State of the Environment of Tigray (SEOT), Tigray Region Ethiopia.
The structure of the SOER
The following is the recommended structure of the SOER.
Table of Contents
Acronyms and Abbreviations
Acknowledgements
Foreword
Preamble
Executive Summary
Chapter 1: Environment and Development
Chapter 2: State of the Environment
Chapter 3: Response to Environmental changes
Chapter 4: Future States and Trends of the Environmental
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Boxes
List of Annexes
References
The Country/the District at a glance
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1.1.Contents of an SOER
Below are the proposed contents of the SOER. Under each chapter suggestions of what should be
covered and discussed are also presented. Depending on the state of environmental resources at
national and at regional state, the detail of coverage and areas of emphasis may vary. The suggestions
are therefore not exhaustive and neither do they constitute a requirement.
Chapter 1: Environment and Development
1. Background
1.1. Over Views of the Global and Local environmental changes
With increasing human population pressure and technological advancement the global environment
is changing at unprecedented rates. The most important large-scale changers that are globally
significant are: climate changes and depletion of ozone layer, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem
changes, global water crises and land degradation.
Climate
a) Climate change and depletion of Ozone layer
Climate change is a long-term (>10) year changes in climate variables such as temperature, rainfall,
wind speed, air pressure, humidity and etc….
Weather and climate
b) Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem changes
c) Global water crises
d) Urbanization and stresses on food-producing systems
e) Land degradation
Land degradation is a global environmental issue among climate change, biodiversity loss and
global water crises (UNEP, 1991; Bridges and Oldeman, 1999; UNEP, 2007; Bai et al., 2008). It
has strong global environmental impacts which are multiple and complex in nature (Oldeman et
al., 1991; UNDP-GEF, 2006). Water erosion is the most prominent form of human induced land
degradation (Lal, 2001; Haile et al., 2006) that contributes 56% of the degradation processes at
global scale (Oldeman et al., 1991). Furthermore, the Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil
Degradation (GLASOD) reported that about 28% of degradation is caused by wind erosion while
chemical and physical degradation accounts for 12% and 4% respectively (Oldeman et al., 1991;
Sivakumar and Wills, 1995). GLASOD estimated that about 15% of the total land area was
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degraded at global scale after summing up the current and land degradation of the past centuries
(Oldeman et al., 1991). Using long-term (1983-1999) remotely sensed normalized difference
vegetation index (NDVI), Bai et al. (2008) reported that degraded areas cover 24% at global
scale and do not overlap with the areas highlighted by GLASOD. The cause of land degradation
varies from region to region depending on climate, land management and population pressure.
Bridges and Oldeman (1999) indicated that human-induced soil degradation results from
overexploitation of the soils due to poverty, ignorance and inability to adopt a sustainable
agricultural system.
Land degradation impairs the soils ecosystem services such as food production, water
regulation and purification as well as nutrient cycling (Pimentel et al., 1995; MEA, 2005;
Quinton et al., 2010). The link between land degradation, climate change and biodiversity loss
exists (Stringer et al., 2009) where land degradation is a cause and consequence of climate
change and biodiversity loss (e.g. Maitima et al., 2009). Bai et al. (2008) reported that global
land degradation reduces carbon fixation by plants and soils: i.e. 9.56 x 108 tons of carbon
accumulated in the atmosphere is less fixed due to land degradation over the period of 1981 -
2003. In contrast Van Oost et al. (2007) estimated erosion-induced atmospheric carbon sink of
about 26% of the carbon transported by erosion, while at the same time 53% to 95% of the
eroded carbon is also redeposited and sequestered within the watershed. Nevertheless, there is
clearly a need at global level to tackle local land degradation and desertification as the local land
degradation can threaten food security and food price at global level (Lambin et al., 2002).
More than 40% of the earth’s land surface are drylands consisting of dry sub-humid,
semi-arid and arid climatic zones and support approximately 2.5 billion people (MEA, 2005).
These climatic zones are commonly characterized by low and variable rainfall (Hudson, 1987).
Due to intense rainfall and low vegetation cover, the semi-arid areas particularly suffer from
serious soil erosion leading to desertification (Hudson 1987; Irvem et al., 2007; Dunjo et al.,
2004). Estimates indicate that more than 40% of the world’s cultivated land is situated in semi-
arid climatic zone where soil erosion is a major problem for a sustainable agricultural
development (Hudson, 1987; Kang et al., 2001; Irvem et al., 2007). Soil erosion reduces
agricultural potential and other ecosystem services of these semi-arid areas (Irvem et al., 2007;
Green et al., 2005; Dunjo et al., 2004). Severe downstream environmental problems such as
flooding, sedimentation and water pollution were also documented (e.g. Kang et al 2001; Hessel
et al., 2003; Haregewyn et al., 2006). Most of the semi-arid areas in Mediterranean environment
were degraded and abandoned long-time ago (Rey-Benayas et al., 2007). Extensive arid and
semi-arid areas were also degraded in Australia (Epps and Crittenden, 1992; Tongway et al.,
2003), in Sahel south of the Sahara (Ramaswamy and Sanders, 1992; FAO, 1995; Sanders et al.,
1996).
