CHAPTER 12
QUANTIFYING
SPORTS TRAINING
SPORTS AND
TRAINING
DOPING
Did You Know…?
A person’s rate of adaptation and response to training
depends on that individual. He or she cannot be forced
beyond his or her body’s capacity for development. Thus,
training programs must take these individual differences
into account.
Optimal Training Load
Progressive overload—progressive increase in training
load as body adapts
Training volume—duration or frequency
Training intensity—force of muscle action and stress on
the muscular and cardiovascular systems
Resistance training (high intensity and low volume)
Aerobic training (high volume and lower intensity)
Rest periods—without them, muscles
become chronically depleted
CHANGES IN HEART RATE AND
BLOOD LACTATE
Did You Know…?
Long daily workouts may not be the best training method
for some sports. It appears that training volume could be
reduced by as much as one half in some sports, without
reducing the training benefits and with less risk of
overloading.
Overtraining
Training beyond the point that would be optimal; can be
related to intensity, duration, frequency, or any
combination of these three
Staleness is a related concept
The key is to design a training program that will provide
the optimal level of stress but will not overstress the
athlete
Symptoms of Overtraining Syndrome
Decline in physical performance
Decreased appetite and body weight loss
Muscle tenderness
Head colds, allergic reactions, or both
Occasional nausea
Sleep disturbances
Elevated resting heart rate and blood pressure
Feeling of “heaviness” and loss of desire to train and
compete
Emotional instability
Possible Causes of Overtraining
Periods of excessive training or emotional stress
Abnormal responses in the autonomic nervous system—
sympathetic and parasympathetic
Disturbances in endocrine function
Depressed immune function
Sympathetic NS Overtraining
Increased resting heart rate and blood pressure
Loss of appetite and decreased body mass
Sleep disturbances and emotional instability
Elevated resting metabolic rate
Parasympathetic NS Overtraining
Early onset of fatigue
Decreased resting heart rate and blood pressure
Rapid heart rate recovery after exercise
Less common than sympathetic NS overtraining
TRAINING VOLUME AND RISK OF
INFECTION
Predicting Overtraining
Increase in oxygen consumption for the same rate of work
(though impractical for coach to measure)
Increased heart rate response to the same rate of work
Declines in performance
.
VO2 IN EARLY AND LATE SEASON
HEART RATE RESPONSES TO TRAINING
Treatment of Overtraining
Reduce training intensity for several days
Rest completely for three to five days
Seek counseling
Prevent overtraining by alternating easy, moderate, and
hard training
Eat sufficient carbohydrate to prevent glycogen depletion
Key Points
Training Demands
Excessive training refers to training with an
unnecessarily high volume or intensity.
Excessive training does not lead to
additional gains in performance and can
lead to overtraining.
Increase the duration or frequency of
training to increase training volume.
(continued)
Key Points
Training Demands
Training intensity can determine specific
adaptations to training.
High-intensity, low-volume training
increases muscle strength and speed.
High-volume,
. low-intensity training (50% to
90% VO2max) increases aerobic capacity.
Key Points
Overtraining
Overtraining leads to decreased
performance capacity.
Symptoms of overtraining may occur
briefly with regular training.
Overtraining may be caused by abnormal
responses in the autonomic nervous and
endocrine systems and suppressed
immune function.
Heart rate response appears to be the
most reliable warning of overtraining.
Overtraining syndrome is treated most
effectively with rest and proper nutrition.
Did You Know…?
Tapering for competition involves a reduction in training
intensity and volume. This rest allows your body to repair
itself and restore its energy reserves to prepare you for
your best performance.
Effects of Properly Tapering
Muscular strength increases
Energy reserves are restored
.
No loss of VO2max occurs
Performance increases (especially in swimmers)
Detraining
Cessation of regular training; may be due to inactivity or
immobilization
Loss of muscle size, strength, and power
Decrease in muscular and cardiorespiratory endurance
Loss of speed, agility, and flexibility
Loss of Muscle Strength
Muscle atrophy accounts for a loss in development of
maximal muscle fiber tension.
Normal fiber recruitment is disrupted; some fibers are
unable to be recruited.
Muscle requires minimal stimulation (training once every
10 to 14 days) to retain training gains.
STRENGTH CHANGES WITH
DETRAINING
Loss of Endurance
Decreased performance may be related to losses in
cardiorespiratory endurance.
