Unit 5 –

Environmen
t
 Norse
Easter Island Mayan Civilization
Settlement
•A faraway island that belongs to •People from Scandinavia moved • The Mayans were very good from 250 to
Chile and is in the Pacific ocean. to new places from 800 to 1100 900
It has huge stone heads called • The Mayans made their own words,
•They made new homes in
moai looked at the stars, and knew the days
Iceland, Greenland, Britain, • The Mayans had a nice way of life, beliefs,
•A place that is important for
France, Russia, and more and pictures. They also grew food like
nature and culture. It has a long
•They had their own way of life, corn, beans, squash, and cassava
and interesting story and many
plants and animals beliefs, words, and business • The Mayans stopped being good because
•A place where the Rapa Nui •They stopped growing because of fighting, no water, too many people,
people live. They do things like of leaders, nature, mixing with and bad nature
their old family did others, and fighting
•A place that has problems like
losing land, cutting trees, and
having too many people
Recognize a stance
PAGE 64
Discussi
on 1
Take a
and 2
stance
Positive or
Based on who
Negative or what?
a Positive People in general

b Positive Another source

c
Negative The writer
d Positive People in general

e Negative Another source

Endangere
d Species
1. Based on who or what? advocating for the protection of
endangered animals
2. Positive or negative? Positive
• “At the end, I want to tell you to say no
to things from animals that are in
danger. You don’t need to eat soup from
sharks at parties or use medicine from
tigers. I’m happy to see some people
agree with me.”
Recognize an
argument/
Providing
evidence
PAGE 65, Task
1, Previewing
vocabulary in a
lecture
 PAGE 65, TASK 1.2

shortage
resources
collapse
PAGE 65, TASK 2
STEP ONE LISTEN FOR GENERAL GIST(MEANING)
DON’T WORRY ABOUT THE NOTES YET
PAGE 65, TASK 2
STEP ONE LISTEN FOR GENERAL GIST(MEANING)
DON’T WORRY ABOUT THE NOTES YET
Page 65

Evidence for
supporting the main
argument.
Page 65

Evidence for
supporting the main
argument.

its environment

species of animals
overfishing
 Unit-5: Environment (top of page
66)
5A: Listening And Speaking
ask 2: Identifying a main argument
3. Watch Extract 2. Work in pairs. Use the lecturer's visuals to explain what happened on Easter Island.

Answer:
Main argument - more than one factor caused collapse of Easter Island
civilization.

5. Match stances ( a) and (b) to the people who expressed it.

1. Early researchers a. Easter Island's environment was affected by human

2. Modern Archeologists actions.
b. Easter Island's environment was most affected by animals.
 Unit-5: Environment

5A: Listening And Speaking (Page 66,Academic

ask 2: Identifying a main argument
Language)
Academic Language  Language reference page 154

Stance (1) Referring to someone else's views

Speakers in lectures and seminars often present other people's stance as well as their
own. It is important to recognize when the speaker is referring to someone else's views.

The ecocentric view is that the Earth is here for all species.
Modern archeologists believe that the rats also contributed…
According to early researchers, the people who settled there changed the
environment. In their opinion, economic growth is a good thing.

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 Unit-5: Environment

PAGE 66,
5A: Listening And Speaking Task 3.2,
ask 3: Understanding different stances
3. Rewrite sentences 1-4 expressing the stance using the words in brackets.
Extract 3
1. Ecocentrics say that we must only use resources that can be replaced. (view)
The ecocentric view is that only resources that can be replaced/ renewables should be used.
__________________________________________________________________________
2. According to technocentrics, economic growth is a good thing. (believe)
Technocentrics believe that economic growth is positive.
__________________________________________________________________________
3. The ecocentric view is that the Earth is here for all species. (opinion)
In the opinion of ecocentric theorists, the Earth is a resource for every species.
__________________________________________________________________________
4. Technocentrics believe that human beings will find a technological solution to shortages of resources. ( according to)
According to technocentric thinkers, shortages in resources will be solved by technology.
__________________________________________________________________________