The semi-arid Ethiopia highlands are also severely threatened by land degradation mainly
caused by water erosion (Hurni, 1993; Taddese, 1999; Feoli et al., 2002; Nyssen et al., 2004a;
Haile et al., 2006). This vulnerability to land degradation is complex and explained by a
combination of both biophysical, socio-economic, and policy factors (Haile et al., 2006).
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Biophysical factors include the overall steep topography, erosive rains, poor vegetation cover
and erosion-prone soils due to low organic matter content (Virgo and Munro, 1978; Nyssen et
al., 2004a, 2005; Haile et al., 2006). Important socio-economic and political factors include
population pressure (Taddese, 1999; Bard et al. 2000; Nyssen et al., 2004a; Hurni et al., 2005),
poor land use practices such as repeated cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation of the
hillslopes (Virgo and Munro, 1978; Zeleke and Hurni, 2001; Darbyshire et al., 2003; Nyssen et
al., 2004a; Tulema et al., 2008) and poverty (Gebremedhin and Swinton, 2003). In addition to
water erosion, wind erosion in the Rift Valley and arid and semi-arid peripheral lowlands
(Taddese, 1999; Nyssen et al., 2004a), nutrient depletion, low input farming practices
(Haileslassie et al., 2005; Haregeweyn et al., 2008a; Abegaz and Van Keulen, 2009) are also
important.
The average rate of soil loss due to sheet and rill erosion from Ethiopian highlands is
reported at 42 tons ha-1 yr-1 in croplands (Hurni, 1988). In contrast, Nyssen et al. (2009b)
reported a much lower rate of average soil loss (9.7 tons ha-1 yr-1 for cropland and 17.4 tons ha-1
yr-1 for rangeland) in Tigray highlands. Based on reservoir surveys, Haregeweyn et al. (2006)
reported an average rate of sediment yield at catchment scale of 9.1 tons ha-1 yr-1. The Ethiopian
Highland Reclamation Study (EHRS; FAO, 1986) estimated that 27 million hectares of land i.e.
nearly 50% of the Ethiopian highlands was significantly eroded with 190 million tons of annual
soil loss from an area of ca. 536,000 km2. In Andit Tid (Nothern Shewa) soil loss from cropland
is reported at 152 tons ha-1 yr-1 based on measurements using test plots (Birru, 2002). Reported
rates of soil loss in Ethiopian highlands vary over a wide range. Land degradation and
deforestation of the Ethiopian highlands is not a recent phenomenon (Hurni, 1985, Bard et al.,
2000; Sonneveld and Keyzer, 2003; Nyssen et al., 2004a) since agriculture was commenced
earlier i.e. 3,000 years ago. Based on analysis of pollen and charcoal in the sediments,
Darbyshire et al. (2003) concluded that the forest vegetation such as Podocarpus-Juniperus
forest existing before 3,000 years in Ethiopian highlands were highly deforested and replaced by
Dodonaea scrubs and grasslands that persisted in the area for 1800 years. Land degradation has
been cited as a cause for the downfall of early civilizations in Ethiopian highlands (Butzer,
1981).
Economic growth and Development at national and regional
Agriculture is the main economic activity and is the base for the socioeconomic settings of the rural
community in Tigray. It employs more than 85% of the total population mainly for a subsistence
production (Hagos et al., 1999). Tigray is the most drought-prone and food insecured region (Nega et al.,
2010). Vulnerability assessment and mapping (VAM) of the World Food Programme (WFP) indicated that
ca. 58% of the total population of Tigray lives in absolute poverty which is larger than 44.4% estimated
at national level in 2000 (WFP, 2009). Chronic food shortage, poverty and dependency on food aid in
these regions are related to moisture stress and drought which are the results of the seasonal and
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erratic nature of the rainfall. Nevertheless, there are exist inextricably linkage between the natural
resources (environment) and economic development. The Earth’s physical resources (land,
atmosphere, oceans) and biological systems provide the humans with goods and services (food,
timber, medicines) and essential services such as purification of air and water, soil generation,
maintenance of soil fertility and decomposition of pollutants, among others. The earth’s natural
systems stabilize the Earth’s climate, offer protection from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays, provide
aesthetic beauty and support for the world’s diverse cultures.
Global environmental problems and the ability to meet human needs are linked through a set of
physical, chemical, and biological processes; when human activities affect one component of the earth
system, there are often ramifications to the other components as a well. For example, a change in the
earth’s climate would likely reduce bio-diversity, change the distribution and productivity of forests,
and increase the rate of loss of stratospheric ozone. Like the conversion of forests to other types of
land cover can increase greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere and thus contribute to change
climate, reduce biological bio-diversity, and affect water resources.
Linkages between economic growth and the environment
Poverty and the environment
Chapter 2: State of the Environment
1. Land coverage
2. Forests and woodlands
3. Wetlands resources
4. Freshwater resources
5. Biodiversity
6. Urban areas
7. Climate and Atmosphere
8. Social welfare and the environment
9. Environmental disasters.
Chapter 3: Response to Environment change
Environmental policies and reform
Legal reforms for environmental management
Economic instruments for environmental management
National/Regional and local initiatives
Public participation
Environmental planning
Environmental information and education
Social policies
Trans-boundary environmental management.
