Biology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Biology is the natural science that involves the study of life and
living organisms, including their physical and chemical
structure, function, development and evolution.[1] Modern
biology is a vast field, composed of many branches. Despite the
broad scope and the complexity of the science, there are certain
unifying concepts that consolidate it into a single, coherent field.
In general, biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life,
genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine
that propels the creation of new species. It is also understood
that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming
energy and by regulating their internal environment.

Sub-disciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which life

is studied, the kinds of organisms studied, and the methods used
to study them: biochemistry examines the rudimentary
chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex
interactions among biological molecules; cellular biology Biology deals with the study of the many living
examines the basic building-block of all life, the cell; physiology organisms.
examines the physical and chemical functions of tissues, organs,
top: E. coli bacteria and gazelle
and organ systems; ecology examines how organisms interact in
their environment; and evolutionary biology examines the bottom: Goliath beetle and tree fern
processes that produced the diversity of life.[2]

Contents
1 History
2 Foundations of modern biology
2.1 Cell theory
2.2 Evolution
2.3 Genetics
2.4 Homeostasis
2.5 Energy
3 Study and research
3.1 Structural
3.2 Physiological
3.3 Evolutionary
3.4 Systematic
3.5 Kingdoms
3.6 Ecological and environmental
4 Basic unresolved problems in biology
5 Branches
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

History
The term biology is derived from the Greek word , bios, "life" and
the suffix -, -logia, "study of."[3][4] The Latin-language form of
the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus
(Carl von Linn) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. It was used
again in 1766 in a work entitled Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae:
tomus III, continens geologian, biologian, phytologian generalis, by
Michael Christoph Hanov, a disciple of Christian Wolff. The first
German use, Biologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus' work. In
1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the preface of a
book, Grundzge der Lehre van der Lebenskraft. Karl Friedrich
Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of
human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological
perspective (Propdeutik zum Studien der gesammten Heilkunst). The
term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise Biologie,
oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur (180222) by Gottfried Reinhold
Treviranus, who announced:[5]

The objects of our research will be the different forms and

manifestations of life, the conditions and laws under which these
A Diagram of a fly fromRobert Hooke's
phenomena occur, and the causes through which they have been
innovative Micrographia, 1665
effected. The science that concerns itself with these objects we
will indicate by the name biology [Biologie] or the doctrine of
life [Lebenslehre].

Although modern biology is a relatively recent development, sciences

related to and included within it have been studied since ancient times.
Natural philosophy was studied as early as the ancient civilizations of
Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However, the
origins of modern biology and its approach to the study of nature are
most often traced back to ancient Greece.[6][7] While the formal study
of medicine dates back to Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC ca. 370 BC), it
was Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) who contributed most extensively to
the development of biology. Especially important are his History of
Animals and other works where he showed naturalist leanings, and later
more empirical works that focused on biological causation and the
diversity of life. Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum, Theophrastus,
wrote a series of books on botany that survived as the most important
contribution of antiquity to the plant sciences, even into the Middle
Ages.[8]

Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included

al-Jahiz (781869), Al-Dnawar (828896), who wrote on botany,[9]
Ernst Haeckel's Tree of Life (1879)
and Rhazes (865925) who wrote on anatomy and physiology.
Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in
Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in
upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.

Biology began to quickly develop and grow with Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvement of the
microscope. It was then that scholars discovered spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of
microscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to new interest in entomology and helped to develop
the basic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[10]

Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number
of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began
promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells
have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of
other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists
accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory.[11][12]

Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a
basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the
1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.[13] Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated
species as artificial categories and living forms as malleableeven suggesting the possibility of common
descent. Though he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought; his
work influenced the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin.[14]

Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the first to present
a coherent theory of evolution.[15] He posited that evolution was the result of environmental stress on
properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an organ was used, the more complex
and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environment. Lamarck believed that these
acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect
them.[16] However, it was the British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of
Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own
morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory
based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach
the same conclusions.[17][18] Although it was the subject of controversy (which continues to this day), Darwin's
theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly
developing science of biology.

The discovery of the physical representation of heredity came along with evolutionary principles and
population genetics. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the component of
chromosomes that held the trait-carrying units that had become known as genes. A focus on new kinds of
model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA
in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the 1950s to present times, biology has
been vastly extended in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert
W. Holley and Marshall Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to contain codons. Finally, the Human
Genome Project was launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general human genome. This project was
essentially completed in 2003,[19] with further analysis still being published. The Human Genome Project was
the first step in a globalized effort to incorporate accumulated knowledge of biology into a functional,
molecular definition of the human body and the bodies of other organisms.

