Jeanie iearons id 32 pare of olen pl The history of architecture ie the histor of rasnkind Fach eulure producer new versions of the howe of God, the howe of man, in dr outwaed form, thee srucras Althoogharchucrre by ea leks the subject mar of fainting or scape sboothow people worshipped, lived dnd ded what they fh id what they feed Foss Be tag dee ofan Ezypuinn temple 10 the song vaults of 2 Goth cathe Detect Ce Nretereety fhnsing proper the Mary of srchtccue ‘shox unfolded in its bilan imaginative From many of the epochs of mare ol history nothing, has survived but a few Feagonas of hi buildings; from these slender clues we pizee together the neo and purpose of tone of the great ctrl ehievemients ofall time WORLD ARCHITECTURE provides « lace avthoritotive tex, divided into nine setion Thetis, i which the meaning of architecore wits long continous tradition is clearly am succiney presented; Aart ard Cl which extends froo the neolithic to the superb clasial architceture of Grecee and Rome; Chine + les expontion of the method snd development biking i ancient and movlern China Japanese «survey of domestic aud religious srchieetre in eelaton to che country's milous bit olted history «which desenbes and clarifies tempest lame, a history of Moslem architecture in Spain, P Melioal, sohich Byzantine, Rusia, Romanesque Pt sia, Turkey and wets Early oun the Sic sighteonth ccturis: and finally Mod 1 fll survey of architecture i Europe, Americs and chiowhere dating the facetonth and eventieth cenies, There are short cctions on Pre-Columbian Ameria and om primitive dwellings ;oday, and comprehensive lomary of arcitetacl terms Now reprinted sad revi WORLD ARCHITECTURE is completely up to date, presenting the work of Aalto, Sastinen, Kab, Rudolph, Smithson, Sting adOverleaf: StonelengWORLD ment ECTURE AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY INTRODUCTION BY H.R HITCHCOCK 5 SETON LLOYD DAVID TALBOT RICE NORBERT LYNTON ANDREW BOYD ANDREW CARDEN PHILIP RAWSON JOHN JACORUS GENERAL EDITOR: TREWIN COPPLESTONE HAMLYN LONDON + NEW YORK - SYDNEY - TORONTO.Stee of Hames I: Pa Poppet, Wa em, Feting Coun Peo Tome ieee es Sree Meares Kenic Ce! Lah Sed gat ‘Nato Fad Church nr Gime ee ee Nie Cassa Camis Pr Teste nate opera ohio er ote Ce a Golo Roum Ashmont, Be a oe ere (kin Henry of Thee ol eee snlaee nie ee ee ies Sate dio Nr Bat” Sten Loy The eae oe ee soe ae PupLisiED ny THE HAMLYN PUBLISHING GROUP LIMITED LONDON + NEW YOHK » SYDNEY - TOKONTO HAMLYN HOUSE, FELTHAM, MIDDLESEX, EN COPYRIGHT THE HAMLYN PUBLISHING GROUP LMETED 1963 RST EDITION 1963 SECOND IMPRESSION (REVISED) 1966 HIETH IMPRESSION 1971 ISBN 0 600 03954 4 PRINTED IN ITALY BY ARNOLDO MONDADORICONTENTS ANCIENT & CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE: 15, ‘Stow Lloyd rcitore and Moogotanin, Eayot, Crete sid the Agean, Crock and Helle, Ronn, Prive Declings Today ‘cuivesr, ancirecTUnE: & Andee Boyd he Chinese Bailing, r5c0-234 a. Te Unfction of China, The Inraduron of Buddhion, The Mongol invasion, ‘The Mancha, ‘The Lae Fel Dysaty, The Bouse and Faily, The Chines Garden and Arica Tandiape JNPANESE ARCHITECTURE: 09 ‘Andiow Carden Rae, Groprhy and Climate, Marie ‘The PeecDuddhise Ped, Arka Pood, Nats Period, Helsn Fed, Kamar Pad, Muromacks Period, Momoyasea Pased, elo Pero INDIAN ARCHITECTURE: = Philip Rawson “The Ces of the cis Vile, Early Forme cf Archizcate, The Hinds Tepe ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE Pa Philip Raven ‘The Types of Baling, Egypt, Now fees nd Spain, Mewoporimst ard Per, “Turkey I MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE: ce David) Talber Rie Eaaly Chris, Byzaasne Ras, Arc in the Wot, Romane in Fate, Romsnqur in Spas, Ronanoge in Beit, Romane & Tals, Romanos in Germans, Problems of Vauking, Gothic ou the Conia, Getic ie Hein RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE: Norbert Eyton ‘aly inthe Fconth Canary, the Escy eau, Tay it the Sisterh Centry, High Remisance and Manan, “Hae Sas Coury Ouse tay, Jeay an the Seventeenth Century, Frsnce sa the Seventh Gents, Spin in dhe Sevetetth Century, Palisa ia Nonbers Europe, Eaginh Arhitectre fom the Reorason w George ly The Nekelands, titer Seventh Canty, Fince front 1215 t abou 17, Rococo and dhe Chisel Tradition, Baroque sad Rococo in evel Europe, Fal Ethers Conary, England 17157, Dsegion f the Rousset, Peston |MODERN ARCHITECTURE: Jobe Joes Jr Tusoducuon, Romantic Chasciun= the Style of ton, Nationals snd fperili, Towards » New Atchaecure, The Chane Momo ia Modern Archiecrm, The Expamion of Modern Archer cLossany INDEX Eo > o 6 LIST OF COLOUR PLATES calc Monument, Stochenge, Wilsite e130 ne. Fomine Clos, rte by Amenbotep I, Thebes, «U0 8c Pylous of the temple of Hors, Fal, Hostage ‘Temple of Hom, Fai. Force ih eet tet cole 430-37 8 Pace of Moos 3 Cron, . toonioo nc. North Pach Partheow by nigh, Atoms, 458 me: Bom thew, Aspnes, «160-70 The Forun, Pompei 200 a ee Howse of the Vet, Pope, 6.0. 59 “Temple of Juper, Badbek, Lcbanos, a0. 10-209 Propyics at Jeruh (Ceca), Jondan, en 150 ‘Temple of Heaven, Poking, 120 - Bronze lion at Peking, sevemect, 38 Santee Pa, as Peking, Ching domay, 2644 Geet Wall of China s2st0 m6, Kags Shrine, Nac. Founded Polis of he Shogins, Kyoto, ey edb pid, 16151867 ‘Nisam Palace Hall within the Nyo Cit, Kyoto, erly svete ectiry wa Kandasiya Maeve temple Khujprbo, 3005 Manalapan thre temple, Manas dyna, 635-74 Deal of supa) decorton, Sommathpar, Masons, 10505309 9 net ee Cenene aa ‘hase ceeuey Sts Macs Ta Blanes, Tole, Spin, eee cess Cupola of Mayda, Shae The Bab Zuwels, Care Mougue of Sheik Lnflla, an, Pes Gout ofthe Lions, Alhambra, Grima, a0 Se Sophia, Consaatinopls, A, 2087 Se Dia, Salamis, Gress, th crmer Se Mak’, Venice, ass i Hapenery and cxbodel, Py 53-0278 am Menic from SiaApoliaae Nuovo ia Rie 140 vem 6 $48 NoweDame Fate, nie 190 mone Cathode], 1886 Peterborough Cathelel, 11894 am end, chow Heogy Vis capa, Wetminter Abbey London, «1502 Sige de Compontels Cabal, Spans ade, 7344, Fru de Casey Nowa alsa del Seton the Capt, Rome Phas by Micicangl, ouiplated by Girslans Raia afer 1392 The scotia, nue