Phraseological
units
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Prepared by:
What is Phraseological unit
Phraseological unit is a
word group with a fixed
lexical composition and
grammatical structure,
which possesses a certain
meaning
Phraseological units
convey a single concept and their
meaning is idiomatic
are characterized by structural
invariability
are not created in speech but used
as ready-made units
Examples
A dark horse - is actually not a horse but
a person about whom no one knows
anything definite.
A bull in a china shop - a clumsy person.
A white elephant – it is a waste of
money because it is completely useless.
The green-eyed monster is jealousy, the
image being drawn from Othello.
To let the cat out of the bag - to let some
secret become known.
Classification principles of
phraseological units
1. The synchronic (semantic) classification of phraseological
units by V.V. Vinogradov.
2. The structural classification of phraseological units by A.I.
Smirnitsky. (I.V. Arnold’s classification of phraseological
units as parts of speech).
3. The functional classification of phraseological units by A.V.
Kunin.
4. Contextological approach by N. N. Amosova.
Vinogradov’s synchronic (semantic)
classification of phraseological units:
Phraseological fusions
Phraseological unities
Phraseological combinations
Phraseological fusions
is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit which meaning is never influenced by the
meanings of its components.
It means that phraseological fusions represent the highest stage of blending together. The
meaning of components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole, by its
expressiveness and emotional properties.
Once in a blue moon – very seldom;
To cry for the moon – to demand unreal;
Under the rose – quietly.
Sometimes phraseological fusions are called idioms under which linguists understand a complete
loss of the inner form. To explain the meaning of idioms is a complicated etymological problem (tit
to tat means “to revenge”, but no one can explain the meaning of the words tit and tat).
Phraseological unity
is a semantically indivisible phraseological unit the whole
meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of its
components.
In general, phraseological unities are the phrases where the
meaning of the whole unity is not the sum of the meanings of its
components but is based upon them and may be understood
from the components. The meaning of the significant word is not
too remote from its ordinary meanings. This meaning is formed
as a result of generalized figurative meaning of a free word-
combination. It is the result of figurative metaphoric
reconsideration of a word-combination.
Phraseological unities are characterized by the semantic duality. One can’t
define for sure the semantic meaning of separately taken phraseological
unities isolated from the context, because these word-combinations may
be used as free in the direct meaning and as phraseological in the
figurative meaning.
To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;
To come home – to hit the mark
To fall into a rage – to get angry.
Phraseological combination (collocation)
is a construction or an expression in which every word has absolutely clear
independent meaning while one of the components has a bound meaning.
It means that phraseological combinations contain one component used in
its direct meaning while the other is used figuratively.
To make an attempt – to try;
To make haste – to hurry;
To offer an apology – to beg pardon.
Some linguists who stick to the general understanding of phraseology
and refer to it communicational units (sentences) and winged words,
define the fourth type of phraseological units.
Phraseological expression
is a stable by form and usage semantically divisible construction,
which components are words with free meanings.
• East or West, home is best;
• Marriages are made in heaven;
• Still waters run deep.
Phraseological expressions are proverbs, sayings and aphorisms of
famous politicians, writers, scientists and artists. They are concise
sentences, expressing some truth as ascertained by experience of
wisdom and familiar to all.
Structural classification by
Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky
Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural
classification of phraseological units,
comparing them with words.
He points out one-top units which he
compares with derived words because
derived words have only one root
morpheme.
He also points out two-top units which he
compares with compound words because
in compound words we usually have two
root morphemes.
One-top units
Two-top units
type ‘to give up’ attributive-
nominal
type ‘to be tired’ verbal-nominal
prepositional- phraseological
nominal repetitions
One-top units
1) units of the type “to give up” (verb + postposition type);
To back up – to support; To drop out – to miss, to omit.
2) units of the type “to be tired”. Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their
structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we
can have only prepositions «by» or «with»:
To be tired of; To be surprised at.
3) prepositional-nominal phraseological units:
On the doorstep - quite near; On the nose – exactly.
These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs,
that is why they have no grammar center, their semantic center is the nominal part.
Two-top units
1) attributive-nominal such as:
А month of Sundays;
А millstone round one’s neck.
Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic (if the
expression is idiomatic, then we must consider its components in the aggregate, not
separately).
In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic: high
road; in other cases the second component is idiomatic: first night.
In many cases both components are idiomatic: red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot
in the arm and many others.
Two-top units
2) verb-nominal phraseological units:
To read between the lines; (understand something that's not said outright).
To sweep under the carpet.(to hide something that is illegal, embarrassing, or
wrong)
The grammar center of such units is the verb, the semantic center in
many cases is the nominal component: to fall in love. In some units the
verb is both the grammar and the semantic center: not to know the
ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well: to burn one’s
boats, to vote with one’s feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.
Two-top units
3) phraseological repetitions, such as:
Now or never;
Part and parcel (integral part with a whole).
Such units can be built on antonyms: ups and downs, back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration: cakes and ale,
as busy as a bee.
Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions.
These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no
grammar center. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic:
cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly).
I.V. Arnold’s classification of phraseological
units as parts of speech
a) nominal phrases or noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person or a living being:
• Bullet train;
• The root of the trouble.
b) verbal phrases or verb phraseologism denoting an action, a state or a feeling:
• To sing like a lark;
• To put one’s best foot forward (to behave very well in order to gain someone's approval)
c) adjectival phrases or adjective phraseologism denoting a quality:
• As good as gold;
• Red as a cherry.
d) adverbial phrases or adverb phraseological units, such as:
• From head to foot;
• Like a dog with two tails. (To be tremendously happy)
The Koonin’s classification
A.V. Kunin's classification is
based on the functions the
units fulfill in speech. The
classification is based on the
combined structural-semantic
principle and it also considers
the quotient of stability of
phraseological units.
He distinguished four classes according to their function in communication
determined by their structural-semantic characteristics.
1. Nominative phraseological units are represented by word-groups,
including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases as
wear and tear, well and good.
The first class also includes word-groups with a predicative structure, such
as as the crow flies, and, also, predicative phrases of the type see how the land
lies, ships that pass in the night.
2. Nominative-communicative phraseological units include word-groups of
the type to break the ice - the ice is broken, that is, verbal word-groups which
are transformed into a sentence when the verb is used in the Passive Voice.
3. Phraseological units which are neither nominative nor communicative
include interjectional word-groups, (a pretty kettle of fish - a real mess).
4. Communicative phraseological units are represented by proverbs and
sayings.
Contextological approach by N. N. Amosova.
• She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context.
• Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and
idioms.
• Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a
phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as the
determining context (small talk, small hours, small change).
In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every
element may have its original meaning weakened or even completely
lost: in the nick of time (at the exact moment).
Idioms may be motivated or demotivated. A motivated idiom is
homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take
the bull by the horns (to face dangers without fear). In the nick of time
is demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete. Both phrasemes and
idioms may be movable (changeable) or immovable.
Phraseological units are
Idioms:
an arm and a leg
To drop a line
Sayings:
Haste makes waste
An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
That which does not kill you, makes you stronger.
Proverbs:
A man is known by the company he keeps
Quotations
“I have a dream” M.L.King
“To be or not to be” Shakespeare
Cliches:
to see the light
It’s high time to do smth