4. Discuss which stance, technocentric or ecocentric, you agree with more. Give reasons.

Oxford EAP Pre-Intermediate Page 11 of 42

 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 67,
Academic Language

5A: Listening And Speaking

k 4: Identifying Stance and supporting evidence
Academic Language  Language reference page 154

Stance (2) Giving an opinion, agreeing, and disagreeing

In seminars and tutorials, you will often be asked to express your opinion or to say
whether you agree with other speakers.
Giving an opinion
It seems to me that the technocentric view is probably right.
I think that we're going to see a lot more use of technology ...
I would argue that you have to balance economic growth with use of resources.
Agreeing Disagreeing
I agree with that. No, I don’t agree.
Yes, and … Yes, but …

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 67, TASK 5

5A: Listening And Speaking

k 5: Expressing stance with supporting evidence
1. Work in pairs. Note down one piece of evidence for each statement 1-4 that supports each statement.
Example: It is possible to use natural resources carefully.
For example, you can save water by taking a shower. Showers use 70% less
water than baths.
1. Man-made pollution is changing the Earth's climate.
2. Population growth puts pressure on resources.
3. Technology can solve environmental problems.
4. Nature can pollution
1.Man-made repair the damage that humans
is changing do to the
the Earth’s Earth. For example, the burning of fossil fuels
climate.
releases greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming and climate change.
2.Population growth puts pressure on resources. For instance, increasing population leads to
higher demand for food, water, and energy, which can strain agricultural systems and water
supplies.
3.Technology can solve environmental problems. For example, renewable energy technologies
like solar and wind power can reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
4.Nature can repair the damage that humans do to the Earth. For instance, reforestation
projects can help restore ecosystems and absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

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 Unit-5: Environment

5A: Listening And Speaking (Page 66,Academic

ask 2: Identifying a main argument
Language)
Academic Language  Language reference page 154

Stance (1) Referring to someone else's views

Speakers in lectures and seminars often present other people's stance as well as their
own. It is important to recognize when the speaker is referring to someone else's views.

The ecocentric view is that the Earth is here for all species.
Modern archeologists believe that the rats also contributed…
According to early researchers, the people who settled there changed the
environment. In their opinion, economic growth is a good thing.

Oxford EAP Pre-Intermediate Page 09 of 42

 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 67,
Academic Language

5A: Listening And Speaking

k 4: Identifying Stance and supporting evidence
Academic Language  Language reference page 154

Stance (2) Giving an opinion, agreeing, and disagreeing

In seminars and tutorials, you will often be asked to express your opinion or to say
whether or not you agree with other speakers.
Giving an opinion
It seems to me that the technocentric view is probably right.
I think that we're going to see a lot more use of technology ...
I would argue that you have to balance economic growth with use of resources.
Agreeing Disagreeing
I agree with that. No, I don’t agree.
Yes, and … Yes, but …

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 •ACADEMIC LANGUAGE (STANCE #1) p.66:
Compare by using the same language about your two topic Referring to someone else’s views
countries
1. According to…
•Choose one thing you're comparing for Project 2. 2. Based on…
•One member of your group will support one country and the
3. As…said/stated/claimed/argued…
other member will support the other.
4. In…'s view/opinion/perspective…
1. Find some sources on the internet or in books that say the
same thing you think. 5. …believes/thinks/feels that…
2. Write it down and give an example using the ACADEMIC 6. …suggests/proposes/recommends
LANGUAGE that…
3. Make a slide for your presentation. Talk about what you
found using the phrases from the list. Describe what you think
and why you think the same as what you found. • ACADEMIC LANGUAGE (STANCE #2) p.67:
4. Your group partners will disagree with you and explain why. Giving an opinion
TAKE A STANCE!
1. It seems to me that the technocentric view is

I will show you an probably right.

2. I think that we're going to see a lot more use of

Example of comparing technology ...

3. I would argue that you have to balance economic

China and Japan’s culture growth with use of resources.