Oxidative enzyme activity in muscles decreases.
Glycolytic enzymes remain unchanged with up to 84 days
of detraining.
Muscle glycogen content (and thus storage capacity)
decreases.
Acid-base balance becomes disturbed.
Muscle capillary supply and fiber type may change.
.
DETRAINING, VO2MAX, AND OXIDATIVE
ENZYMES
DETRAINING AND MUSCLE GLYCOGEN
Loss of Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Losses are greatest in highly trained individuals.
Plasma volume decreases
Stroke volume decreases
.
VO2max decreases
Endurance performance decreases
Did You Know…?
You can prevent rapid losses to your cardiorespiratory
endurance with a minimum of three training
. sessions per
week at an intensity of at least 70% VO2max.
.
CHANGES IN VO2MAX WITH BED REST
Retraining
Recovery of conditioning after a period of activity.
Affected by fitness level and the length and extent of
inactivity.
If a cast allows some range of movement, retraining time
can be reduced.
Electrical stimulation of muscles can
prevent muscle fiber atrophy.
Key Points
Detraining and Retraining
Detraining is the cessation of regular
physical training
Retraining is resuming training after a
period of inactivity.
The greater the training gains achieved,
the greater the losses with detraining.
Detraining results in losses of muscle size,
strength, power, and endurance; speed,
agility, and flexibility; and cardiorespiratory
endurance.
Detraining effects can be minimized by
training
. three times a week at 70%
VO2max.
Examples in Sports
Football—anabolic steroids
Cycling—blood doping or EPO; amphetamines
Weight category athletes—diuretics, amphetamines
Distance running—carbohydrate loading
Note: Scientific studies are limited by the accuracy of
measurements and individual day-to-day variability. Events
are won by hundredths of seconds or by centimeters.
Did You Know…?
The placebo effect refers to when your body’s
expectations of a substance determine your body’s
response to it. While the effect is psychological in origin,
the body’s physical response to the substance is real.
THE PLACEBO EFFECT
ON STRENGTH GAINS
Pharmacological Agents
Alcohol
Amphetamines
Beta blockers
Caffeine
Cocaine
Diuretics
Marijuana
Nicotine
Alcohol
Provides energy (7 kcal/g) but inhibits metabolism
Dulls pain sensation (increasing injury risk);
reduces anxiety
Suppresses release of ADH which leads to dehydration
Appears to impair psychomotor function
Has no ergogenic effects on strength,
power, speed, or endurance
ALCOHOL SUPPRESSES ADH RELEASE
Amphetamines
Increase mental alertness, blood pressure, heart rate,
blood glucose and FFA levels, and muscle tension
Decrease sense of fatigue
Redistribute blood flow to skeletal muscles
May enhance speed, power, endurance, concentration,
and fine motor coordination
May be addictive and can trigger cardiac
arrhythmia or death
Beta Blockers
Prevent the binding of norepinephrine to its receptor, thus
decreasing sympathetic nervous system effects
May improve accuracy (for shooting sports)
Decrease aerobic capacity but have no effect on strength,
power, or muscular endurance
Prolonged use can cause bradycardia, heart blockage,
hypotension, brochospasm, fatigue, and decreased
motivation
Caffeine
Increases mental alertness, concentration, catecholamine
release, and mobilization and use of FFA by the muscles
Decreases fatigue and lowers perception of effort
Improves endurance performance; may improve sprint
and strength performance
Can cause nervousness, insomnia, tremors,
diuresis, and lead to dehydration
Cocaine
Blocks reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine by
neurons
Creates feelings of euphoria, alertness, and self-
confidence
Masks fatigue and pain
Has no evidence of ergogenic properties; likely ergolytic
Extremely addictive; can cause psychological problems
and compromise heart function
Diuretics
Increase urine production and excretion
Used for weight reduction and to mask other drugs during
drug testing
Cause weight loss (water loss)
Can lead to dehydration, impaired thermoregulation, and
electrolyte imbalances
Marijuana
Acts as a stimulant and depressant of CNS
Impairs performance requiring hand-eye and motor
coordination, fast reaction times, tracking ability, and
perceptual accuracy
Can lead to personality changes, memory impairment,
hallucinations, and psychotic-like behavior
May pose same risks as cigarette smoking (if smoked)
Nicotine
Increases alertness and may calm nervousness
.
