Revolutions in

Communication
Media History from
Gutenberg
to the Digital Age

Slides based on the Bloomsbury book by Bill Kovarik

Chapter 3 – The press and the 20th century -- #7

Web site & textbook
http://www.revolutionsincommunication.com

Textbook:

1st edition – 2011 2nd edition – 2016

Press in transition
 Early 20th century
◦ Publishers at the top of their games
◦ Technology mature, profits high
◦ Most towns had two papers
 1970s – technology driven mergers
◦ Monopoly newspaper takes over
 2000s – digital revolution
◦ Most newspapers in deep financial trouble
◦ Democratic experiment also in trouble
Overview
 Muckraking press
 World War I press
 Russian Communist revolution
 Indian non-violent revolution
 German Nazi revolution
 World War II press
 Civil Rights era
 Vietnam and Watergate era
 Literary & Gonzo journalism
 Environmental journalism
 End game for the printing revolution
State of the press 1911
• Will Irwin series Colliers Magazine
•The press is “wonderfully able… (but)
with real faults.”

• “It is the mouthpiece of an older stock. It

lags behind the thought of its times. . .
A familiar
complaint
•“To us of this younger generation, our
daily press is speaking, for the most part, Will Irwin’s ideas
with a dead voice, because the supreme about newspapers
power resides in men of that older are similar to
generation.” those of many
young writers
today.
• Blamed Associated Press monopoly
Muckrakers
• Speech by Teddy Roosevelt April 14, 1906
• Seen as an attack on investigative press
• Cites John Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress (1678)
• Man with the Muck Rake
• He “fixes his eyes … only on that which is vile and
debasing…”
• “At this moment we are passing through a
period of great unrest-social, political, and
industrial unrest.
• “It is of the utmost importance for our future
that this should prove to be not the unrest of
mere rebelliousness against life, of mere
dissatisfaction with the inevitable inequality of
conditions, but the unrest of a resolute and
eager ambition to secure the betterment of the
individual and the nation.

• Many journalists embraced the term

Who were the muckrakers?
• Ida B. Wells Baker-Barnett (1862–
1931)
• An African American editor of Free
Speech newspaper in Memphis,
TN,
• Investigated the 1891 lynching of
three innocent men at the hands
of a white mob.
• Newspaper was burned down –
fled to New York
• Became one of the most influential
leaders in the early civil rights
movement.
 Who were the muckrakers?
Lincoln Steffens (1866–1936)
Noted for “The Shame of the Cities”
1904 series on municipal corruption for
McClure’s Magazine.

Upton Sinclair (1878–1968)

“The Jungle,” a 1906 novel about the
meat packing industry of Chicago
Based on investigations by Sinclair for
the Socialist magazine Appeal to
Reason.
Public uproar led to the establishment
of the Food and Drug Administration.
Who were the muckrakers?
Ida Tarbell (1857–1944)
Exposed Standard Oil company’s
rise to monopoly by corrupt
business practices In a 1902
series in McClure’s Magazine.
Encouraged antitrust law
enforcement
Other muckrakers:
David Graham Phillips (1867–1911)—In “Treason
of the Senate,” a 1906 series in Cosmopolitan exposed
senators who had taken direct bribes
Cecil Chesterton (1879–1918)— London’s New
Witness, exposed stock fraud in the Marconi Scandal of
1912. French Le Matin also investigated.
Samuel Hopkins Adams (1871–1958)— “The
Great American Fraud,” Collier’s Magazine in 1905,
exposed patent medicine. (See Ch. 6 Advertising)
Kölnische Zeitung (Cologne Gazette) March 2, 1914
WWI and the press 1914 - Belgium
 Outside the station in the public
square, the people of Louvain
(Belgium) passed in an unending
procession, women bareheaded,
weeping, men carrying the children
asleep on their shoulders, all
hemmed in by the shadowy army of
gray wolves . . . It was all like a
scene upon the stage, unreal,
inhuman. You felt it could not be
true…
 Richard Harding Davis, 1914
WWI and the press 1914 -
Belgium
 Allegations by British of German
atrocities 1,200 refugees (not under
oath) and no corroboration. Not one
allegation later found true by a Belgian
commission 1922.
 Bryce Commission report May 12, 1915
◦ “That there were in many parts of Belgium
deliberate and systematically organized
massacres of the civil population,
accompanied by many isolated murders and
other outrages."
◦ “That in the conduct of the war generally
innocent civilians, both men and women,
were murdered in large numbers, women
violated, and children murdered.”
German response
 German authorities in response to the
Bryce Report published the White
Book five days later. The book
contained records where Belgians
were guilty of atrocities committed on
German soldiers.
 Kolnische Zeitung – This new official
collection of despicable lies is
intended to whip up people to join the
army, improve England’s wretched
military situation…
Phillip Gibbs, British
correspondent
 Doubtless there were many atrocities,
but I could never get evidence of any
of them… No living babies had their
hands cut off, or women their breasts.
No Canadians (soldiers) were ever
crucified, although it will be believed
for all time.”
US Creel Committee
WWI and the press
 Censorship official on both sides
 Press wore army uniforms
 French and British newspapers often
ran with empty spaces where stories
were pulled by censors
 George Seldes interview with German
Gen. Hindenburg was censored after
war, contributing to Dolchstoßlegende
myth that led to rise of Nazis
1918: Photo of US troops celebrating in a German mess hall was
censored because US troops could not be depicted drinking beer.
The Bolo Pasha affair
• WWI German plot to buy French
newspapers using money
laundered by American banks.
• Bolo Pasha bought Le Journal
of Paris to advocate surrender to
the Germans.
• Linked to German spy Mata Hari,
also briefly to William Randolph The French WWI
Bolo Pasha affair
Hearst showed that
manipulation
• Pasha was executed for treason of the press
by the French in 1917 could be a
tactic of warfare
Russian revolution
 ‘First step’ in the
Russian Revolution of
1917 was to create a
newspaper
 The mere task of
writing and distributing
Iskra (Spark) would
create a network of
agents Vladimir Lenin started
 Despite this, absolute a newspaper in order
to start a revolution.
censorship was the rule But he was no friend of
 Execution of dissidents the free press.
was commonplace
Mysterious propaganda photo