Mido, 1561-84 Begun fr Philip ty Juan’ Boat Toledo, complecd by Joan de Herces Sta Mata della Sate, Venice, 2630-4. Bada Loighes Cae 21 Wie, Bavaria, yest. Zener CChuzeh 0f Se Pour View, 1792-0. Haldebrande Grand Trianon, Veil, 3687, Jul Hardoun Masur ‘Chiwack Vile, London, 17 Lord Hingson Cukor Howe Terace, London 137 John Nak Pcs Opis, t8-74. Chie Care, Gineney Boiling, But, NY, Hor9s ovis H Sallvan and Dakin Adler Waber Gale Hows, Ouk Pak, lacs api, Fink Lloyd Weight wary Cooney Play Howe, Riverside Minos, 1913, rank Lloyd Wri Congies Bulag, Bris, 1960, Ouse Nic. Mexieo City, Univesity Libean, Iptsess om Gray, Gears Stoves and Juan Marin de Velen Scagrm Mung, New York, 19658. Min van der Robe ad Philip jooen Uhinos tostiute of Technology, Chirp. Mies ta der Rohe, Fnttancet0 Crown Hi, complaed 1996 Siyaivalo Civic Came, Filan, 194s ‘Alar Aas Intrioe, Note ieee Teaee, 190-55. Le Corboser med Hane, Foret Cremoriam, Seb, South Cemetery, 1540 En Gnnsr Aighind Eston NoveDamedirFi, RonchanpPHOTOGRAPHIC ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS agree eeet ne eee es Fe Te Be HEE TB Sh te, Ba 8, 00 ‘tia fv, es tur weeee ae So Ste Bh. 98 9 Sir 3H Se Seo ce ie mh be Fr ote oot ob a Be Ee en Baten Bie 2 atk Ss leek ogee a cea Rega ss aces yen wae Gevaon “SPA D Eat: 9 Grogs crc Pes Company ants ok eprom hee, Svea ep fh, Pn, 8 DAES of Aas tng leit of antdopy, sire 8 Jp Dot 28 9. ne at 471 Jin bid 10) tpt Fanon Soy: 6 Fgh Tov Infrae Coe, Loe Ee yaa. ‘ke anata st Gabe Fooerteo Nasoales 9h iat eae ie tke on Gh fo, Se Me Sa De Math Galway: 208 315 6 46 tse Depot of aon sl Cerna Aedasope te Ate sees laees Pans Stabe ag Aman 7 Haya a a3 teaser SSPE eo te silbus News Ageny: 25, 36 238 2. Sa 2 a ah otig rr doe Rea 438 81 Jean Coneomeet Tar Oe, tame ‘Na fe: on. 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Withower: eo Yi th. tn ui gsi ar a Sin hs Be, 98 3ay Hasny-Russait Hirencoce: tiuildingsthat survive fom the pascae fossil of eiilietion, ptt ae INTRODUCTION Fron certain early coltuts hat leit no written recon, oF ‘hese records have mot been deciphered, monumental to- mains are the principal sources of information. Even of sonailed high’ poriody—Perielan Grecce sa, 0 Hadeanic ome—such edifices as the Parthenon and the Pantheon. a, for many people, the mos impresive manifeeations Nearer to our own time the architeccare ofthe nineteenth entry provides evidenes of achievement and of fire Icdly 10 be found in political chronicles. Some writers even attempt, rathor premarcly, o judge ove on een fiech-century civilization in pate atleast, by its wnan-made sering. They conase Avoursbly or unfavourstly ox ‘ast indsrial and business strutares wich the cahedeals and palaces of che pas, or they try co read the degree of access oF falore of vatious"Welfie Sats'in the quabey ‘of ci housing and thir schools. That willbe quite lesie- ‘imate for future historians, but it is likely to be tendem ‘ows and abitanly opinionated if stemptod too sn. ‘Architecoral history ss always part, somecnes eves che ‘mos important pat, of history in general. Ie canbe inter- coring intellectually even in periods whose products appeal Tule or not at all fo. mid-twonticth-centony taste. Yet tw conser architctaral history mazely 3 a par of general Intory to miss reat deal of ts potensalinterest, Despite the social, technical, and functional aspects of building ‘ove that nk archivectore mose closely w oer specs of history—architectare exists in he cealm oF art more specifically of the visual arts, The atttic value of indi dha budings er, indecd, of whole cites andl cegions at erin periods may have Been low or even, 50 € pu it, tipative doubles more building are and always have been, ifnot ugly rather than beaucfl, atleast of negligible ual interest—yet we turn to eh history of arcivetare ft merely to become informed but in the expectation of visual plesure, We even distort sauscialy the history of | Iuiling by habieally throwing emphasis on those aspects ‘of the production of the pase that have the mose postive vinaal qualitis, paying far mone atenson to the temples, Aas Iota sf de Gach an stntyng the churches of che Victorians with greater assiuey than thee equally Characteristic factories. Ths it no seioss error if we ae fully aware of what we are doing. Indeed, one may adot thar for certsin portions of atchitecoral history, such as the story of cashes and fortifications of cits in theMiddle ‘Ages an succeeding periods, or the development of low= ‘cost stte-ided hovsing in the ninctenth and eweutich ‘enturcn a predominantly non-vseal apcoach has is valve “There are significant axpect of archisctaral history that ‘an be created concepeually, wing chiely words; 0, 1a faattes of constrtion, with simple diagrams (snce all bollingscomsidened as physical objects are within de cela of soli geometry) Bot considered a a ar, archirectare aviual matic anditsthrough pctares—today chielypho- tographe—that it mse be apprehended. la the aca pres ‘ence of a busing ether senses are aoc, bat even within {gear man-cteatel space the response ofthe otker sms is mostly dependent on what th eye ses rather than direct ‘The height of toncer may pothaps be raed by cman 1c bue ee ofan meric is wally expericuced merely by four sub-covscioussneypeetzion of what the eye fepoes. ‘Mealy all buakbags shold be vised; bot there ts cor- ‘ainky no sma being who has sen all che buliags which such world history of acchitesute a this rat, ven mnie anally nude. Faraerors, dhe very presence of baile ing there is ale information worth having which the eye aloe cannoe provide. Folly co comprehend, say, a great ‘medieval cathedral (or, fr thas mater, an estensive modern housing estate), ove needs the scheniatic evidence provided by plans on paper and probably by crossections 36 wel ‘To understand any but the sip and most maked types of builbag construction further schematic diagrams are snoedod, perhaps even more than ae pins and general tions. Moreover, to the average vitor cerain aspects of tongs are practice inaccosible—the fixe ofthe Pac thenon, for example, even