Lowers VO2max values (when smoked) and peripheral
circulation
Increases heart rate, blood pressure, autonomic reactivity,
vasoconstriction, ADH and catecholamine secretion, blood
lipid levels, plasma glucose, glucagon, insulin, and cortisol
Is addictive and causes various cancers
and cardiovascular diseases
Hormonal Agents
Anabolic steroids
Human growth hormone
Oral contraceptives
Anabolic Steroids
Are nearly identical to male sex hormones; synthetic form
maximizes building effects
Increase muscle mass and strength
Can cause testicular atrophy, reduced sperm count, and
prostate and breast enlargement in men
Can cause breast regression, masculinization, and
menstrual disruption in women
Cause personality changes, liver damage, and
cardiovascular disease
BODY CHANGES WITH ANABOLIC
STEROIDS
Human Growth Hormone
Secreted naturally by pituitary; synthetic form used by
some athletes
Difficult to detect synthetic from natural in drug testing
Proven to increase lipolysis and blood glucose levels;
changes in muscle mass and strength are found in some
studies, but not in the best controlled studies or studies
with athletes
Can cause acromegaly, enlargement of
internal organs, muscle and joint weakness,
diabetes, hypertension, and heart disease
Oral Contraceptives
Control menstrual cycle
Little research on ergogenic properties
May alleviate symptoms of PMS and restore menstrual
cycle
Can cause nausea, weight gain, fatigue, hypertension,
liver tumors, blood clots, stroke, or heart attack.
Physiological Agents
Blood doping
Erythropoietin
Oxygen supplementation
Aspartic acid
Bicarbonate loading
Phosphate loading
Blood Doping
Artificial increase in total volume of red blood cells (via
transfusion or EPO)
Improves endurance performance by increasing blood’s
O2-carrying capacity
.
Increases VO2max, time to exhaustion, and measurable
performance
Can cause blood clotting, heart failure, and transfusion
complications
.
VO2MAX AND FATIGUE AFTER BLOOD
DOPING
PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT AFTER
BLOOD DOPING
Erythropoietin
Natural hormone produced by the kidneys to stimulate red
blood cell production
Can be cloned and administered to increase red blood cell
volume
.
Increases VO2max and time to exhaustion
Can cause blood clotting and heart failure due to
increased blood viscosity
Oxygen Supplementation
Breathed by athlete to increase oxygen content of blood
Can improve performance if administered during exercise,
but not before or after
Too cumbersome to be practical
No serious risks known
OXYGEN SUPPLEMENTATION AND
PERFORMANCE
Aspartic Acid
An amino acid involved in liver’s conversion of ammonia to
urea
Thought to reduce ammonia buildup during exercise and
thus offset fatigue
Insufficient and conflicting research of ergogenic
properties
No serious risks known
Bicarbonate
Naturally part of body’s buffering system to maintain
normal pH
Loading increases blood alkalinity so that more lactate can
be cleared (delay fatigue)
Ingesting 300 mg per kg body weight can increase
performance in all-out exercise bouts between 1 and 7
minutes
Can cause gastrointestinal cramping, bloating, and
diarrhea
BICARBONATE AND BLOOD
CONCENTRATIONS
Phosphate
Loading is thought to increase phosphate levels throughout
body, which then
Increase potential for oxidative phosphorylation and PCr
synthesis
Enhance oxygen release to the cells
Improve cardiovascular response to exercise and
buffering and endurance capacities
Studies are divided on results of phosphate loading.
No risks are yet known.
Nutritional Agents
Amino acids
L-carnitine
Creatine
Chromium
Glycerol
Amino Acids
L-tryptophan and BCAA
Proposed to increase endurance performance by delaying
fatigue
Studies are inconclusive on effects on performance
Creatine
Supplement to better maintain muscle ATP levels
Shown to increase strength and possibly fat-free body
mass
Not shown to help endurance performance, sprint running,
or sprint swimming performance
Chromium
Essential trace mineral in foods that helps metabolize
carbohydrate, fat, and protein
Often deficient in diets and lost via exercise
Supplements thought to increase glycogen synthesis and
amino acid incorporation in muscle and improve glucose
tolerance
Studies show little or no benefit