1. According to a report by the UNESCO (2020),
Japan has more world heritage sites than China. •ACADEMIC LANGUAGE (STANCE #1) p.66: Referring
This indicates that Japan has a richer and more to someone else’s views
diverse culture than China.
2. Based on my own experience, Japan’s culture is
nicer and more beautiful than China’s. Japan has
a special way of making things look good in its
1. According to…
paintings, buildings, food, and clothes. 2. Based on…
3. As the famous Japanese writer Haruki Murakami
said, “Japan is not a homogenous society.” 3. As…said/stated/claimed/argued…
4. He argued that Japan has a complex and 4. In…'s view/opinion/perspective…
dynamic culture that is influenced by many
different sources. 5. …believes/thinks/feels that…
5. In his view, Japan has a more creative and 6. …suggests/proposes/recommends
original culture than China.
that…
6. Murakami suggests/feels that we should visit
Tokyo, Kyoto, and Osaka and observe the different ACADEMIC LANGUAGE (STANCE #2) p.67:
•Ifacets
would ofargue
Japanese culture.
that that Japan’s culture is Giving an opinion (CHOOSE ONE)
better than China’s. Japan has a special way of
mixing old and new things that makes its culture 1. It seems to me that the technocentric view is probably right.
more interesting and different than China. 2. I think that we're going to see a lot more use of technology ...
3. I would argue that you have to balance economic growth with use of
resources.
• According to the Pew Research Centre (2020), China has
more cultural confidence than Japan. The percentage of •ACADEMIC LANGUAGE (STANCE #1) p.66:
Chinese people who are proud of their history and culture is Referring to someone else’s views
91%, compared to 54% of Japanese.
• Based on UNESCO (2020) , China has a more
vibrant and diverse culture than Japan. A total of 56 1. According to…
ethnic groups exist in China. In contrast, Japan lacks cultural
diversity. 2. Based on…
• As the famous Chinese philosopher Laozi said, 3. As…said/stated/claimed/argued…
“The culture of a nation is the root of its people.”
4. In…'s view/opinion/perspective…
• He argued that culture is the source of a
nation’s strength and identity. 5. …believes/thinks/feels that…
• In his view, China has a strong and rich culture 6. …suggests/proposes/
that has endured for thousands of years.
recommends that…
• He suggests/feels that China has more to offer
in terms of history, philosophy, religion, and art.
ACADEMIC LANGUAGE (STANCE #2) p.67:
Giving an opinion

I would argue that China’s culture is better 1. It seems to me that the technocentric view is probably right.
than Japan’s. China has a long and deep history 2. I think that we're going to see a lot more use of technology ...
that makes its culture more important and
meaningful. 3. I would argue that you have to balance economic growth with use of
resources.
 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 68, TASK 1

5B: Reading
This module covers:
1. Identifying the main arguments in a text
2. Recognizing stance in a text

sk 1: Preparing to read about a new topic

1. You are going to read a journal article about a ban on public smoking on a university campus. Note
down possible stances for (a) smokers, (b) non-smokers, and ( c) university employees.
2. Work in pairs. Read paragraph I of the text. Select the most suitable purpose 1-3 for the journal
article. Give reasons.
1. A medical study
2. An environment study
3. A social study

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 68, TASK 2

5B: Reading
k 2: Identifying the main arguments in a text
1. Read the whole text. Tick the findings that are included in the report.
1. The smoking ban created the problem of people smoking near the entrances to buildings.
2. No one felt sympathy for the smokers who had to smoke outside.
3. Most people thought that allowing people to smoke inside the building again was a bad
solution.
2. Identify the sentences in the text where you found each answer.