those porions of still maton oF the stained-glass windows high up inthe leery of Cates or Bourges. Tho, fc, alkhough cerain major architectural qualities of russ and, above all, ‘of spae are uly apprebewsible only befoce or within the building, the history of architecture that can be presented in luerated lestares of books i by 0 means merely—as is wally she case with painting oe seulprure—a fesble ‘echo of realty. On the contrary, by the skifidseletion and jseaposiion of images —goncral views, ioside and ovt views ofiaaccesble areas, details ofallsorsin photograph. combined with various diagrammatic drawings, especially ‘of plans and setions—the reality of building en be round cd out 40 effcively chat i necessary, of af least very desirable, to have such derivative images at hand for con sultation even when visiting the actual buldiag, of 2¢ any fate sone clear memory of them, The very ides of 2 tory of aay subject assumes a se= quence of discrete events (in the eae of architecture, of individual balding) chat are early to be foun i close proximity. The Chicago skyscraper story, for example, can- not be seed in that iy alone, since two of dhe architect Sullivan's mayor works are chewhere, in Se Lonis aud ia ufo, To follow the sequence of development of Greek segle or Frenal eothedrae repre rt Tas ps enna: traveling to sce all the peinipal originals. ln the pages of a book, such sequences can be clesly ordered, and all ‘outs of comparisons can be teadily made thar would ake days or weeks if they could be made only by sexing fst ‘one and then another of the boiklings ehemscl If the sequences that the idea of history implies be noe too long andthe contexts not too dapseate, mow stents ‘come to fel chat chess sequences have teal meanings th trinsic interest, however debatable eh are of considerable particles formolations of those meanings by one historian ‘onechne evoluson fiom the primitive hut to the marore Greck temple, which ap- peal much co erein eighteenthcencury theonst 8 0 thy hardy aa acceptable patern for any of che principal historical sequence azcbitecture, Yetoneeannot deny that if five or een busing, products of the same culture and for another may sen The not too fie apart in date ae lined up chronclogically — svhether they be medieval parsh churches, Georgian coun 627, 633, 668, 682 noms 960-963 nis119, 28-647sors 697. 704 000-1007 tots, 920 636-990, ‘79-983, 1008 ixtropuction, fy owes oF modern skysceapers—some ‘plot’ or “oem! nll alone always appear to be dixernible nthe devele ment, Thus dhe historical stuly of architectore bas 3 nesion of temporal depth necenanly kag i the ape ciation, so much mote ssnswously diet, of andidual ‘buildings, even the very greatest or most comple. For obsioo reasons, the various sequeness—the histor- Jeal chapter, one might ell them—tliat have succeeded fe anther in vatious counttos of the Wester world fio anciguity tothe pres have been sore thoroughly analysed than the sequences im the Asiatic or pre-Colum= ban cuter thar ate remote from us i e6sty sea aad concerning, which ponllel politcal and socal-bstorical Socumsntaton i ether ching or eclaively inaccsuble Moreover there ate phenomena of architects) hiry in the Western workd, no necessarily lacking a other culones bless realy appechewshle eo al be specialists, char ro= ‘ide cert counties onthe one hat, he venalsances and revival that ae almost as conden in lte antiquity as i the fiicenth-to-ststoeuth or the sighteenth-ts-sinetenth aires om the oher and, and wot ungelated, the Bistory of architectural thoorics as aciculted in books and real inc, partially bot rarely eosupletely, in exseuted work. The history of achiectual theory is largely an intclce- toad water that cn be of peat interest foe 86 ow sake {uite ape from the effect of theory 08 production, But it ertsialy should noe be ignored im considering the Bld ngs erected by such theorists as. Albers, Pugin or Le ‘Corbusier, not to speak ofthe any architects acho aecepte cand follows! sith greater of Tess devotion the highiy acuculae ledewhip of such men. There are, indeed, six does of architects, more critically thaw visually ended, who colay zd in cather perio judge, aud have always siged, architecture noe by’ rts but yt programmes; anal evcn do so when chose programmes [as For most pe saogs before the fiftecuth century) ate in fet largely what Iasheen dedaced by ber brver fom what wa actly produced, But dzet seady of the monumars should, aud most ease does, had to scepticism concerning the n= portance of theory Rather we come to realise cha bu fags im so fir as they are works of act, are most ky to be, ethan that sais be Lown 00 ut Soe, cantons of individ ashe seouk roy be called archers and ju so fir as ehey ace also works of craisuanship the prod vets of thal traditions chat are the result of tral social ‘soiations and the specie awalabiity or one-aailabiity of certain materials. Thisisas tue ofthe cnerete or struct stclcefesmanship of modern techni a oF the stone eri rmanship the brik eraftmanship of Holl. This dual background for the production of architecture penis of separate approaches. On the one hand, there Is the‘yecat man’ approach that peeentsatelitvturl ive f earlier France 0 vory as a series of ilstrated biographies, fom Bruncle- sels i Use Steet century to Frank Lloyd Wrights or Corbis the went, This eatmentis obeiowly ithsuted eo the architectural history of eaber potion’ aud emotcrcukoees, In contrast there 18 the approach avi secs acchitxtare im any tne o paces the nelactable revue ‘of the technical status ofthe busing industry as then aul there was There ts, moreover, areal dichotomy here some great architects ive, in ft but rather Badly, Boe cause thy dt master of know ow eo command the Iho craftisaanhip of thir day. Much of the finest seme ‘work, brickwork and, Join, sto oF eoncrete-work, om the ollie Hard, can be foun iw busking that hardy se Tigh un the sale of works of att because the creative eon teol ofa designer of taleot—hether bulls, archiver oF engincce—was not wise ty mone comnerics there i to be found a