Indian Ethos and Values
&
Indian Schools
of
Philosophy
What is Indian Philosophy?
Indian philosophy (Sanskrit:
darana) refers to the ancient
philosophical traditions of the
Indian subcontinent.
Common Themes
Indian philosophies share many concepts such as:
dharma,
karma,
samsara,
reincarnation,
dukkha,
renunciation,
meditation,
Almost all of them focus on the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual through
diverse range of spiritual practices (moksha, nirvana).
They differ in their assumptions about the nature of existence as well as the specifics
of the path to the ultimate liberation, resulting in numerous schools that disagreed
with each other.
Basis of Indian Philosophy
The schools of Indian philosophical thought are
classified as either orthodox or heterodox stika
or nstika depending on one of three alternate
criteria:
1. whether it believes the Vedas are a valid source of
knowledge; or
2. whether the school believes in the premises of
Brahman and Atman; or
3. whether the school believes in afterlife and Devas.
Six Major Schools Of Orthodox
(Astika) Hindu Philosophy
1. Nyaya,
2. Vaisheshika,
3. Samkhya,
4. Yoga,
5. Mms and
6. Vedanta,
1. Nyaya
According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas):
perception,
inference,
comparison, and
testimony.
The Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six (or seven)
categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya.
These sixteen categories are:
1.
prama (valid means of knowledge),
2.
prameya (objects of valid knowledge),
3.
saaya (doubt),
4.
prayojana (aim), dnta (example),
5.
siddhnta (conclusion), avayava (members of syllogism),
6.
tarka (hypothetical reasoning),
7.
niraya (settlement),
8.
vda (discussion),
9.
jalpa (wrangling),
10. vita (cavilling),
11. hetvbhsa (fallacy),
12. chala (quibbling),
13. jti (sophisticated refutation) and
14. nigrahasthna (point of defeat).
2. Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika school is known for its insights in naturalism, and it
is a form of atomism in natural philosophy.
It postulated that all objects in the physical universe are
reducible to paramu (atoms), and one's experiences are
derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms,
their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity,
commonness, particularity and inherence.
According to Vaieika school, knowledge and liberation were
achievable by complete understanding of the world of
experience.
Samkhya is strongly dualist.
3. Samkhya
Smkhya philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two realities:
purua (consciousness) and
prakti (matter).
The existence of God or supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered relevant by the
Samkhya philosophers. Skhya denies the final cause of Ishvara (God).
Jiva (a living being) is that state in which purua is bonded to prakti in some form. This fusion, state the
The universe is described by this school as one created by purusa-prakti entities infused with various
Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of buddhi ("intellect") and ahakra (ego consciousness).
permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.
During the state of imbalance, one of more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of
bondage, particularly of the mind.
The end of this imbalance, bondage is called liberation, or kaivalya, by the Samkhya school.
4. Yoga
Yoga (/jo/; Sanskrit, Listen) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual
practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India.
Among the most well-known types of yoga are Hatha yoga and Rja yoga.
Yoga as described in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali refers to Ashtanga yoga.
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is considered as a central text of the Yoga school of
Hindu philosophy, It is often called "Rja yoga", "yoga of the kings," a term
which originally referred to the ultimate, royal goal of yoga, which is usually
Samadhi, but was popularized as the common name for Ashtanga Yoga.
Ashtanga yoga incorporates epistemology, metaphysics, ethical practices,
systematic exercises and self-development techniques for body, mind and spirit
5. Mimamsa
Mimamsa (Mms) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical
investigation".
The school of Mms consists of both atheistic and theistic doctrines and the
school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God.
Rather, it held that the soul is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active
spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of
dharma.
To them, dharma meant rituals and social duties, not devas (gods) because gods
existed only in name.
The Mmsakas held that Vedas are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic
vidhi (injunctions) and mantras in rituals are prescriptive krya (actions), and the
rituals are of primary importance and merit.
6. Vedanta
Vedanta (IAST, Vednta, Sanskrit: ) or Uttara Mms is one of the six orthodox
The term "Vedanta" stands not for any one comprehensive doctrine but for the divergent
(stika) schools of Indian philosophy.
philosophical views that developed on the basis of a common textual connection.
This common textual connection is called the Prasthanatrayi - a collective term for the
Principal Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.
