A plant is a member of the kingdom Plantae, a living organism

that utilizes photosynthesis, a process in which energy from

sunlight is converted to chemical energy (food). Plants are at
the base of the food web and are autotrophs (or producers organisms that make their own food). Plants vary greatly in
size, shape, and the type of environment in which they live.
Structure and Function: Roots anchor the plant in the
ground and absorb water and mineral nutrients from the
ground. Leaves contain chloroplasts, in which photosynthesis
occurs. Carbon dioxide is absorbed through pores in the
leaves; oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis
and is released. Plant cells have a supportive cellulose cell
wall (unlike animal cells which lack cellulose).
The following is a diagram of the external anatomy of a
typical flowering plant:
axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a
leaf, branch, or petiole.
axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil.
flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms.
flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower.
internode - the area of the stem between any two adjacent
nodes.
lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant.
leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the
stem. Most leaves are flat and containchloroplasts; their main
function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical
energy (food) through photosynthesis.
node - the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf,
branch, or aerial root grows; each plant has many nodes.
Label the two lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the
plant diagram.
petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant.
root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water
from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the
plant. Most roots grow underground.
root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers
and protects the apical meristem (the actively growing region)
of the root.
stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant.
tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends
straight down under the plant.
terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem.
Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem,
consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely.
Phyla: The phyla in the kingdom Plantae include:
Ginkgophyta, Lycophyta (lower ferns like club mosses),
Pterophyta (ferns), Psilophyta (whisk
ferns),Anthophyta (flowering plants), Gnetophyta,
Sphenophyta, Coniferophyta (conifers), Cycadophyta (cycads),
Sphenophyta, and Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, hornworts).
The "Typical" Plant Body

The Shoot System

Above ground (usually)

Elevates the plant above the soil

Many functions including:

Underground (usually)

Anchor the plant in the soil

Absorb water and nutrients

Conduct water and nutrients

Food Storage

photosynthesis

reproduction & dispersal

food and water conduction

Note: the shoot system includes the leaves and

the reproductive organs, although these will be
covered in more detail separately

Cell Types in the Plant Body

Parenchyma Cells

Least specialized plant cells

Thin and somewhat flexible cell walls

Living at maturity

Carry on most of the plant's metabolic functions

Generally have a large central vacuole

Most parenchyma cells have the ability to

differentiate into other cell types under special
conditions

Collenchyma Cells

Thicker primary cells walls (usually with uneven

thickness)

Living at maturity

Role in support of herbaceous plants

o

Example - the "strings" of celery

Schlerenchyma Cells

Thick secondary cell walls

Dead at functional maturity

Cannot increase in length - occur in parts of the plant

which have quit growing in length

Two types - fibers and schlerids

The Root System

Fibers - long, slender cells with a more or

less regular secondary cell wall

Example - hemp fibers for making

rope

Schlerids - shorter cells with an irregular

shape

Example - stone cells in pears and

hard nut and seed shells

Vascular Tissue

Involved in the transport of water, ions, minerals, and

food

Also has a secondary role in support

Composed of xylem, phloem, parenchyma,

schlerenchyma

Xylem

Thick secondary cell walls, often deposited unevenly

in a coil-like pattern so that they may stretch

Dead at functionally maturity.

Involved in conduct of water and ions in the plant

Two types - tracheids and vessels

Root Anatomy - Dicot Roots

Tracheids - long, slender cells connected to

each other by pits. Found in all vascular
plants

Vessels - shorter, larger diameter cells with

completely perforated cell wall ends. Found
only in Angiosperms

Epidermis

Dermal tissue

Protection of the root

Cortex

Ground tissue

Storage of photosynthetic products

Active in the uptake of water and minerals

Phloem

Involved in transport of sucrose, other organic

compounds, and some ions
Living at functional maturity
o

Protoplast may lack organelles and nucleus,

though

Endwalls connect to each other via sieve-plates

Two types of cells in the phloem - sieve-tube

members and companion cells
o

Sieve-tube members - actual conduit for

sucrose transport

Companion cells - has a nucleus that may

also control the sieve-tube element and may
aid in sucrose loading

Endodermis

cylinder once cell thick that forms a boundary

between the cortex and the stele

contains the casparian strip, which will be

explained later when we discuss water uptake

Pericycle

found just inside of the endodermis

may become meristematic

responsible for the formation of lateral roots

Vascular Tissue
Tissue Organization in Angiosperms
Dermal Tissue

Generally a single layer of cells

The "skin" of the plant

Primarily parenchyma cells

Main role is protection of the plant

Xylem and Phloem

Forms an X-shaped pattern in very center of root

Body systems

Ground Tissue

Our bodies consist of a number of biological systems that

carry out specific functions necessary for everyday living.