vermsculat, pecially in country villages and wolaed farmhouses, that coves bl oF nothing to consciows design, The peasant vvellings of trish, the hamlets of the Cotswold, the small vosns of New England, the poeblo ofthe American south-west often show an instinctive comnand of partienlar rnatera—respectively, bck and tk, limestone robbie, fined wood, adobe—that the rained archive, by his very Sophusucsaon, usable to eal Noe at thi evel, can ome ignore the charms of weathering —elfects cht the architect leans on a his pei ut which, iu oss an lichen, soft nc corncrs and sntuounly nixed testes, are the result ‘oot of man's ieentions but of matures rolling. ‘The diffeuty of a world history of architctare is that in covering so much tersitory itis hardly posible to pro- sent ith equal thoroughness for all periods, the nvidia ‘orks of great paniuses—named or unkaows—and ako the general run of building of a pevied or ples which more ‘oft Has noe determines the total aehicceua earactr of 2 ory ora regons Masterpiccet—anciso far a pou they ust be seladed—ae never, by defini, typical, Indeed, ‘here are tmportane periods, such as che Age of Justin, thar est for us only ina band of major moment and ‘of whowe general production we have hide idea. On the ‘ether had, some of the most suecesfl macrocosiie ties, not merely modieal or Rewasance towns seh a Sin Gimignano and Sanvingo de Compostela, but ber ces like Bath and Naney-—whose architects are in ict, howe ce wot the product of genius. of even of exceptionally high buividval talent, but of pobiica, social and rater crcumstances (the avulabiity of fine, easy handled Bull ing materials, for example) not, oo the sume depres at ee co Be few tn She Sonne widen whic era of the move intense mndivadnal ercators seventeembreentury oly, or Gand} in nineteenth—and twvcntcthcentury Spin —were fenced» work, Core bol arctic, seer fen tbe tater scorn, oF at last very aberrant, n cir rexpome ro materials Inine sically dafcule materials, of the sorts ordinarily rejected ae tly, ean Ecnate architects like the Vietoiaa Butterficld ‘of the twentieth century Le Corbusier, not to speak of the achitets just mentioned. "There have often been what mighe be called “immanent” architectures, posites of carrying uedher and realising ‘more comiplesy the fora aspeations of original geniuses who were undeteemployed oF evon of periods that wore abwupely eeminatcd by’ exesarchitectal events. Hete es the fsimaion of certain unrealised projets, hins of great Ibulings thc never cameo satel allen, suggestions for further development of sle-phises that uever quite ured, yet occasionally in ater day andanother eonty could inspite ler designers more effecively than what toa already’ Becn exscuted and was thereby lintel in pow tentiliey. A general hitory of architecture eandot, chere= fre, ignore akogether certain arcitcts who Wk very Tale or nothing, such a Francois Blondel in scventcexth= cengury France or Sant’Ela in ewonteth-contury Kal, noe such an exotic and peripheral movement a the Manceline sn Portugal “Theorists writing aboot architectare generally ses that ft ie a practical att providing sheler and serving various human needs, Actlly, the further ve peuctate ito che pst the more sucha highly proper modern atid requires ‘tasicnodifcaaon. The pyramids of Beype provided shee fer only forthe dead, and much ofthe greatest achiecture ths intentionally served the needs of gods rather ean men, Hug, of cours, shelving the dead was a more important ‘matter to the Exypaans chan sheltering dhe living, which in thee climate was felavely snyley and an serving heir igodsinen have been serving aw ther own rcligious needs ‘which they have offen pat well abead of more practical and everyday ones. So excellent are onr own factors, on the other hand, thatthe builders of che Parthenon or of Char might well acense of giving beter thong ro sheltering machines chan men, much less gods: aud the concept of sheler is haedly adequate t0 expla the moxie vation for enormons palaces such as those of che ancient East or teventeenthe and cightccmb-century Europe, Shelter sceims, indeed to have been 3 minor consideration fn many ofthe carly cultures; and the set of space creation in which they often excelled consed inthe enclosure of covets, in the modeling of terran by vast tetraces and. in general. in effets more closely related to the landscape o¢ ‘garden arts of the Wowcen world than to svhat might be called the “will to hollow form’ of the Roman Pan- theen, the Victorian Coal Exchange or the Guggenhcira Moscom. "The ate of architecture is concerned with the manipula: tion at relatively large scale of threeedinensional element. Bue the three ditensons may apply toa sold, as with che pytamids or Gree: temples—shick later had, of course, ‘modest interior: 0 hollow interior spaces, eanging in size and compleaity al the way ftom a modest domestic foun to a vast cathedral; or to the spaces around and berween buildings more wsully considered as urbanism or 35 gar ening rather than architecture, but not separable theoreti= cally from the formal organisation ofthe elements of ind vidal freestanding struts, “Morcover, every building hat 3 physial contest. Somo- times, the designer may have ignored chat contest out of scorn for sorroimding sructures and on the assimption thar they would be replaced by a setting more to hs own taste. More offen, its powcrity that has destroyed a once appropriate context and subsituted one hardly imaginable tosheoriginal designer. Tha isthe cave with atchacological site and alo‘ modern cities. Wren's churches in London for Upjohn’s in New York have long been all but low among the tll busines buildings of the simereenth and ‘wencicth centric, Yet for some buildings the contest is allbimporent: one may vtll fe at Vasxel-Vieornte or st Verses tat the gardn-dsigner Le Ngee’ contribution was greater chan dhe atehutect Le Vau's Foe other stations the context may be inconsequential, the perfction of the indiidual structure as a creation of tresioe space 0 9003 be, a6 a¢ St Sofia, thatthe esterior and the