Ukraine, about 1925. Would journalists really set type on the back of
a truck in the middle of a wheat field? Was it staged, or faked, or
part of a serious effort to get journalists close to the people?
John Reed (1887 – 1920)
 American journalist who wrote
passionately about the Russian
revolution of 1917.
 “As we came out into the dark and
gloomy day all around the grey
horizon, factory whistles were
blowing, a hoarse and nervous
sound, full of foreboding. By tens
of thousands, the working people
poured out … and the humming
slums belched out their dun and
miserable hordes.”
 From Ten Days that Shook the
World
India’s non-violent revolution
 Nazi
revolution

 Germany 1920s -
1945
 Took over all
newspapers, wire
services Nazi book burning,
 All journalists who Opernplatz, Berlin, May 10,
resisted were killed 1933.
 Absolute censorship “A scene not witnessed since
the Middle Ages, and a
harbinger of disaster,” said
correspondent William L.
WWII and the US press
 Furious debates on US home front
 Pre-war links between US and Nazi
industries infuriated Americans
 Censorship by military on front lines
◦ But that didn’t stop news about incidents
like Gen. Patton slapping shell-shocked
soldiers
 Reconstruction of press in Germany &
Japan was a top post-war priority
WWII correspondents
“There is an agony in your
heart and you almost feel
ashamed to look at them.
They are just guys from
Broadway and Main Street,
but you wouldn’t remember
them.… If you could see them
just once, just for an instant,
you would know that no
matter how hard people work
back home, they are not
keeping pace with these
infantrymen.”
“The God-Damned--Infantry” was among Ernie Pyle’s best –
Ernie Pyle
remembered articles. A soldier’s writer, Pyle concentrated on the
ordinary guys, not the generals and the grand strategies.
WWII correspondents
“The liberation (of Dachau)
was a frenzied scene …
Inmates of the camp hugged
and embraced the American
troops, kissed the ground
before them and carried them
shoulder high around the
place.” -- Marguerite
Higgins, May, 1945

Only three years out of journalism school, Marguerite Higgins

convinced editors at the Herald Tribune to send her to Europe in
1944. She also broke barriers for women reporters everywhere,
convincing Gen. Douglas MacArthur to lift the ban on women
correspondents in the Korean War in 1950.
Double V for African
Americans
Pittsburg Courier, Chicago
Defender and others were main
source of news for African
Americans

But wartime news of prejudice

and rioting against blacks was
suppressed by government

In WWI, critical reporting even led

to the conviction of one African
American editor under the
Sedition Act Chicago Defender publisher
John Sengstacke and an
unidentified editor c. 1943
In WWII, settled on “Double V” --
Victory over fascism abroad,
victory over racism at home
Hutchins Commission 1947
 Truthful, comprehensive, and intelligent
account of the day’s events in a context
which gives them meaning;
 Forum for the exchange of comment and
criticism;
 Representative picture of the constituent
groups in the society;
 Presentation and clarification of the
goals and values of the society; and
 Full access to the day’s intelligence.
Civil Rights and the Press
 One of the best moments in the history of the press
 Press became an agent of US reconciliation
 Framed issues as “Civil Rights” not “race war”
 Many incidents outraged public
◦ Killings of Emmett Till 1955, Medgar Evers 1963,
Viola Liuzzo, many more
◦ Bombings of churches in Alabama and Georgia
◦ Selma, Alabama bridge attack by police caught
on film changed the world
 A civil rights bombing was “… the harvest of
defiance of the courts and the encouragement of
citizens to defy law on the part of many Southern
politicians.” -- Ralph McGill, Atlanta Journal &
Constitution
Growing global press
influence
 The suppression of US civil rights
demonstrators was embarrassing to the
US government
 Comparisons were made to Aparthied in
South Africa and the Sharpville
massacre of 1960
 US Voting Rights Act of 1965 and federal
support for civil rights was one result
 International press coverage was one of
many essential conditions for change
Watergate 1972 – 74
Uncovered by two Washington Post
reporters

