainstthe
injusticesandoppressionoftheRomanoverlordsandfoughtstubbornlyforhisprogressiveideas
which,atthetime,meantaradicalchangeinsociety.Heattemptedtobuildupresistanceinhisown
wayagainsttheexploitationandcorruptionofallthosewhowereinpower,whethertheywere
Romansorbelongedtohisowncommunity.Butratherthandependingonarevolutionarystruggle
againsttheslavesystem,heremainedaproponentofnonviolenceandapropagatorofhumanpurity,
humanpity,andastrictmoralcode.ThedawnofChristianity,therefore,emphasizedthespiritualand
moralaspectsofitsteachings,andcastigatedthosewholostthemselvesinthematerialandsensual
pleasuresoffife,includingsex.Maleslavesandtheirwomenfolkwerethevictimsofthesexual
freedomandlicencepractisedbytheRomansandthePhariseesoftheJewishcommunity.Jesus
Christ,byvigorouslyanduncompromisinglyattackingadulterouspractices,notonlyinwomenbut
alsoinmen,wasinfactgivingvoicetotheinterestsoftheslavesandpoorersectionsofsocietywhose
womenwereprey,waylaidateverycornerbyhumanwolves.T'hespiritualvaluesofChristianityled
totheoutlawingofpolygamyandsheddoubtonthosewhoindulgedinrepeatedmarriages.However,
atalaterstage,thereligioushierarchiesthatgrewandfattenedontheteachingsofChristallowedthe
systemofconcubinagetocreepinoncemore.DespitethelimitationsplacedbyChristianityonman's
sexualfreedom,womanwasmaintainedinherinferiorunderprivilegedsituationascomparedwith
him.Ihepatriarchalsystemstillreignedsupremeandgrewevenmoreferociouswiththegradualshift
toafeudalsysteminthelastyearsofsurvivaloftheRomanEmpire.Thischangefirsttookplaceat
theouterreachesoftheEmpirewheretheauthorityoftheRomanStatewasdifficulttomaintain,
especiallyinthefaceofthecontinuedincursions(ofbarbariantribes.T'heChristian,orrather
Catholic,ChurchdriftedawaymoreorlessrapidlyfromtheoriginalteachingsofJesusChrist.The
CatholicChurchwasitselfthebiggestlandownerinEurope,anditsestatesandpasturagesoccupied
onefifthofallcultivatedland.Itwasthereforenaturalforthecardinals,highpriestsandmonksto
hnktheirinterestsverycloselywiththoseofthefeudallandlords,andtoensurethattheirreligious
teachingsservedthefeudalsystemandkepttheserfsfromrevoltingagainsttheirmasters.Withthe
reinforcementofthisfeudalpatriarchalsystem,thewomeninevitablycontinuedtosuffergrievously.
Theweightofoppressionweighedheavilyontheirlives,andtheaccusationsofbeingSatan'saflyand
asourceofevilandcatastrophetoallmenfollowedthemmercilesslyeverywhere.Menexercised
completecontroloverwomenthroughthesocialcustomsandlawsthatwereappliedinthehomeand
outsideit,andfoundnodifficultyinkillingorburningawomanalivefortheflimsiestofreasons.