setting can be ‘ignored. In his connceton, the contest withthe Bunbul mosques bulk by Simin a thowand yeats Tater, is very striking. since their exteriors and shee setings are, in fet, of some reid consequence, while their interior, follow closely the fiinianic model, Ininceobicing » general scary of architecture, its hard ly posible to all attention to all the diferent oeays in ‘which buildings can profitably be sen and studied. Prop- erly, the authors of the teats for the differen sections each ‘ress those aspects of architecture most rlevane tothe pox ods of regions with ohich they ate conceened, Ideally, ‘ota introduction bur 3 conclosion might hope to sui snare and wand wp the sory. Bat the history of architece cue, as it he abieaily serainated at 1800 oF a 1900, ‘open-ended. Tht present, conseming which Mr jcobos Jas writien, will already Be past by the time this book appears. I an inevitable rempeation of historians to torn 10 propaganda or eo prophecy’ t0 sume thar because there certainly are Tesons to be learned from the pat of archi tectore they ean, atthe least, suggest how those esons should or will n the fanure be applied. Bue cis isan oe sion. The firs eon to be Ieaznt fran the history of archie recture is that at any moment the next stages of develop- scat are uncertin, Who would have expected the Ite srorthern Gori toaccepe—adasteally very Remissice of lly; why should che reaction aginst the Rococo have led to a Clasieal Resival; why dda’ de i= croaing tse of sew materials inthe nineteenth cencory lead at once toa wholly new architecture? Since such questions have so fir proved to be more or ess unanswerable, so today we can hive hill fdes of what i bly to come next. The very characce of the sady of the history of arcitecare today, s0 diferent frown what it was even in the selatvely recent pas, those among the le generation who savy the study of Ri Ou tamte a ree architectural history 36-2 unger, leading inevitably (as i certainly had in ceain eatlie periods) co imitation. Ac- ‘ually i seems inthe mid-twentieth centery, 10 ave no soch ect, but rater to inspire a yearaing to rival in ori ginaliny the grea ages tha are past. We should read hicory tot to le ourselves in the past but to set high goals For ‘our owt ackievemtent, Nor neod wwe be discouraged. Ale ready our own century bas pradiced many busdings nor unworthy to stad with those of the past, and three oF four architects active since 1y00—Weight, certainly, Le CCorbosicr, Mie van dor Rob, peshaps oae ore others tied noc fear comparison with the greatest nazacs that have some down 08 asa Aib450 7s 753-754 761-763 1. 270, 866, S8o-tor, 900-903, 917-929 1008, 1007, 999AND CLASSICALPREWUSTORIC AND MESOPOTAMIAN ” PREHISTORIC AND MESOPOTAMIAN tn Whe Tope, Lint Ini fist evolionaty stages he pater uf man's caste : Peete fay ee eh Barnes ‘as enbul and nomic. Gathermg vegetable food or hie ing animals and moving feom place to plce in search of thes, caves or natural shelters provided him wth some, which for the rime being setsfed hye primitive nod ‘Rather less chan 10,000 ysaesago. he discoveced the pesbil- fics of agriculture, and from then onwards now factor, were fnraduced into his life, which resected his mowe= ments and resulted ultimately i the permanent seelements (of «farming community. Under these circumstances indi- vidal homes acquired 1 ness significance: the space which certain domestic iaetions regularly tok pace need ‘ed co be enclosed and proteeted, and the craft of building ‘as devised foe ths purpose. The primary fations tbe ‘considered wore eating and sleeping, both of which, 35 ‘modern analogies show, can be performed with equal acil= icy ina compartment of almost any shape. When, there- fore, tone was available and could te piled up to make a wall, a rectangular hur with an epening in one side might soggest itself, wheteas the phstcty of clay mighe lend ise to the constuction of a circular building. Timber beams ‘would point toa Hat roof and their absence to some sort ‘of cortelling. The forns and appearance of the carliet buildings were in this way dictated, lncrally, by mateial ‘comiderations. But except in the most rigid, dicconary sense, this was not ye architectore. “Today we find ourselves able and ansious to disinguish the special qualities which elevate mere buildings to the status of archicectare, and their immediate definiuon here may have certain advantages. The mos clementary reguice= ment of architceture i that a builder or designer shall Ihave consciously contrived she foren and appearance of a building in sich away as to provoke predictable rections in those who sce or mse it—teactions, that, either of pet sonal stisicton or aesthetic pleasure. We think that in doing this thote are at least four principles whick need Aeliberce consideration. Two of those, dhe suctoral and foncrional principles, speak for themselves. The soundness ‘of building's sractre must be evident and even impees~ Bg ae eee erence sminst adequately expres that purpose inside and out. The spatial principle which comes nex, it 3 mote abstract cone sideration. We have already mentioned the elementary in- tention of a building, which i ro enclose space: sn she intetioe oF a building the designer is accordingly concered with the shaping and disposal of spaval elements in an articulate manner, The building's external appearance ine trodocss the fourth or formal principle, and ia applying ‘this he wil find irnself subject to limitations imposed by all che othecs—swoctural, functional and spatial. Archi rectural deign consists entirely in che observation of these cadinal principles, Wich superficial ornament we are ot set concerned. In the primitive buildings which we were discussing, ‘with the posible exception ofthe structural principle none ‘of thee matters wat yet onderstood. The rectangular aut could serve equally well ana hovse ofa stable; geainstores secre dreular dwellings on a smaller scale. As for spatial Plan of enple Vilat Ede form cl oe rtd te ae Ea len Toe em ln Si wom feched an aaned ae of Sheth os poibed coppera 18 Khas Phot