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 69, READING
Environmental Tobacco Smoking – A case
In this paper we focus upon the relocation of smokers from inside University buildings to outside, and consider
study
some implications for smokers and non-smokers among University staff.
The smoking ban in University buildings significantly reduced smoking at work. However, it did not eradicate the
problem of Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS). Research data showed that the problem of smoke pollution was
moved to the entrances and exits of University buildings, affecting individuals as they entered and left the
workplace. The ban also had a visual impact. One of the first sights that met visitors to the University was groups of
smokers congregating outside buildings to smoke. Staff were questioned about this and invited to suggest possible
solutions.
In considering how to deal with the problems resulting from the relocation of smokers to University entrances, staff
opinion was divided. A minority view was that there should be stricter measures to 'eradicate' smoking. This group
placed the health interests of the non .. smoking members of staff above the interests of the smaller number of
smokers. Many were unsympathetic to smokers being allowed to smoke near entrances. A typical response came
from staff member X who commented that there should certainly be a ban on 'smokers who congregate around
building entrances'. According to staff member Y, smokers should be put in 'a pen in the middle of the car park'.
The majority view, however, was that smokers should be helped to quit. These respondents described smoking as
'addictive' and smokers as 'dependent' individuals who should be encouraged to stop smoking. Many non-smokers
noted positively that the University had tried to help smokers with such advice. Staff member Z expressed the view
that it was wrong to force people to smoke outside in very cold weather. Others also felt that this sent a very
negative message to smokers.
The relocation of smoking to the entrances of buildings or even further away is clearly not a satisfactory solution. It
simply shifts the problem to another place. Perhaps then the most obvious solution is to provide designated
smoking areas within buildings. No doubt changing this approach could be considered a backwards step, but over
 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 68, TASK 2.1

5B: Reading
k 2: Identifying the main arguments in a text
1. Read the whole text. Tick the findings that are included in the report.

1. The smoking ban created the problem of people smoking near the entrances to buildings.
2. No one felt sympathy for the smokers who had to smoke outside.
3. Most people thought that allowing people to smoke inside the building again was a bad solution.

2. Identify the sentences in the text where you found each answer.

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 68, TASK 2.3

5B: Reading
k 2: Identifying the main arguments in a text
3. Read the text again. Complete the notes in the table.
Positive effect of the smoking ban
stopped smoking
Many people _____________
Negative effects of the smoking ban
population
People started to smoke near entrances, causing smoke ________ and a negative _____visual
impact.
Solutions suggested by staff
Banpeople smoking around entrances
1. ___
in a special pen in the car park
2. Put smokers ______________________
stop smoking
3. Encourage smokers to __________
Action taken by University
support to stop
Giving smokers ___________
Conclusion
inside
Give smokers somewhere to smoke _____

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 70, TASK 3.1

5B: Reading
Task 3: Recognizing stance in a text
1. Stance is the position that a person takes on an idea or situation. Work in pairs. Complete the
table with the correct stance a-e for each person.
Person Stance
The minority of staff The university needs to have stricter measures to stop people smoking.
Staff members X and Y People should not be allowed to smoke near building entrances.
The majority of staff Smokers have a problem and need to be helped.
Self member 2 It is not right to make people smoke outside in poor weather.
The author Since relocation outside does not work, smokers should be given a space to smoke inside.

a. It is not right to make people smoke outside in poor weather.

b. Smokers have a problem and need to be helped.
c. Since relocation outside does not work, smokers should be given a space to smoke inside.
d. The university needs to have stricter measures to stop people smoking.
e. People should not be allowed to smoke near building entrances.

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 70, TASK 3.3

5B: Reading
Task 3: Recognizing stance in a text
1. Work in pairs. Note down the phrases in the text used to introduce the stance of 1-5.

Example: The minority of staff: A minority view was that

1. Staff member X: _____________________________________________________________________

staff member X who commented ...

2. Staff member Y: _____________________________________________________________________

According to staff member Y, ...

3. The majority view: The

____________________________________________________________________
majority view, however, was that ...

4. Staff member Z: _____________________________________________________________________

Staff member Z expressed the view that ...