Foundations of modern biology

Cell theory

Cell theory states that the cell is the fundamental unit of life, that all living things are composed of one or more
cells, and that all cells arise from other cells through cell division. In multicellular organisms, every cell in the
organism's body derives ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg. The cell is also considered to be the
basic unit in many pathological processes.[20] In addition, the phenomenon of energy flow occurs in cells in
processes that are part of the function known as metabolism. Finally, cells contain hereditary information
(DNA), which is passed from cell to cell during cell division. Research into the origin of life, abiogenesis,
amounts to an attempt to discover the origin of the first cells.

Evolution

A central organizing concept in biology is that life changes and develops through evolution, and that all life-
forms known have a common origin. The theory of evolution postulates that all organisms on the Earth, both
living and extinct, have descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This universal common
ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago.[21] Biologists regard the
ubiquity of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the
theory of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes (see: origin of life).[22]

The term "evolution" was introduced into the scientific lexicon by

Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck in 1809,[23] and fifty years later Charles
Darwin posited a scientific model of natural selection as
evolution's driving force.[24][25][26] (Alfred Russel Wallace is
recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept as he helped
research and experiment with the concept of evolution.)[27]
Evolution is now used to explain the great variations of life found
on Earth. Human cancer cells with nuclei (specifically
the DNA) stained blue. The central and
Darwin theorized that species flourish or die when subjected to the rightmost cell are in interphase, so the entire
processes of natural selection or selective breeding.[28] Genetic nuclei are labeled. The cell on the left is going
through mitosis and its DNA has condensed.
drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary
development in the modern synthesis of the theory.[29]

The evolutionary history of the specieswhich describes the

characteristics of the various species from which it descended
together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is
known as its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology
generate information about phylogeny. These include the
comparisons of DNA sequences, a product of molecular biology
(more particularly genomics), and comparisons of fossils or other
records of ancient organisms, a product of paleontology.[30]
Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through
various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and
cladistics. (For a summary of major events in the evolution of life
as currently understood by biologists, see evolutionary timeline.)
Natural selection of a population for dark
Evolution is relevant to the understanding of the natural history of coloration.
life forms and to the understanding of the organization of current
life forms. But, those organizations can only be understood in the
light of how they came to be by way of the process of evolution. Consequently, evolution is central to all fields
of biology.[31]

Genetics

Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organisms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to a
region of DNA that influences the form or function of an organism in specific ways. All organisms, from
bacteria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies and translates DNA into proteins. Cells
transcribe a DNA gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome then translates the RNA into a
sequence of amino acids known as a protein. The translation code from RNA codon to amino acid is the same
for most organisms. For example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in humans also codes for insulin
when inserted into other organisms, such as plants.[32]

DNA is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. A chromosome
is an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones. The set of chromosomes in a cell and any other
hereditary information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or other locations is collectively known as a
cell's genome. In eukaryotes, genomic DNA is localized in the cell nucleus, or with small amounts in
mitochondria and chloroplasts. In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in the
cytoplasm called the nucleoid.[33] The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete
assemblage of this information in an organism is called its genotype.[34]
Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal

environment to maintain stable conditions by means of multiple
dynamic equilibrium adjustments that are controlled by interrelated
regulation mechanisms. All living organisms, whether unicellular
or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis.[36]