of Sie ee Wad VL he ee nk ‘cid sons hots Te wees lot nd bas then lt oreo ct, proportion of exterior form, any effet obtained from these ‘vas wll unpremeditated. Yee this age of architectural inno~ cence wat to he short-lived. Te wat in the Nese Fst dat village communities made their earliest appearance, anit samong them that arckaco logiss have deected the fist germ of an impube towards achitecrtal design. Daring the neolithic period, contra tne conventional saps cr buldings were perhupsalready Bersted by tradition, in Turkey, for instance, om the fenges ff dhe Anatoban plates, there were houses substandal= ly baule of w-brick on stone fonndations, still const= ing of single rectangular compartment. But they had. 2 doorway in the centre of one side and the poston of the domestic hearth dicecly opposite is cmahassed by a Formal niche in the wall bohind i At Khieokiis inthe i= lad of Cypeus, houses were ciccular with a bechiveshaped ‘sul of mud-brick; and «raised wooden leoping-platorm created, perhaps forthe fist ime, an uppee floor. litle later in Crete and northern lag, thite were again solar bechive buildings called sbi, bur they were ewered ough am outer, rectangular compartment, which does not ‘esplinielf unless they were pary buried inthe side of a Tull and required 4 shonos approach like the much Iter bechive tombs at Myeenae. At Jvicho in Jordan, mean- ‘hil a circular stone tower twenty-seven fet in diameter, seems t point te fortification of a contemporary std meat, And bees, another sigaficane find ves a building cvidensly devorcd to some cul; sgusee, with « portico screened by wooden poss and two doorway leading one through 2 ciny vsrubile, all consciously arranged on 3 sae gle as. Here aleeady the fanctional principle atleast was being comidered ‘Yet ie was mote chan 2,000 years before the aed of this ahexsct idea scoms effectively to have germinated. Then, in che protor and pre-Sumeran sctlements of southern Mesoparamia, amid etexcendo of erative invention, teal architecture suddenly materialised as setiag forthe come plex fanctions of newly developed civilization. The earist Avsellings here were of seeds and mud. Simply recungule in plan bur of an elaborate and ingenious construction, they must exactly have resembled dhe great mdf soll ble abe Bled cAtabe tndey oprah Cachet ental their heads bone together to foram a vault, and fling Ibeweot then of mudeplastered wicker-work, By Some= rian vcs these Jd lowg been abandoned in favour of | ‘more substantial brick buildings, bur memory of thir ex tinal appescance conditioned Sumerian design for many’ centuries to come, and the complicated pattern of thei snerace fags survived both ava form of ornament and 4s che pctcgraphic symbol of a temple. For already. in the aiildle of the tied muillemmony 8. C., temples and shines were the buldings upon which the new-found f= tly of sechiteeseal expression wss mainly cacesteared. At Fido, one of the oldest elgioss foundations in the ‘odd, then shih had started 36 no moe than 2 stall Inst acth doorway facing a0 offering-able nd akar, had become a wellpropordoned building with long central sanctoary, side chambers and a faade elaborately fected swith vetiesh butecsies and recess, to perpetuate the smarsh-bulding eration, fae from thove ateshes at TepeBi kay bw Gavia in the nosth, 2 group of dee temples on an acropolis faichfillyiicted dhe same design “And now at last in thee buildings ne ses proper aten- tion being paid co che cardinal principles of desien which swe have eatliee caumerated. The loss of thir upper pars and our coosequent ignorance of ther roofing principle deprives us of certainty about dee stactual qualities, But their functions ae properly articulated, so chat the part played by almiox every clement in the plan ean sill be identified, and ce allocation of spaces perfectly intelligible. ‘Even more significant sche atemp wo give formal expres sion to a newly conceived abseaction. The buildiyg sands ‘npona podinm or raised plaxfocm, which s clearly intended 16 emphasise the exalted purpose ro which its dedicated [Nor can one fill to notice how the low walls fanking che steps by which the platform is appeosclied initiate an are htectural device which was never afervards focgeuen, “The Somerian architec is already beginning to undersand hisjob, and in che great period of wniveral discovery whieh follows, he ie able co make his own stiking contribution, designing now wich confidence and erative ability. “The idea of sublimating a religious staal by elevating the shrine in which i wok place, was one which persist=d throigh Semerian times and enlminated in the high =gera towers of Babylon and Assia. Inthe prehistoric temple at "Unair, the platform i already en to ffcen fet high and made to look higher by vertical panels inthe brickwork ‘The temple itself his che sane strocoral and functional characteristics ats prototype at Eri, but anew element thas appearedin he form of superficial ornament. The whit= ‘ned mud-plasterof the interior wall-fiecs i covered with painted decoration. The fct that this is already comperently ‘adapted co architecural requirements, with bands of geo matric armament sipporting or enclosing formalised figures ‘of men and animals, need not suprises Pottery hae ak ready been decorated inthis way for many centaries, at the designs of mythic figores had wore recently been perfected in smallseae relief carving Boch here and inthe seccalled White Temple at Uruk, another form of walls ‘omament took the form of terra cotta mosaic conc, inserted contngenly in the plaster to form a band or pacern. The White Temple well, now standing on a pyramidal plac form forty fet high, bad entries at cither end of the sanc- tuary, at thongh to sigaest an actaal confrontation berween the worshipper and his god. In other respects i difeed tite from that at "Usa, bot an adjoining building, che Pilar Temple, had fre-tanding columns eight feet thick and half-columas agaist the sidewall, all completely cov red with morsic, The colonred ends of the cones (tnany thousands in number) were arranged