Chapter 4: The Future
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Trends in key environmental issues in the region
Emerging issues and practices
Recommendations
1.2. Guiding notes for the National and Regional level SOER Task Force
The guiding notes are meant to ease the process of data collection and report writing.
Chapter 1: Environment and Development
Bullet 1 – Economic growth and development in the regional state
- Definition of terms
- Growth in which industries
- Impact on income
- Employment
- Revenue generation
- Infrastructure
Bullet 2 – Linkages between economic growth and development and the environment
- Impact of economic activities on the environment (positive or negative)
- Impact of environment on economic activities
- Demography (consumption levels)
Bullet 3 – Poverty and the Environment
- Vicious cycle of poverty
- Income distribution (per capita) local
- Case study [select a suitable local case study that can bring out the linkages
between poverty and the environment]
Chapter 2 – The State of Environment
Bullet 1 - Land
- Topography
- Land use
- Tenure
- Size
- Land degradation
Bullet 2 - Forests and woodlands
- Total forest area by category
- Diversity
- Ownership status
- Threats
- Opportunities
- Utilization
- Distribution
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- Agro-forestry
Bullet 3 - Wetlands resources
- Size
- Category
- Use
- Status
- Threats and opportunities
- Resources
- Functions
- Distribution
- Management
- Pollution
Bullet 4 - Freshwater resources as above
Bullet 5 - Biodiversity
- Ecosystems diversity
- Endangered /Rare/Threatened species
- Invasive species
- Exotic species
- Opportunities
Bullet 6 - Urban areas
- Define (what constitutes an urban area)
- Distribution
- Conditions
- Waste management
- Physical planning
- Service provision
- Infrastructure
- Settlements
- Housing types and quality
Bullet 7 - Atmosphere
- Weather
- Pollution
Bullet 8 - Social welfare and environment (are encouraged to go through the
Checklist and consolidate or enrich it).
- Food and nutrition
- Health and sanitation
- Education
- Access to services
- Schools
- Water supply
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- Medical facilities
- Gender
- Migration
- Recreation
- Culture
Bullet 9 - Environmental disasters
- Landslides
- Floods
- Earthquakes
- Civil strife/conflict
- Drought
- Epidemics
- Famine
- Coping mechanics
Chapter 3: Responses to Environmental Change
Bullet 1 - Environmental policies and reform
- National Policies
- National & Regional policies for environmental management (including EIA
requirements)
- Other administrative arrangements
- Institutional structures and reforms
Bullet 2 - Legal reforms for environment management
- Existing enforcement ordinances and bye-laws
- Extent of implementation of relevant national laws
- User fees
- Loans and grants (with conditions for good environmental practices)
- Charges
- Subsidies
- Permits
Bullet 3 - Economic Instruments
- Incentives and disincentives
- Carbon trading
- Domestic regional budget provision to implement the environment programs
Bullet 4 - Local Initiatives
- Community agreements/actions
- Individual actions in favor of environmental management
- Citizen actions/enforcement
- Local competitions
- CBO/NGO activities
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- Initiating actions to conserve sites
Bullet 5 – Public participation
- Involvement in planning and implementation of Environment Action Plans
- Citizen actions to protect the environment
- Involvement of special interested groups
Bullet 6 – Environmental planning
- Environment action plans in existence
- Progress in implementation
- Integration of environment action plans into development plans
- Leveraging funds using environment action plans
Bullet 7 - Environmental information and education
- Data collection, management, storage, dissemination and use
- Access
- Relevant surveys
- Workshops and seminars (at times skills)
- Awareness programs
- Multi-media use (TV, radio, print media)
- Education materials/visual aids
- Maps and photographs
Bullet 8 – Social policies
- As in State of Environment (bullet 8 chapter 2)
Bullet 9 – Trans-boundary environmental management (as a response)
- Collaboration between neighboring regional states including international
administrative boundaries
- Inventory of resources
Chapter 4: The Future states of trends of the environment
Bullet 1 - Trends of key environmental issues in the nation/region level
- Key environmental issues
- Identify indicators to track them
- Causes to key environmental issues
- Impacts (bio-physical, social)
Bullet 2 - Emerging issues and practices
- New technologies
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- Policies and laws
- Industrialization
- Privatization
- Style of development
- Waste disposal
- Expansion of large-scale agriculture in woodland
- Immigration and displaced persons
- Developing culture/attitude of expecting pay for participation
- Use of marginal area
- Pressure on tree resources
Bullet 3- Scope for Suture Studies
Bullet 3 - Recommendations
- According to issues.
The Country/the National Regional State at a Glance
This is a collection of all vital statistics about the country/national regional state. This includes;
location, size, population, population density, administrative areas, abundance of natural resources,
health statistics, economy of the country or the region. This is information that a new reader would
wish to refer to constantly without having to read the whole document. It should not exceed one
page, and should preferably be placed at the beginning or end of the region’s SOER.
REFERENCES:
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