To maintain dynamic equilibrium and effectively carry out certain

functions, a system must detect and respond to perturbations. After
the detection of a perturbation, a biological system normally
responds through negative feedback that stabilize conditions by
reducing or increasing the activity of an organ or system. One
example is the release of glucagon when sugar levels are too low.
A Punnett square depicting a cross between
Energy two pea plants heterozygous for purple (B) and
white (b) blossoms
The survival of a living organism depends on the continuous input
of energy. Chemical
reactions that are responsible
for its structure and function
are tuned to extract energy
from substances that act as
its food and transform them
to help form new cells and
sustain them. In this process,
molecules of chemical
substances that constitute
food play two roles; first,
Basic overview of energy and human life.
they contain energy that can
be transformed and reused in
that organism's biological, The hypothalamus secretes CRH, which
chemical reactions; second, food can be transformed into new directs the pituitary gland to secrete
molecular structures (biomolecules) that are of use to that organism. ACTH. In turn, ACTH directs the
adrenal cortex to secreteglucocorticoids,
The organisms responsible for the introduction of energy into an such as cortisol. The GCs then reduce the
ecosystem are known as producers or autotrophs. Nearly all such rate of secretion by the hypothalamus
organisms originally draw their energy from the sun.[37] Plants and and the pituitary gland once a sufficient
other phototrophs use solar energy via a process known as amount of GCs has been released.[35]
photosynthesis to convert raw materials into organic molecules, such as
ATP, whose bonds can be broken to release energy.[38] A few
ecosystems, however, depend entirely on energy extracted by chemotrophs from methane, sulfides, or other
non-luminal energy sources.[39]

Some of the energy thus captured produces biomass and energy that is available for growth and development of
other life forms. The majority of the rest of this biomass and energy are lost as waste molecules and heat. The
most important processes for converting the energy trapped in chemical substances into energy useful to sustain
life are metabolism[40] and cellular respiration.[41]

Study and research

Structural
Molecular biology is the study of biology at the molecular
level.[42] This field overlaps with other areas of biology,
particularly those of genetics and biochemistry. Molecular
biology is a study of the interactions of the various systems
within a cell, including the interrelationships of DNA,
RNA, and protein synthesis and how those interactions are
regulated.

The next larger scale, cell biology, studies the structural

and physiological properties of cells, including their
internal behavior, interactions with other cells, and with Schematic of typical animalcell depicting the various
their environment. This is done on both the microscopic organelles and structures.
and molecular levels, for unicellular organisms such as
bacteria, as well as the specialized cells of multicellular
organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the
biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular
biology.

Anatomy is a treatment of the macroscopic forms of such structures organs and organ systems.[43]

Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms.[44][45] Genes encode the information
needed by cells for the synthesis of proteins, which in turn play a central role in influencing the final phenotype
of the organism. Genetics provides research tools used in the investigation of the function of a particular gene,
or the analysis of genetic interactions. Within organisms, genetic information is physically represented as
chromosomes, within which it is represented by a particular sequence of amino acids in particular DNA
molecules.

Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Developmental biology,
originated from embryology, studies the genetic control of cell growth, cellular differentiation, and "cellular
morphogenesis," which is the process that progressively gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy. Model
organisms for developmental biology include the round worm Caenorhabditis elegans,[46] the fruit fly
Drosophila melanogaster,[47] the zebrafish Danio rerio,[48] the mouse Mus musculus,[49] and the weed
Arabidopsis thaliana.[50][51] (A model organism is a species that is extensively studied to understand particular
biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in that organism provide insight into the
workings of other organisms.)[52]

Physiological

Physiology is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms function as
a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been
divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no
matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast
cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human
physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology borrows techniques from both research fields.

Physiology is the study the interaction of how, for example, the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and
circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with such medically oriented
disciplines as neurology and immunology.

Evolutionary

Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, and their change over time. It
employs scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines, for example, those with special training in
particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, botany, or herpetology, but are of use in answering
more general questions about evolution.
Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about
the mode and tempo of evolution,[53] and partly on the developments in areas such as population genetics.[54]
In the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology after its initial exclusion from the modern
synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology.[55] Phylogenetics, systematics, and
taxonomy are related fields often considered part of evolutionary biology.

Systematic

Multiple speciation events create a

tree structured system of
relationships between species. The
role of systematics is to study these
relationships and thus the
differences and similarities between
species and groups of species.[56]
However, systematics was an active
field of research long before
evolutionary thinking was
common.[57]

Traditionally, living things have

been divided into five kingdoms:
Monera; Protista; Fungi; Plantae;
Animalia.[58] However, many
scientists now consider this five-
kingdom system outdated. Modern A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based onrRNA gene data, showing the
alternative classification systems separation of the three domainsbacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described
initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar
,
generally begin with the three-
although they may place some early-branching groups very dif ferently, presumably
domain system: Archaea (originally
owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still
Archaebacteria); Bacteria
being debated.
(originally Eubacteria) and
Eukaryota (including protists, fungi,
plants, and animals)[59] These
domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the chemical composition of key
biomolecules such as ribosomes.[59]

Further, each kingdom is broken down recursively until each species is separately classified. The order is:
Domain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family; Genus; Species.