5. The author: ...

________________________________________________________________________
is clearly not a satisfactory solution; Perhaps then the most obvious solution is

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Unit-5: Environment (BOTTOM)PAGE 70, READING

5B: Reading
Academic
Language
Stance (3) Author's stance; other people's stance
Authors will often present other people's stance as well as their own. It is important to recognize whose stance is
being presented.
Reporting other people's stance using key phrases
According to staff member Y, smokers should be put in 'a pen in the middle of the car park'. A minority view was
that there should be stricter measures to 'eradicate' smoking. The majority view, however, was that smokers
should be helped to quit.
Reporting other people's stance using reporting verbs
Many non-smokers noted positively that the university had tried to help smokers. Staff member X commented that
there should certainly be a ban.
Expressing the author's own stance
The relocation of smoking to the entrances of buildings ... is clearly not a satisfactory solution. Perhaps the most
obvious solution is to provide designated smoking areas within buildings,

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 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 71, TASK 4.1

5B: Reading
Task 4: Expressing stance
1. Complete sentences 1-5 with a word from the list.

1. vie of the IQ test is that it is not a good measure of intelligence.

One ____

w ____
2. Vygotsky notesthat written language differs from spoken language in several respects.

perhaps/
3. The ability to make decisions is ___________ the most important expression of leadership.

clearly
4. A leading environmentalist ________
commente that average global temperatures have increased by two degrees.

5. It is ___________
clearly/ to wrong to dthink that humans have had no impact on the environment.

perhaps

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Unit-5: Environment PAGE 71, TASK 4.2

5B: ReadingTask 4: Expressing stance

2. Rewrite statements 1-6 using the words in
brackets.

1. According to Harper, the results of the experiment were inconclusive.

noted that the results of the experiment were inconclusive.
Harper___________________________________________________________________(noted that).
2. Mathau states that there is insufficient evidence that ETS is harmful.
clearly insufficient evidence that ETS is harmful.
According to Mathau, there is_________________________________________________________(clearly).
3. Most people felt that there wasn't enough evidence to change the policy.
majority view was that there wasn't enough evidence to change the policy.view).
The___________________________________________________________________(majority
4. Some people think that the opinions of non-smokers are given too much weight.
One view is that the opinions of non-smokers are given too much weight.
_________________________________________________________________________(one view).
5. Others say that their opinions are not considered enough.
Another view is that their opinions aren't considered enough.
_________________________________________________________________________(another view).
6. The change in the attitude of the smokers themselves is the most significant fact.
Perhaps the most significant fact is the change in the attitude of the smokers themselves.
________________________________________________________________________(perhaps).

Oxford EAP Pre-Intermediate

Page 23 of 42
 (BOTTOM)PAGE 71, DISCUSSING STANCES
Unit-5: Environment BASED ON A TEXT

5B: Reading
sk 5: Discussing stance expressed in a text
1. Work in groups. Discuss what the article concludes is a good solution to the problem of smoking in
office buildings.
2. Do you agree with this solution? Give reasons.

3. Work in pairs. Choose one of topics 1-3 OR a topic connected with your field of study or interests.
Write two sentences expressing stance: one expressing another person's stance and one expressing
your own stance.
Example: Climate change and the rise in global temperatures
According to one group of researchers at the University of East Anglia, world temperatures are falling, not rising.
But climate change can clearly be seen in the increasing number of extreme weather events, like floods and hurricanes.

1. People smoking in public

2. Standards in education in your country
3. The increase in food allergies

4. Work in groups. Read out your sentences and evaluate the stances given.

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 Unit-5: Environment (Top)PAGE 72, Task 1

5C: Writing
This module covers:
1. Writing sentences expressing stance

Task 1: previewing a writing task

1. Read Paragraph 1.

2. Note down what the evidence in l tells us about (a) the Alpine environment and (b) early humans.

Paragraph 1
In 2013, archaeologists uncovered relics of human activity in the high slopes of the French Alps which date back over 8,000
years. The archaeologists found what are thought to be Stone Age camps and other dwellings. They also found areas where
trees were cleared to create new grazing land. It is likely that the landscape was occupied over many centuries. The
discovery indicates that people, as well as climate, influenced the Alpine landscape. This also suggests that early humans
lived in a wider range of environments than was previously thought.