in a varying diaper pattem and mist have created a decorative effect of eaten brilliance. ‘At Exida, the only Samerian site where any stone sen to have been avaiable, even more elaborate fagade oman ment was wed in the test pechisoric temple. Here, the ‘ins of earbie tompls t0 which oe have tefcred, were enclosed in a sone-faced reaining-wall, and above this rose the serried bastions of the platform, omamented in ths ease with bands of huge gypren cones, cheir ends sheathed in polished copper. Fallen from the temple itl ‘were found snuller cones chipped ont of eoloured sone aind ee rectangular cement bucks, perforated for the a tachment of odier architectural octament In these prehistoric temples the prinnry characteristic of Mesopotamian architectare were altcady present. The Su- merian dynastic perind (fas half of the third millensiom B,C) showed feo innovations save for the elaboration of planning and femal arrangement. The main sancuney ‘yas now inconporsced in 4 complex of subsidiary chambers and courcyads, sometimes enclosing smaller shrines dei- fated to minor dei. [nan interesting setcing at Khabje fn the wut bank of the Diyala River, the main shrine ‘soo on its pleform in the eente of an ovakshaped pre= inet or temenes, protected by double enclosure-wall and coteredtheowgh > formal porico. An exactly similar tex pleat APUbaid, near Ur, showed evidence of having heen ‘enbellahed wath corly and claborate archisectural oraa= ent remnants of which wore found stacked agains the bhase of the plotform afer its desrsction; copper bull) Ineads, Bands of inlay oemament with religions seen carved in white iestone on a dark ground, columns inlaid with colovrel stone snd an enormous copper lintel with mythir cal figares in high reef Te becomes clea cht these elevated temples, towards the end ofthe third mllenninm, were dediated toa disactive fpurpose. They provided a sexing forthe sacramental inal {round which dh Soanrian fenilt cut centred. The shrines themselves, all of which have uow vanished, are known, rom extetnal evidence to have been simple afar, prob- ably conssting of 2 sngle comparment, But the platform fon which chey stood bad been heightened and elaborated beyond all eeogaition, These ‘saged- ture was devsedonce more fllosing 3 iveshundeed-jeat= “ld peecden eabbsed th tine by the ies. econ Sut pun ub oyadatnd Ue ch tig be a Thon; "Joubleaspec”seupsures, offen provided with ve legs in oeder co perc chor appearance citer fom the feont or fom the ie, Thee would stand somewhat higher than the sculptured orhowat ofthe Strog, and above them the bricks ofa sei-cireslar arch would be enriched wth colored ge, Caled designs in glaodbrick would tho frm panc atthe hoe of the peeing eowere Hake ing the erty on ihe side, "The smicrcuae ach with adaingreuss,w which laid contruction watealy apd, haben Gvoured by Mesopotamian architects since prehistoric tis. From its tue by she Auyeine over deeply seceved openings, oe might inf an understanding of barteL-vauting. And ioe ‘eed, Asyrtan bulding fave oe ben reconstructed with saulted chambers and even dom. But conchsons ofthis Sot depo nevidence provide bythe ae eprescatons of azeistore Ayan cheating. and iis pobably = ‘afer offer sata let supply of tuber From neigh- Tha Any pao ust ThebesPREUISTORIC AND MPSOPOTAMTAN 35 Pouring forests (also depicted), made Bat roof moze prace tical Certainly fice-tanding ‘olomas were of imber, though their bases and capital were sometimes carved fiom stone. [eis again the relies which provide the only evidence regarding the external appearance of building ‘They show crenllated batlements and also occasional recrangular windows, 124 At Khorssbad, which has provided the mose compl plan of an Asysian royal cy its the kang's palace whieh 35. is now elevated on an artificial platform, raised level 26 with the parapet of che city wall, while the temples are no moze than subsidicy features of the plan. ‘The palace is connected by a wide camp with a complex of low-level public buildings, having is own towered foctifieation and seulpered gateways, The whole lay-out isa small master bicce of monumental planaing, with the massing and re Iatve heights ofthe buildings carefully considered. fe may. ‘well have inspited the cental composition of Nebuchad- snezsit's Babylon 200 yeas ater. ‘Apar fiom omamene and fcings,Aisyrian buildings were sail constructed of sold mmud-brick, Their imimensely hice wally like the grandiose subjees of the reliefs which adorn them, gave to the architecture of the period an slmost Victorian complacency. But when certain engineering works became necesary their architects wore compelled to buildin stones aml then, in sructors sch as bridges and aquedecss, their qualies of thoronghness and srvecaral solidity became more obviows ast, In che ssth centary B.C, after the Sill of Nineveh, the cus of hiorical evens shifted southwards agai to Baby- Jonia, and ding che culeural renaisance which followed, Some principls of Anytian architects were adapted eo the old Soierian radsion. Under Nebuchadnezzar there was a great revival of building activity, and everywhere 2 eno Rae np, sient temples were reconstructed on a pretntions sa ‘Above all, on the lower Euphrates the city of Babylon itself was enormously enlarged and replanned, The inner ity was now magnificently Id out with brosd steats {intersecting at right angles, some gatallel to the rive quay, others teriinating in huge bronze gates in the city wall cor smaller ones leading to landing-stages on che river bak, The “Champs Elysees of this compoution was the so aalled Procession Seret, along wich the images of the gods wore cutied to the New Year's Festival. Where it 3 passed ehrovgh the iance sall, the famous [hese Gate made an ‘Ate de Triomphe’, and ie skied che imperial pale with its Hanging Gardens before reaching the great temple of Bel, Etemenanki, whose siggurat had now alo been rebuilt om an ambities scale In Babylonia there was no stone for sculptured relief, 20 fe was che outcr fades of these buildings chat were en= siched, They were covered to ther