Outside of these categories, there are obligate intracellular parasites that are "on the edge of life"[60] in terms of
metabolic activity, meaning that many scientists do not actually classify such structures as alive, due to their
lack of at least one or more of the fundamental functions or characteristics that define life. They are classified
as viruses, viroids, prions, or satellites.

The scientific name of an organism is generated from its genus and species. For example, humans are listed as
Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens the species. When writing the scientific name of an organism, it
is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase.[61] Additionally, the
entire term may be italicized or underlined.[62]

The dominant classification system is called the Linnaean taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial
nomenclature. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International
Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
(ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). The classification of viruses, viroids,
prions, and all other sub-viral agents that demonstrate biological characteristics is conducted by the
 International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and is known
as the International Code of Viral Classification and Nomenclature
(ICVCN).[63][64][65][66] However, several other viral classification
systems do exist.

A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an attempt to

standardize nomenclature in these three areas, but has yet to be formally
adopted.[67] The BioCode draft has received little attention since 1997;
its originally planned implementation date of January 1, 2000, has
passed unnoticed. A revised BioCode that, instead of replacing the
existing codes, would provide a unified context for them, was proposed
in 2011.[68][69][70] However, the International Botanical Congress of
2011 declined to consider the BioCode proposal. The ICVCN remains
outside the BioCode, which does not include viral classification.

Kingdoms

Animalia Bos Plantae Triticum

primigenius taurus

The hierarchy of biological

classification's eight major taxonomic
ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are
not shown. This diagram uses a 3
Domains / 6 Kingdoms format

Fungi Morchella Stramenopila/Chromista

esculenta Fucus serratus

Bacteria Archaea Halobacteria Virus Gamma phage

Gemmatimonas
aurantiaca (- = 1
Micrometer)
Ecological and envir onmental

Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of living

organisms, the interaction between them and their environment.[71]
An organism shares an environment that includes other organisms
and biotic factors as well as local abiotic factors (non-living) such
as climate and ecology.[72] One reason that biological systems can
be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with
other organisms and the environment are possible, even on small
scales. A microscopic bacterium responding to a local sugar
gradient is responding to its environment as much as a lion
searching for food in the African savanna. For any species,
behaviors can be co-operative, competitive, parasitic, or symbiotic.
Mutual symbiosis between clownfish of the
Matters become more complex when two or more species interact
genus Amphiprion that dwell among the
in an ecosystem.
tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The
territorial fish protects the anemone from
Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from the
anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging
scale of the ecology of individual organisms, to those of tentacles of the anemone protects the clown
populations, to the ecosystems and finally the biosphere. The term fish from its predators.
population biology is often used interchangeably with population
ecology, although population biology is more frequently used in
the case of diseases, viruses, and microbes, while the term population ecology is more commonly applied to the
study of plants and animals. Ecology draws on many subdisciplines.

Ethology is the study of animal behavior (particularly that of social animals such as primates and canids), and is
sometimes considered a branch of zoology. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of
behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the first
modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals,
influenced many ethologists to come.[73]

Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, focusing on such topics as plate
tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.

Basic unresolved problems in biology

Despite the profound advances made over recent decades in our understanding of life's fundamental processes,
some basic problems have remained unresolved. One of the major unresolved problems in biology is the
primary adaptive function of sex, and particularly its key processes in eukaryotes of meiosis and homologous
recombination. One view is that sex evolved primarily as an adaptation that promoted increased genetic
diversity (see references e.g.[74][75]). An alternative view is that sex is an adaptation for promoting accurate
DNA repair in germ-line DNA, and that increased genetic diversity is primarily a byproduct that may be useful
in the long run.[76][77] (See also Evolution of sexual reproduction).

Another basic unresolved problem in biology is the biologic basis of aging. At present, there is no consensus
view on the underlying cause of aging. Various competing theories are outlined in Ageing Theories.