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 Unit-5: Environment

5C:
GE 73, Task 2.1: Using hedging language
Writing
1. Underline the phrases in Paragraph 1 that show that something is a claim or an opinion, rather than
a fact.
Paragraph 1
In 2013, archaeologists uncovered relics of human activity in the high slopes of the French Alps which date back over
8,000 years. The archaeologists found what are thought to be Stone Age camps and other dwellings. They also found
areas where trees were cleared to create new grazing land. It is likely that the landscape was occupied over many
centuries. The discovery indicates that people, as well as climate, influenced the Alpine landscape. This also suggests
that early humans lived in a wider range of environments than was previously thought.

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Unit-5: Environment (Middle)PAGE 72

5C: Writing
Academic  Language reference Page
154
Language
Hedging (1)
In academic writing, writers often use hedging language to avoid expressing things as absolute facts and to make it
clear they are expressing a claim or opinion. For example:
Verbs
The archaeologists found what are thought to be Stone Age camps ...
The discovery indicates that people, as well as climate, influenced the landscape.
This also suggests that early humans lived in a wider range of environments than was previously thought.
It … that …
It is probable/likely that the landscape was occupied over many centuries.
It is possible that the environment was too extreme for year-round habitation.

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P. 73 Task 2.2:
What do tremors
under the surface
of west Antarctica
suggest?
Page 73, TASK
2.2.
thought/ probable/
likely
suggests/ indicates
thought to be

thought/ probable/
likely
suggests/ indicates
Page 73, Task
 Unit-5: Environment (bottom)PAGE 73, Task 2.4

5C:
Task 2: Using hedging language
Writing
4. Rewrite statements 1-6 using the hedging words / phrases in brackets.
Example: Desertification will be a major environmental problem in the future.
(it/ thought)
It is thought that desertification will be a major environmental problem in the future.

1. The universe began to exist about 15 billion years ago. (it/ probable)
_______________________________________________
It is probable that the universe began to exist about 15 billion years ago.
2. There are around a million insect species on Earth. (thought/ be)
There are ____________________________________________________________________________.
thought to be around a million insect species on Earth.
3. Many dinosaurs had feathers, according to a recent discovery. (suggests)
A recent discovery _____________________________________________________________________.
4. Recent research into personality
suggests states
that many genetic had
dinosaurs factors have more influence than environmental factors.
feathers.
(indicates)
Recent research _______________________________________________________________________.
5. By the end of the century, many homes will produce their own electricity. (it /likely)
___________________________________________________________________________
indicates that genetic factors influence human personality more than environmental factors
6. The Japanese giant spider crab lives for up to 100 years. (thought/ live)
The Japanese giant spider crab
By the end of the century, it is likely that many homes will produce their own electricity.

is thought to live for up to 100 years.

Page 29 of 42
 Unit-5: Environment (bottom)PAGE 73, Task 2.5

5C:
Task 2: Using hedging language
Writing
5. Think of key facts in your field of study or in topics you are interested in. Write a sentence for each
using hedging language. Write at least five sentences.
Example: There are thought to be about 300,000 species of plants on Earth.
It is likely that Machu Picchu was built in the mid-15th century.

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 Unit-5: Environment (top)PAGE 74, Task 1

5C: Writing (2)

Task 1: Identifying stance

1. Read Paragraph 2, an extract from a student's essay based on the following title. Decide whether
the writer (a) agrees or (b) disagrees with the statement.
TITLE: 'The only solution to over-population and limited resources is for humans to exploit new environments beyond the
Earth.' Do you agree or disagree with this statement?

Paragraph 2
There is evidence that Mars could support human life if there were long-term missions to the planet in the future. This idea has been
put forward by technocentric thinkers, such as Elon Musk. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to the planet's low
atmospheric pressure and temperature. However, the two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of frozen water and there may also
be a very small amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. Recent missions to the planet indicate that there is also liquid water in the
soil. It appears that about 2% of Martian soil is water. It seems that this is the same all over the planet. This could mean that there is a
permanent water supply for any future human exploration of the planet.

The writer agrees with the statement.