TorturewascommonlyusedonwomeninEurope.27
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Inthe14thCenturythe,CatholicChurchproclaimedthat,ifawomandaredtotreatanillnessor
diseaseforwhichshehadnospecialtraining,shewouldimmediatelybebrandedasasorceress,the
penaltyforwhichwasdeath.ForthecureofbodyandsoulisGod'sexclusivedomain,andhealone
hastherighttodelegatethesepowerstohisrepresentativesonearth,themalepri6sts.Deathis
thereforeajustpunishmentforthewomansorcerer.29Duringtheperiodwearedescribing,the
priestsmaintainedthatafewdropsofsacredwaterwereenoughtocureanydisease,andthatthey
alonehadthesecretofthisknowledgeandtherighttouseit.Womanwasalsothevictimofthemale
philosophersandthinkerswhomouldedpublicopinion.WehavealreadymentionedTertulhan,who
insistedontherelationshipbetweenwomenandSatan.Men,likeThomasAquinas,supportedthis
outlookwhichoriginatedatamuchearlierstagewithSocrates,whoisknowntohavesaidthatman
wascreatedfornoblepursuits,forknowledgeandthepleasuiesofthemind,whereaswomenwere
createdforsex,reproductionandthepreservationofthehumanspecies.Asmentionedearlier,
Christianitywasagainstpolygamyattheoutset.Butwiththeestablishmentofthefeudalsystem,
accompaniedasitwasbywarsandfaminesandaheavydeathtoll,theheadofthefamily,apartftom
satisfyinghissexualdesires,wishedtohavenumerouschildrenonwhomhecoulddependto
superviseandrunhisestatesandparticipateinlabour.Asaresult,polygamyandconcubinagecrept
backonthescene.Amongothers,SaintAugustine,theChristianphilosopher,madeaspiriteddefence
ofmen,sayingthatsuchapracticedidnotaimatthesatiationofsexualappetitebutratheratensuring
sufficientreproductionandamultiplicationofpeopleontheearthinconformitywithGod'swilland
inobediencetowhathehadordained.FordidnotGodsaytotheSonsofIsraelfromwhomthelong
awaitedMessiahwouldarise'Increaseandmultiply'?Monogamy,therefore,remainedinpracticea
moralcodeonlyforwomen,lestthepatriarchalsystembeerodedandcollapse.Glorificationof
virginityandthevirginledtheChurchtoelevatetheVirginMarytoahigherplace,andshecameto
beknownastheGoddessofHeavenandEarth,adescriptionthathadhithertobeenreservedforthe
ancientfemalegoddesswhohadbeenworshippedbeforetheeraofJudaism.Abovetheheadofthe
VirginMarywerenowplacedthemoonandstarsofIsis,andinherlaplaythesacredchild.Thiswas
nothingbutamodifiedversionofanolddrawingofIsisandHorus.WiththispromotionofMaryto
thelevelofagoddesswentthecultofvirginityupheldwithcoldrigidityuntilthepresentday.Islam
starteditsearlycareeraround700yearsafterChrist,whenChristianitywasalreadyawellestablished
religion.TheProphetMahometwasprofoundlyinfluencedbythetwoothergreatmonotheistic
religions.InthejourneysheundertookforcommercialpurposesoutsidetheHedjaz,heoftenmet
peoplewhorecitedversesoftheOldandNewTestamentstohim.Mahometatthebeginningofhis
lifewasapoorshepherdboy,livinginasocietyofmastersandslaveswmchseethedwithpassion,
lustandthequestforlucre,crueltomanandaboveallwomen,licentious,idolatrous,erodedbyvice
andobscurantism.TheProphet'searlyteachingsweredirectedagainsttheclasssystembasedon
slavery,anddefendedtherightsofthepoorandofwomen.Butthepatriarchalsystemwasstrongly
entrenchedinmostofthetribes,exceptforaveryfewwhostillexhibitedoneorotherformof
matriarchalrelations,andthestructurebuiltaroundtheunquestionedpredominanceofmantherefore
remainedasfirmandasunshakenasever.Thecontinualtribalwars,inwhichmanymenwerekilled,
theneedtobuildupthenewIslamicorder,thelargenumbersofwomenprisonersofwarandslaves,
alltendedtomakeoutofpolygamyapracticerespondingtosocialneeds.Islam,therefore,putits
religiousstamponsexualfreedomformenandtheirrighttohaveseveralwives,aswellasconcubines
andwomenslaves.Inactualfact,onceapinitwasthebigslaveowners,headsoftribesandrichmen
whowereabletoenjoythebenefitsofsuchrights,sincetheyalonehadthemeanstobuyorkeepso
manywomen.PreIslamicsociety,orwhatwaslatercalledElGahelia(TheAgeofIgnorance),wasa
tribalstructurebuiltuponslavery.Prisonersofwarwereconsideredthepropertyofthevictors,and
eachmanwouldtakeintohishouseholdanumberwhichcorrespondedtohispowerandmeans.Islam
broughtnochangesintitisareaandpermittedamantosharehishomeandbedwiththesewomen,