Found Watergate burglars searching

Democratic national headquarters had
links to Republicans in White House

Investigated “dirty tricks” campaign,

also money to pay operatives and
burglars
Bob Woodward,
Carl Bernstein,
Resulted in resignation of President Washington Post
Richard Nixon and criminal
convictions for seven members of
administration. Money laundering,
extortion, fraud, and tampering with
election process were among the
issues.
Vietnam war coverage
 US press critical of war methods but
generally supportive of war aims
 TV Networks generally kept gory
footage off the air
 Public opinion against war stronger
than press coverage
 Idea of press subverting war is akin to
German “dolschtoss” myth
 Nevertheless, US conservatives still
blame press for “losing the war”
 Vietnam coverage was pro-
war
But not pro-war enough
for some US “hawks”

Reporters David
Halberstam (NY Times),
Malcolm Brown (AP) and
Neil Sheehan (UPI)
typified slightly critical
attitude towards the war.
Literary Journalism
 In 1960s, newspaper & magazine
feature writers broke the molds
 Used literary devices to make non-
fiction read like a novel
◦ Dialogue, scene-by-scene construction,
status detail, omniscient narration
 Writers included Tom Wolfe, Joan
Dideon, John McPhee
 Example: The Right Stuff (about US
space program) by Wolfe.
Gonzo Journalism
 First person participation
 Not objective
 Often used alcohol, drugs
 Hunter S. Thompson
◦ Fear and Loathing series
◦ Solace in excess like Great Gatsby
◦ Thompson agreed with Faulkner that "the
best fiction is far more true than any kind
of journalism — and the best journalists
have always known this.”
Environmental news
 Not a new phenomena –
◦ Water pollution was covered by
Benjamin Franklin in 1730s
 Major new interest due to
energy crisis, Earth Day, oil
spills, nuclear disasters and
climate change
 Specialized science writers
emerge to handle complexities
of coverage
◦ National Association of Science
Writers, Society of Environmental
Journalists
 End game for the press?
 New technologies made
printing more profitable in
1970s …
 Leading to consolidations
and mergers … but
 Monopolies grew
complacent
 Wall Street demanded
even more profit (20-40%)
 Press was in a weak
position to meet the digital
revolution 2000 – 2015
Some say this is a ….
The usual bromides
 Book & newspaper publishing is dead
 We’re in a post-literate age
◦ Nobody reads (not true, actually)
 Emerging new publishing models
◦ Educational non-profit 501c3
 Politico, Climate Central, Env Health News
◦ Subcompact publication
 Apple Newsstand, Amazon, Kindle
◦ Self-publishing and eBooks
Aggregators, foundation
funding
New ideas: Taz.de
Berlin daily newspaper & consumer co-op
 Community media co-ops
Video TEDx, interest group
Sharing, classes, Co-ops yearbooks (sports, music)
competitions

Games Consumer Group

Co-op Services purchasing –
Training Coffee,
Maintenance books, bikes,
Storage etc.
Scanning, Admin.
transfers,
Web Digital Info News,
services Services Services bloggers,
calendar,
oral histories,
B&C publishing,
Business & Co-op translations
employment co-op
New media investments
 Bill Gates (Microsoft)
◦ MSNBC (1996) / successful
 Steve Case (AOL)
◦ Merged w/ Time Warner (2000) /
failure
 Jeff Bezos (Amazon)
◦ Washington Post, 2013 / jury still out
 Peter Omidyar (Ebay)
◦ First Look Media, Fall 2013 / Epic
incompetence, aloof management
Review: People
 Will Irwin, Richard Harding Davis, Ida
B. Wells, Samuel Hopkins Adams,
Lincoln Steffens, Cecil Chesterton, Ida
Tarell, David Graham Phillips, Upton
Sinclair, Bolo Pasha, George Seldes,
John Reed, Frederick Douglass, John
H. Johnson, Ralph McGill, Homer
Bigart, Bob Woodward, Carl
Bernstein, Tom Wolfe, Hunter S.
Thompson, John Hershey
Review: Issues
 Minority media, muckrakers, press
in WWI censorship, WWII, Double V,
covering Vietnam, Civil Rights,
Watergate, Hutchins Commission,
Gonzo journalism, Literary journalism,
Environmental & science coverage,
end of the line for newspapers?
Next: Chapter 4
Photography