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(top)PAGE 74, Task 1
 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 74, Task 1.2

5C: Writing (2)

Task 1: Identifying stance
1. Evaluate the paragraph using questions 1 and 2.
1. Is the writer's stance clear?
2. Are the supporting examples appropriate?
Answers
1. The stance is clear - expressed in the opening sentence of the paragraph.
2. The supporting examples draw on knowledge of an environment beyond Earth, so are appropriate to the task.

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 Paragraph 2
PAGE 74, Task 2.1 There is evidence that Mars could support human life if there were long-term missions to
the planet in the future. This idea has been put forward by technocentric thinkers, such as
Elon Musk. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to the planet's low
atmospheric pressure and temperature. However, the two polar ice caps appear to be
made largely of frozen water and there may also be a very small amount of water vapour
in the atmosphere. Recent missions to the planet indicate that there is also liquid water in
5C: Writing (2) the soil. It appears that about 2% of Martian soil is water. It seems that this is the same all
over the planet. This could mean that there is a permanent water supply for any future
Task 1: Identifying stance human exploration of the planet.

1. Read Paragraph 2 again. Identify which information in sentences 1-7 is not presented as fact.
1. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars.
2. Mars has low atmospheric pressure and temperature.
3. The two polar ice caps are made of frozen water.
4. There is a small amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
5. About 2% of Martian soil is water.
6. Martian soil contains water all over the planet.
7. There is a permanent water supply for any future human exploration of the planet.
1. Underline the language in Paragraph 2 used to avoid expressing something as an absolute fact.
Example: However, the two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of frozen water ...

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Unit-5: Environment

5C: Writing (2)

Academic  PAGE 74 (BOTTOM)

Language
Hedging (2) appear and seem; modal verbs
In academic writing, we often use seem and appear and the modal verbs can, could, and may to avoid expressing
things as absolute facts.
appear and seem
However, the two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of frozen water…
It seems that this is the same all over the planet.
Modal verbs: can, could, and may
…There may also be a very small amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.
This could mean that there is a permanent water supply for any future human exploration of the planet.

Oxford EAP Pre-Intermediate Page 34 of 42

 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 75, Task 3

5C: Writing (2)

sk 3: Using hedging verbs and modal verbs
1. Rewrite statements 1-7 to avoid expressing them as absolute facts. Use the hedging language in
brackets.
Example: The Arctic Ocean is emitting substantial amounts of methane. ( seems to)
The Arctic Ocean seems to be emitting substantial amounts of methane.
1. A volcanic eruption in the Antarctic will cause sea levels to rise considerably. (could)
A_______________________________________________________________________________
volcanic eruption in the Antarctic could cause sea levels to rise considerably.

2. Drought is the major problem in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. ( seems to)

Drought seems to be the major problem in parts of sub­-Saharan Africa.
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. The surface of the planet Mercury is covered in craters. ( appears to)
The surface of the planet Mercury appears to be covered in craters.
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. The first tools used by humans are over 2.5 million years old. (may)
The first tools used by humans may be over 2.5 million years old.
________________________________________________________________________________
5. The brain uses up to about a fifth of the body's total energy consumption. (can)
___________________________________________________________________________________.
The brain can use up to about a fifth of the body's total energy consumption.
6. University applications are increasing. (it appears)
It________________________________________________________________________________
appears that university applications are increasing.
7. Population growth in China is slowing down. (it seems)
It________________________________________________________________________________
seems that population growth in China is slowing down.
 Why is hedging used in
academic writing?
Statement 1: The archaeologists found Stone Age
camps.
Statement 2: The archaeologists found what are
thought to be Stone Age camps.

Hedging is used by writers and

lecturers in academic contexts
because it is hard to be
absolutely certain of some
things.
 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 75 Task 4

5C: Writing (2)

sk 4: writing a paragraph expressing stance
1. Read Paragraph 3, based on the essay title below. Note down which stance the writer takes.
TITLE: 'Due to limited resources, and an environment '.hat is changing for the worse, humans need to make bold
technological decisions to survive.' Do you agree or disagree with the statement?