andyetbeundernoobligationtomarrythem.Furthermore,thissystemofconcubinagedidnotoblige
himtorecognisethechildrenbornoftheserelations.However,ifthemandidagreetothis
recognition,thechildwasimmediatelyconsideredfree,thatisnolongeraslave,andthewoman,in
herturn,wassetfreeafterthedeathofhermaster.Theowningofconcubineswasalsoallowedin
ChristianityafterthefirstheatofChrist'steachingshaddieddown,andinChristianEthiopiatothis
'4aythepresenceofconcubinesinsomehouseholdsisacommonoccurrence.Egypt,however,
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abolishedthisextremeformoflegalizedprostitutionattheendofthe10thCentury(duringtheeraof
theHighPriest,Abraham,wholosthislifein970A.D.duetothisdecision).Thehistoryand
literatureoftheArabsareliterallyteemingwithstoriesaboutthelivesofthesewomenslavesand
concubineswhowereexposedtodifferentformsofeconomic,socialandsexualoppression.They
wereusedbytheirmasterstocarryouthouseholdchores,suchascleaning,washing,cooking,
collectingfirewoodetc.,butalsoinhomedutiesofanotherkind,namelysinging,dancingand
cateringtotheirmasters'sexualneeds.Insomecasesthemasterwouldtransformthemintoprostitutes
asameansofmakingcapitaloutoftheirbodies.30
IbnHabibhaswrittenthat,amongthecustomsrampantinthe(preIslamic)Gaheliasociety,wasfor
mentomakeprofitoutoftheopeningbetweenthethighsofwomenslaves,someofwhomdisplayed
awhiteflaginthemarkettodrawtheattentionofthosewhodesiredtofomicate.AndIbnAbbas
describeshow:'InthetimeoftheGaheliatheyusedtoforcetheirwomenslavesintocommitting
adulteryandthenpocketthepricethatwaspaidbytheman.ThatiswhyaverseofthesacredKoran
wassent:"Donotforceyourdaughtersintoprostitutioniftheywishtokeeptheirpurityintact,
becauseyoupineaftertheephemeralthingsoflife.Butforthosewhocontinuetodoso,whenwhatis
donehasbeendone,Godremaffisforgivingandcompassionate."Thefathermarriedhisdaughters,
veryoftenagainsttheirwfll,tothemenwhomadethehighestbid.Whenawoman'shusbanddied,the
uncleorbrotherofthedeceasedvisitedthewomanandthrewhiscloakoverherutteringthewords'I
havefirstrightoverher',afterwhichhewasfteeeithertokeepherwithhim,ortosellherataprice
onthemarriagemarket,withorwithoutherapproval,topreventherfromevermarryingagain,orto
stripherofwhateverinheritanceandmoneyherlatehusbandmighthaveleft.InsomeoftheArab
tribes,awomancouldberavishedbyforceifthemanwasstrongenoughtoovercometheresistance
putupbythemenofhertribe.Oncehehadtakenhertohishousehold,itwashisrighttomakeher
livewithhimashiswife.Theravishingcouldtakeplaceeitherduringawar,orbyasurpriseattackor
conspiracy.ThepoetHatemElTaiproudlydescribesthispracticeinalinewhichsays:'Wedonot
marrytheirdaughterswiththeirconsent,buttakethematthepointofourswords.'Womenveryoften
foughtdesperatelytoavoidthisfateevenifdeathwerethepenalty.Oneofthewellknownphrases
coinedbythesewomenwas'elmaniawalaeldania'whichmeans'ratherdeaththandegradation'.
FatimaBintElKhorshib(Fathna,daughterofKhorshib),whenravishedbyGamalIbnBadr,threw
herselfheadfirstfromthepalanquininwhichshewasbeingtransportedanddiedonthespot,ofa
brokenneck.Historytellsofthesufferingsandtorture,oftenendingindeath,whichwerethe
inexorablefateofwomenslavesboldenoughtorebelagainsttheirmastersorevenjusttodisobey
them,ortosingsongsdirectedagainstthosewhoheldpowerorwereheadsoftheirtribes.Someof
thesewomenslavesevenmusteredenoughcouragetoattacktheMoslemsandinsultMahomet,the
ProphetofAllah.
SarahwasafamousslavesingerwhoaimedherbarbedwordsagainsttheMoslems.Shewasamong
thosewhomMahometorderedtobeexecutedonthedayofhisvictoriousentryintoMecca.Inthe
regionofElNagir,itwasrecountedthatsomewomenhadrejoicedwhentheProphetdiedandAbu
Bake,thefirstoftheCaliphs,orderedtheirhandsandfeettobecutoff.Thuswomenwhodaredto
givevoicetotheirprotestoroppositioncouldbeexposedtocruelpunishment.Theirhandsmightbe
cutoff,ortheirteethpulledout,ortheirtonguestornfromtheirmouths.Thislastformofpunishment
wasusuallyreservedforthosewhoweresingers.Itwassaidofthesewomenthattheyusedtodye
theirhandswithhenna,brazenlydisplaytheseductionsoftheirbeauty,andbeattimewiththeir
fingersontambourinesanddrumsindefianceofGod,andinderisiontowardstherightsofGodand
hisProphet.Itwasthereforenecessarytocutofftheirhandsandtearouttheirtongues.