Makes up the bulk of the plant

The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients,

Predominately parenchyma, but collenchyma and

schlerenchyma cells are found

oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones, around the body. It

Diverse functions including photosynthesis, storage,

and support

consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels,arteries and veins.

The digestive system consists of a series of connected organs

that together, allow the body to break down and absorb food,

and remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus,

egg cell, which creates a fertilized egg that implants and

stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus.

grows in the uterus.

The liver and pancreas also play a role in the digestive system
because they produce digestive juices.

Our bodies are supported by the skeletal system, which

consists of 206 bones that are connected by tendons,

The endocrine system consists of eight major glands that

ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move,

secrete hormones into the blood. These hormones, in turn,

but it's also involved in the production of blood cells and the

travel to different tissues and regulate various bodily

storage of calcium. The teeth are also part of the skeletal

functions, such as metabolism, growth and sexual function.

system, but they aren't considered bones.

The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria,

The respiratory system allows us to take in vital oxygen and

viruses and other pathogens that may be harmful. It includes

expel carbon dioxide in a process we call breathing. It consists

lymph nodes, the spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes

mainly of the trachea, the diaphragm and the lungs.

(including B-cells and T-cells), the thymus and leukocytes,

which are white blood cells.

The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called

urea from the body, which is produced when certain foods are

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymph ducts and

broken down. The whole system includes two kidneys, two

lymph vessels, and also plays a role in the body's defenses. Its

ureters, the bladder, two sphincter muscles and the urethra.

main job is to make is to make and move lymph, a clear fluid

Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the

that contains white blood cells, which help the body fight

bladder, and exits the body through the urethra.

infection. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymph

fluid from bodily tissues, and returns it to the blood.

The skin, or integumentary system, is the body's largest

organ. It protects us from the outside world, and is our first

The nervous system controls both voluntary action (like

defense against bacteria, viruses and other pathogens. Our

conscious movement) and involuntary actions (like breathing),

skin also helps regulate body temperature and eliminate

and sends signals to different parts of the body. The central

waste through perspiration. In addition to skin, the

nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The

integumentary system includes hair and nails.

peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that connect

every other part of the body to the central nervous system.

The body's muscular system consists of about 650 muscles

that aid in movement, blood flow and other bodily functions.
There are three types of muscle: skeletal muscle which is
connected to bone and helps with voluntary movement,
smooth muscle which is found inside organs and helps to
move substances through organs, and cardiac muscle which is
found in the heart and helps pump blood.

The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The

male reproductive system includes the penis and the testes,
which produce sperm. The female reproductive system
consists of the vagina, the uterus and the ovaries, which
produce eggs. During conception, a sperm cell fuses with an

Vital organs

Humans have five vital organs that are essential for survival.
These are the brain, heart, kidneys, liver, and lungs.

The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and

sending signals to other organs through the nervous system
and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for our
thoughts, feelings, memory storage and general perception of
the world.

The human heart is a responsible for pumping blood

throughout our body.

The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from
the blood. The kidneys take urea out of the blood and
combine it with water and other substances to make urine.

The liver has many functions, including detoxifying of harmful

chemicals, breakdown of drugs, filtering of blood, secretion of
bile and production of blood-clotting proteins.

The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air
we breathe and transferring it to our blood where it can be
sent to our cells. The lungs also remove carbon dioxide, which
we exhale.

LEOBENE M. BOOL

History of C Programming Language

1.

C is a programming language which born at AT & Ts Bell Laboratory of USA in 1972.

2.

C was written by Dennis Ritchie, thats why he is also called as father of c programming language.

3.

C language was created for a specific purpose i.e designing the UNIX operating system (which is currently base of many
UNIX based OS).

4.

From the beginning, C was intended to be useful to allow busy programmers to get things done because C is such a
powerful, dominant and supple language

5.

Its use quickly spread beyond Bell Labs in the late 70s because of its long list of strong features

Refer : C Programming History Chart

Why Name C was given to Language ?
1.

Many of Cs principles and ideas were derived from the earlier language B. (Ken Thompson was the developer of B
Language.)

2.

BCPL and CPL are the earlier ancestors of B Language

3.

CPL is common Programming Language.In 1967, BCPL Language ( Basic CPL ) was created as a scaled down version of CPL

4.

As many of the features were derived from B Language thats why it was named as C.

5.

After 7-8 years C++ came into existence which was first example of object oriented programming .