Branches
These are the main branches of biology:[78][79]

Aerobiology the study of airborne organic particles

Agriculture the study of producing crops and raising livestock, with an emphasis on practical
applications
Anatomy the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in
humans
Histology the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy
Astrobiology (also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy) the study of evolution,
distribution, and future of life in the universe
Biochemistry the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus
on the cellular level
Bioengineering the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied
knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
Biogeography the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally
Bioinformatics the use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and
other biological data
Biolinguistics the study of the biology and evolution of language.
Biomathematics (or Mathematical biology) the quantitative or mathematical study of biological
processes, with an emphasis on modeling
Biomechanics the study of the mechanics of living beings
Biomedical research the study of health and disease
Pharmacology the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and
synthetic medicines
Biomusicology the study of music from a biological point of view.
Biophysics the study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods
traditionally used in the physical sciences
Biosemiotics the study of biological processes through semiotics, by applying the models of meaning-
making and communication
Biotechnology the study of the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and
synthetic biology
Synthetic biology research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological
functions not found in nature
Building biology the study of the indoor living environment
Botany the study of plants
Cell biology the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that
occur within a living cell
Cognitive biology the study of cognition as a biological function
Conservation biology the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural
environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife
Cryobiology the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings
Developmental biology the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to
full structure
Embryology the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth)
Ecology the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living
elements of their environment
Environmental biology the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as
affected by human activity
Epidemiology a major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of
populations
Evolutionary biology the study of the origin and descent of species over time
Genetics the study of genes and heredity.
Epigenetics the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by
mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence
Hematology (also known as Haematology) the study of blood and blood-forming organs.
Integrative biology the study of whole organisms
Limnology the study of inland waters
Marine biology (or biological oceanography) the study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other
living beings
Microbiology the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other
living things
Bacteriology the study of bacteria
Mycology the study of fungi
 Parasitology the study of parasites and parasitism
Virology the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
Molecular biology the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over
with biochemistry
Nanobiology the study of how nanotechnology can be used in biology, and the study of living
organisms and parts on the nanoscale level of organization
Neuroscience the study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology
Population biology the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including
Population ecology the study of how population dynamics and extinction
Population genetics the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms
Paleontology the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
Pathobiology or pathology the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of
disease
Physiology the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living
organisms
Phytopathology the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)
Psychobiology the study of the biological bases of psychology
Quantum biology the study of quantum mechanics to biological objects and problems.
Sociobiology the study of the biological bases of sociology
Structural biology a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the
molecular structure of biological macromolecules
Zoology the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior,
including:
Ethology the study of animal behavior
Entomology the study of insects
Herpetology the study of reptiles and amphibians
Ichthyology the study of fish
Mammalogy the study of mammals
Ornithology the study of birds

See also
Glossary of biology
List of biological websites
List of biologists
List of biology topics
List of omics topics in biology
List of biology journals
Outline of biology
Reproduction
Terminology of biology
Periodic table of life sciences in Tinbergen's four questions

References
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Further reading
Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, A; Lewis, J; Raff, M; Roberts, K; Walter, P (2002). Molecular Biology of the
Cell (4th ed.). Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-3218-3. OCLC 145080076.
Begon, Michael; Townsend, CR; Harper, JL (2005). Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems (4th ed.).
Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-1117-1. OCLC 57639896.
Campbell, Neil (2004). Biology (7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8053-
7146-X. OCLC 71890442.
Colinvaux, Paul (1979). Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective (reissue ed.).
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02364-6. OCLC 10081738.
Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-2.
Hoagland, Mahlon (2001). The Way Life Works (reprint ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc. ISBN 0-
7637-1688-X. OCLC 223090105.
Janovy, John Jr. (2004). On Becoming a Biologist (2nd ed.). Bison Books. ISBN 0-8032-7620-6.
OCLC 55138571.
Johnson, George B. (2005). Biology, Visualizing Life. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 0-03-016723-
X. OCLC 36306648.
 Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking About Life (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. ISBN 0-
534-40653-X.

External links
Biology at DMOZ
OSU's Phylocode
Biology Online Wiki Dictionary
MIT video lecture series on biology
Biology and Bioethics.
Biological Systems Idaho National Laboratory
The Tree of Life: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny
and biodiversity.
The Study of Biology
Using the Biological Literature Web Resources

Journal links

PLos Biology A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science
Current Biology General journal publishing original research from all areas of biology
Biology Letters A high-impact Royal Society journal publishing peer-reviewed Biology papers of general
interest
Science Magazine Internationally Renowned AAAS Science Publication See Sections of the Life
Sciences
International Journal of Biological Sciences A biological journal publishing significant peer-reviewed
scientific papers
Perspectives in Biology and Medicine An interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing essays of broad
relevance
Life Science Log

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