fell haghe with glazel bricks in rise coloers, while heraldicanimal or patcrns ‘of fiags, modelled in low rei benesth the glaze, cone vexed a textare of deliate shadows. Against the monot- ‘nous geometry of otherwise undecorsted clay buillings and the monocheome ofan allvial Indseape, she elite ing wall-fices of this precinct most have acquited an ‘exaggerated brillance, like the gilded domes and ecramic fagader of mosques in a modem Islamic city elias te 4 Fam | Pylon couple Hors, Edie me Poti,u as RoYPTIAN Dating this samt period in the sixth century B.C, some aspects of Asyrian architecture were reece inthe cities cof south-western fran, rom wehich a dynaity of Achaem= nian kings ruled 2 lege part of the Near Eat. At Ponepolis, which they made their eapta, the great roche hewn terrace om which their palaces stood makes a signif icant comparison with those of Awytia and Babylon, For here, a: immediately becomes apparent, one is dealing with a toully diferent tradition of building. ‘The snteres ‘in monsmental planning, th cellular composition and inter= ‘elation of buildings of which we have seen s0 mich ev dence in Mesopotamia, appears to bave been non-existent among Persian archivocs. The grouping and character of the individual palaes at Pericpoi were all reminiscent of a nomadic tation in which a euiter of gaudy tente pavilions formed the nucleus of a unbal assembly Seek pe ete edi three tel Norn deccesel the various throne-rooms and banguetballs are disposed almost at random on their elevated emplacement, and the smagificenly ornamented stairway which forms the main approach scems unconnected with any one of then ‘The most striking quality of these Persian architctoral reonains lies in the field of plastic oruamnene. For this ako fan origin. most be sought in rogional tradition, aid ie fs immediately apparent sa the apeiude for fine drawing and modeling, particularly of plant sod avinal most which has avvays distinguished Tranian art. Persian archi- tects eaulated the Assyrians in decorating their billings ‘with sculprared relief, bue preferred che Babylonian prin- ciple of applying this omament only 10 che exteior fagades. The carving of the this is at formalised as the Anyrian, but more meticulossly deeled, 0 chat at times it eesembles goldsmith’s work in ts hard peccision, ‘The human iguces are stereotyped and sometimes monot- ‘nous, a though carved with waning incerst; bat interest and aptitade abke revived when animal motifs were handled, and decorative shapes ike the magnificent dosble- bull capitals in the Halhof-a-HundredsColamns made a sveleomte challenge tothe Pers sculptors ingenuity. ‘Another peripheral development from Assyrian archic rector edition appeared during the cighth and seventh cconteries B.C. in the vanal sates of northern Syra and Taurs, inhabited by seummauts of the imperial Hieites. ‘The Hines indced had a tradition of teic own, inherited From the mid-scomd mullenniam when they ruled extern Anatolia from thei Iavily foetiied capital at Hatesas (Boghazhoy). Ther buildings were of tberfeamed mad brick on a sobearnctore of ierogolely jointed stones Smpessve in servetral strength when their purpose was miliary and occasionally of sking design, a i the case cof an allstone temple at Bogharksy, But the salptare swith which they sere adorned is derivative in style, of ine ifercat_workmacship and of litle moe than archaco- logical inert. Boverian “The boginnings of architeecure in. Egypt date fou the centuries before 3009 B.G., which we have called the prchisoric period, Their style may have been inoenced by contemporary brick buildings ia Mesopotamia, though one cam imagise oly the mou tenoout phytic lnk teeween couric at ha meso spaatd. Cerin the ese pea er et peel acta at Aiislctoeepin Theconplonl dys of ther hed Sate Gilly reproduce the of ely Meepotaman trick bilings i which clement of red-comtrction are teen eo bave ben reine: and in Egypt thee ive no Known soso osggn the coiedene of aa development But although sey contibuted the embryo fn ies whch le ove ose ei of pyro drchiectorly thee buildings are no more than a “ike fan Ex inthe tied allem, sone boots the convo aerlfr mossmenal bung al aon Sew ele of ardiecial facts creed so infec syle wan, Indeed, it nll be tue to say tat of al naonal sles of achicrare,tat vented by the eee ted ele beers od The wenty dyna of Egypdan Kings who eld daring the dhl and scored militia BC, are Kirill di ‘ide ino sb-phans Known the OU, Midle ad New Kingdoms; butte wyle of building whic thy perfected ourinted ll thc anderen svi the Peran eogues ty the seth ceurony. Temper cred ll ler by he Rrokmsie roles ae the death of Aland ea csly berlin fr more atonal dani budigs The crac of Egyponarhtectre was dirty and profoundly ntuenced by gslgialand clint confion fetes Nita Tie eer oleate etn paral baci of der, Battered cath and eaopy of thy, gave tothe world ofthe anceun Egyptian a rs of reeds nobly, which ut Iave toned at poms tnd ieviable a he unchanging cinate and pedicable hy of the Nie odes mo gent fe of imagination toe third nthe pane fms and pal at Tangenens of is bul or prodicng. a fomaive ipa Inthe dein of soba which were of pec igor ony ws eeepc wl pers eal sre ‘Amore tangible spect of Egyptian enionmoat waste prince in the Nile valley of toch balding woe. tn the deer exarprct,spprosiately ffm modem C Linon, tie fea abedant spel oflinewone, Sone it fond ty the emtens cu and chee gai alia, bulk and porphyry. Pabn-cnks were the ony Feri ti rales next age te wee lcd as ooing mater any bu the leat poten Som udings, Bot the Kncone sab wich took thei ihc and which contin oe used lon wal he end fhe Middle King, cook span o tors din igh Bese ee deslep cae chien cred ey te avoided by mukipying the number offiseatanding sp posts and foe of acitectre seed which some times decribed columnar and east” Clint cond sons i had hi fet eres snkine and cloulen vn iis made it en importane wo admit igh than to ‘clu bet Wong add dew the aches impale eee tee te ee ingreica of Egyptian arched desigs are mnaly ‘Alles sone buldings then, te dfiated wo sions 2"