Summary of C Programming Language

History
Summary

B Language Developed By

Ken Thompson

Operating System Developed in C

UNIX

Developed at

AT & T Bell Laboratory

Creator of Traditional C

Dennis Ritchie

Year

1972

C Programming Language Timeline :

Programming Language

Development Year

Developed by

ALGOL

1960

International Group

BCPL

1967

Martin Richards

1970

Ken Thompson

Traditional C

1972

Dennis Ritchie

K&R C

1978

Brain Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie

ANSI C

1989

ANSI Committee

ANSI/ISO C

1990

ISO Committee

C program examples
Example 1 - C hello world program
/* A very simple c program printing a string on screen*/
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
printf("Hello World\n");
return 0;
}

Output of above program:

"Hello World"
Example 2 - c program to take input from user using scanf
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int number;
printf("Enter an integer\n");
scanf("%d",&number);
printf("Integer entered by you is %d\n", number);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter a number
5
Number entered by you is 5
Example 3 - using if else control instructions
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int x = 1;
if ( x == 1 )
printf("x is equal to one.\n");
else
printf("For comparison use == as = is the assignment operator.\n");
return 0;
}

Output:
x is equal to one.
Example 4 - loop example
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{

int value = 1;
while(value<=3)
{
printf("Value is %d\n", value);
value++;
}
return 0;
}

Output:
Value is 1
Value is 2
Value is 3
Example 5 - c program for prime number
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int n, c;
printf("Enter a number\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
if ( n == 2 )
printf("Prime number.\n");
else
{
for ( c = 2 ; c <= n - 1 ; c++ )
{
if ( n % c == 0 )
break;
}
if ( c != n )
printf("Not prime.\n");
else
printf("Prime number.\n");
}
return 0;
}

Example 6 - command line arguments

#include <stdio.h>
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
int c;
printf("Number of command line arguments passed: %d\n", argc);
for ( c = 0 ; c < argc ; c++)
printf("%d. Command line argument passed is %s\n", c+1, argv[c]);
return 0;
}

Above c program prints the number and all arguments which are passed to it.
Example 7 - Array program
#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int array[100], n, c;

printf("Enter the number of elements in array\n");

scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter %d elements\n", n);
for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ )
scanf("%d", &array[c]);
printf("Array elements entered by you are:\n");
for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ )
printf("array[%d] = %d\n", c, array[c]);
return 0;
}

Example 8 - function program

#include <stdio.h>
void my_function();
main()
{
printf("Main function.\n");
my_function();
printf("Back in function main.\n");
return 0;
}
void my_function()
{
printf("Welcome to my function. Feel at home.\n");
}

Example 9 - Using comments in a program

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
// Single line comment in c source code
printf("Writing comments is very useful.\n");
/*
* Multi line comment syntax
* Comments help us to understand code later easily.
* Will you write comments while developing programs ?
*/
printf("Good luck c programmer.\n");
return 0;
}

Example 10 - using structures in c programming

#include <stdio.h>
struct programming
{
float constant;
char *pointer;
};
main()
{
struct programming variable;
char string[] = "Programming in Software Development.";
variable.constant = 1.23;

variable.pointer = string;
printf("%f\n", variable.constant);
printf("%s\n", variable.pointer);
return 0;
}

Example 11 - c program for Fibonacci series

#include <stdio.h>
main()
{
int n, first = 0, second = 1, next, c;
printf("Enter the number of terms\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("First %d terms of Fibonacci series are :-\n",n);
for ( c = 0 ; c < n ; c++ )
{
if ( c <= 1 )
next = c;
else
{
next = first + second;
first = second;
second = next;
}
printf("%d\n",next);
}
return 0;
}

Example 12 - c graphics programming

#include <graphics.h>
#include <conio.h>
main()
{
int gd = DETECT, gm;
initgraph(&gd, &gm,"C:\\TC\\BGI");
outtextxy(10,20, "Graphics source code example.");
circle(200, 200, 50);
setcolor(BLUE);
line(350, 250, 450, 50);
getch();
closegraph( );
return 0;
}

For GCC users

If you are using GCC on Linux operating system then you need to modify programs. For example consider the following program which
prints first ten natural numbers
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
int main()
{
int c;
for ( c = 1 ; c <= 10 ; c++ )

printf("%d\n", c);
getch();
return 0;
}

Above source code includes a header file <conio.h> and uses function getch, but this file is Borland specific so it works in turbo c
compiler but not in GCC. So the code for GCC should be like
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int c;
/* for loop */
for ( c = 1 ; c <= 10 ; c++ )
printf("%d\n", c);
return 0;
}