All Vedanta schools, in their deliberations, concern themselves with the following three
categories but differ in their views regarding the conception of the categories and the
relations between the same:
Brahman - the ultimate metaphysical reality
Atman / Jivatma - the individual soul or self
Prakriti / Jagat - The empirical world, everchanging physical universe, body and matter
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Brief Overview of 6 Astik Schools
Samkhya, the rationalism school with dualism and atheistic themes
Yoga, a school similar to Samkhya but accepts personally defined
theistic themes
Nyaya, the realism school emphasizing analytics and logic
Vaisheshika, the naturalism school with atomistic themes and related
to the Nyaya school
Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), the ritualistic school with Vedic
emphasis and philology emphasis, and
Vedanta (also called Uttara Mimamsa), the Upanishadic tradition, with
many sub-schools ranging from dualism to non-dualism.
Ajivika
COMPARISON OF ANCIENT INDIAN PHILOSOPHIES
Buddhism
Karma
Denies
Affirms
Ascetic life
Affirms
Affirms
Samsara, Rebirth
Denies
Jainism
Affirms
Orthodox schools of Hinduism
(Non-ramaic)
Affirms
Affirms[
Denies
Affirms
Some school affirm, some not
Affirms
Affirms, optional
(Pali: Bhatti)
Denies
Affirms, optional
Theistic school: Affirms, optional
Others: Deny
Ahimsa and
Vegetarianism
Affirms
Affirms,
Unclear on meat as
food
Free will
Denies
Atman (Soul, Self)
Affirms
Denies
Affirms
Affirms
Denies
Denies
Rituals, Bhakti
Maya
Creator God
Affirms
Charvaka
Affirms
Denies
Denies
Affirms
Denies
Affirms
Affirms as Sannyasa
Strongest proponent
Affirms as highest virtue,
of non-violence;
but Just War affirmed
Vegetarianism to avoid
Vegetarianism encouraged, but
violence against
choice left to the Hindu
animals
Affirms
Affirms
Affirms
Affirms
Theistic schools: Affirm
Others: Deny[
Various, Vaisheshika (two) to Vedanta (six):
Pratyaka (perception),
Anuma (inference),
Upama (comparison and analogy),
Arthpatti (postulation, derivation),
Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive
proof),
abda (Reliable testimony)
Pratyaka,
Anuma
Pratyaka
Pratyaka,
Anuma,
abda
Epistemic authority Denies: Vedas
Affirms: Buddha text
Denies: Vedas
Denies: Vedas
Affirms: Jain Agamas
Denies: Vedas
Salvation
(Soteriology)
Nirvana
(realize nyat)
Siddha
Moksha, Nirvana, Kaivalya
Advaita, Yoga, others: Jivanmukti
Dvaita, theistic: Videhamukti
nyat
Anekntavda
Brahman
Epistemology
(Pramana)
Metaphysics
(Ultimate Reality)
Pratyaka,
Anuma,
abda
Affirms
Affirms
(prapaca)
Denies
Affirms
Samsdrasuddhi
Affirm: Vedas and Upanishads,
Affirm: other texts
Four Major Heterodox (Nastika) Schools
1. Jain,
2. Buddhist,
3. Ajivika and
4. Crvka.
1.
Jainism, like Buddhism, is a Sramanic religion and rejected the authority of the
Vedas. However, like all Indian religions, it shares the core concepts such as
karma, ethical living, rebirth, samsara and moksha. Jainism places strong
emphasis on asceticism and ahimsa (non-violence) as a means of spiritual
2.
liberation, ideas that influenced other Indian traditions.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as
belief in karma a cause-and-effect relationship, samsara ideas about cyclic
afterlife and rebirth, dharma ideas about ethics, duties and values,
impermanence of all material things and of body, and possibility of spiritual
3.
4.
liberation (nirvana or moksha).
jvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete monastic communities
prone to an ascetic and simple lifestyle.
Crvka is a materialistic and atheistic school of thought and, is noteworthy as
evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.
CAVES
An aloof meditative life has been an ancient Indian
tradition, and a source of the philosophical doctrines its
schools developed. Above is the 3rd century BCE
mendicant caves of the jvikas (Barabar, near Gaya, Bihar).
Quintessence
||
||
Ashtadash Puraneshu, Vyasasya Vachana Dvayam,
Paropkaraaya Punyaya, Paapaya Parapeedanam.
After reading 18 Puranas, all that Sage Vyaasa
concluded is this - It is virtuous (Punya) to help
people and it is sinful (Paap) to trouble them.
Help Ever Hurt Never