However,thereisnodoubtthatunderIslammenandwomenslavesweregivenrightswhichtheydid
notenjoyintheprecedingperiod.Islamfoughtapinsttheoppressionofslavesandthepoor,opposed
injusticeandcorruption,andcalledupontheArabtribestoceasetheirhabitsofalcoholismand
gamblingandtogiveupthepracticeofusury.Butthepreeminentpositionofmanascomparedto
womanwasnotshaken.Manremainedthemasterandthementor.Marriageinessencewasaproperty
rightorcontract,thehusbandowninghiswifebyvirtueofthedowryandofthefactthathesupported
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her.Thedutyofthewifewastoobey,whereasthehusbandcoulddivorceherwheneverhewished
andmarrymorethanonewomanatatime.ThusitwasthattheMoslemArabwomanremainedpart
oftheman'sproperty.EventodayintheArabcountries,includingEgypt,womenarestillsubjectedto
marriagelawsthathavenotchangedradicallysincethoseearlydays.Whateverimprovementthere
hasbeeninthepersonalstatusofwomen,aswivesormothers,isnotsomuchduetothelaw,still
supportedbypowerfulreligiousandconservativeforces,butrathertothesocioeconomicchangesthat
havetakenplaceinsomecountrieslikeEgypt,Iraq,Syria,etc.Oneofourfamouscontemporary
writers,thelateAbbasMahmoudElAkkad,hasoftensungthepraisesofthepatriarchaltribalsystem
whichemphasizesthatwomenarethepropertyofmen.Sincesecurityisanecessityinthehfeofthose
whoinhabitthedesert,itwasessentialthattheyshouldbeknownamongtheirenemiesandtheir
fellowmenfortheircapacitytodefendandsecuretheirproperty.Amongalltheformsofproperty
protectedbyman,womancomesfirst.
References
I.Levi,TheFamily,p.79andDuffaut,SystemsandOrganizationsintheOldTestament.2.See
ChroniclesI(OldTestament),Ch.7,Verse7.3.SeeGenesis,Ch.38,Verse24.4.SeeGenesis,Ch.48,
Verses14ff.5.Genesis,Ch.21,Verses7ff.6.GenesisCh.42,Verse37.7.Genesis,Ch.22,VerseIO.
8.Exodus,Ch.20,Verse17.9.Exodus,Ch.21,Verse3.10.Exodus,Ch.18,Verse12.11.Genesis,
Ch.35,Verse17.12.Genesis,Ch.29,Verses15ff.13.Genesis,Ch.21,Verse14.14.Samuel1,Ch.1
8,Verse27,Ch.25,Verses39and43.SamuelII,Ch.3,Verses3and4,andCh.5,Verse13.15.
Chronicles11,Ch.I1,Verse21.16.Chronicles11,Ch.13,Verse21.17.KingsI,Ch.I1,Verse3.
18.Kings1,Ch.7,Verses1325.19.Deuteronomy,Ch.22,Verses1319.20.Deuteronomy,Ch.22,
Verses2829.21.Deuteronomy,Ch.24,Verses14.22.SeeNumbersCh.5,VersesI118.23.
Genesis,Ch.38,Verse24andDeuteronomyCh.22,Verse21.24.Deuteronomy,Ch.38,Verse24
andCh.22,Verse21.25.Matthew(NewTestament),Ch.5,Verses2728.26.Matthew,Ch.19,
Verses36.27.Inthefaceoftheinhumansufferinginflictedbytortureawomanhadtoadmither
guiltbeforethepriestastheonlywayoutandhadtoconcurthatherbodywasinhabitedbyevil
spiritsanddevils.SeeJulesMichelet,ChristinaHoli,ThomasZsassandothers.28.JulesMichelet,
SatanismandWitchcraft,p.19.29,QuotedinChristinaHoli,WitchcraftinEngland,p.130.30.El
Mehbar,240.31.NasserElDinElAssad,ElKeyanWalAghanifiAsrElGaheleya,1960,pp.434.
32.TafsirElTabri(Maimanieh),Ch.18,pp.923.al33.AbuFaragElAsfahani,ElAghani,Vol.16,
p.21.im34.NasserElDinElAssad,op.cit.,p.91.th35.ElBalathiri,FetouhElBoldan,1966,
1:102.an36.TarikhElTabari,Vol.4,pp.20145.fa37.AbbasMahmoudElAkkad,Gamil
Boussaina,p.18.

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