Paragraph 3
New research shows that widespread flooding will be a consequence of global warming in Europe by as soon as 2050. Tens of millions
of people are at risk and dozens of cities across Europe will have to build defences to protect against rising sea levels. This kind of
construction will only be possible if we use new technologies to our advantage. During previous floods, traditional methods of dealing
with the problems have completely failed.

2. Underline the words / phrases in Paragraph 3 that could be hedged.

Example: New research shows that widespread flooding will be a consequence of global wanning in Europe by as soon as 2050.

3. Rewrite Paragraph 3 using appropriate hedging language.

Example: New research suggests widespread flooding could be a consequence of global warming in Europe by as soon as
2050.

Oxford EAP Pre-Intermediate Page 36 of 42

 Unit-5: Environment PAGE 75 Task 4

5C: Writing (2)

sk 4: writing a paragraph expressing stance
4. Read the essay title again. Note down three examples to support a stance that (a) agrees and (b)
disagrees with the statement.
Example: Agree - building more nuclear power stations will help generate more energy.
Disagree – we need to limit pollution by using solar power, etc.

5. Write a paragraph of about 80 words using your notes. Make sure it includes:
1. your stance
2. an example with supporting evidence
3. at least three examples of hedging language.

Task 5: evaluating writing

1. Work in pairs. Read your partner's paragraph. Check that they have:
• expressed their stance
• used appropriate hedging language.

Oxford EAP Pre-Intermediate Page 37 of 42

 HEDGING
It is LANGUAGE
Verbs such
probable/ as think,
possible/ believe,
likely/ indicate,
unlikely suggest,
(that) point to
Modal
It appears (that) / verbs may,
It seems (that)/
…appears to be…/
could, and
P. 154 can
…seems to be…
Checkpoint 1 Is it appropriate to use hedging
language when paraphrasing the
paragraph below?
“During the Cultural Revolution in
China beginning in 1966, Mahjong was targeted
as a tradition that led to corruption because of
the gambling involved; the ban was lifted in
1998. As a result of the ban, traditional rules
were abandoned, and the Chinese adopted the
newer rules of Hong Kong, where Mahjong had
become a game for young people. In 1998
Mahjong was officially recognized as a sport and
international tournament rules were created.”
(Carlisle, 2009)
Source:
Carlisle, R. P. (Ed.). (2009). Encyclopedia of Play in Today's Society. SAGE
Publications. https://link.gale.com/apps/pub/2UVM/GVRL?
u=macaucri&sid=bookmark-GVRL
 Paraphrase the highlighted sentence
Checkpoint 2
using hedging language.

“Our findings demonstrate that adolescents view

use of hookah and e-cigarettes as most likely to
help them fit in, and cigars and cigarettes as most
likely to result in them appearing mature.
Perceiving these products as less risky and
more beneficial might be one of the factors
explaining the large increase in rates of use
of hookah and e-cigarettes between 2013 and
2014.” Source:
Roditis, Delucchi, K., Cash, D., & Halpern-Felsher, B. (2016).
Adolescents’ Perceptions of Health Risks, Social Risks, and Benefits
Differ Across Tobacco Products. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(5),
558–566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.01.012
 Summarize the paragraph
Checkpoint 3
using hedging language.
A 2011 report by the Institute of Medicine on the health of LGBT persons identified
substantial disparities in health and access to health care for sexual and gender
minorities. Many LGBT people of all ages report worse physical and mental health
outcomes than heterosexual and non-transgender populations, largely as a result
of the stress caused by being a member of a stigmatized minority group or
because of discrimination due to sexual orientation or gender nonconformity.
Discriminatory environments and public policies stigmatize LGBT people and
engender feelings of rejection, shame, and low self-esteem, which can negatively
affect people's health-related behavior as well as their mental health. LGBT people
living in states that ban same-sex marriage, for instance, are more likely than their
counterparts in other states to report symptoms of depression, anxiety, and
alcohol use disorder.’
Source:
Gonzales. (2014). Same-Sex Marriage — A Prescription for Better Health. The New England Journal of
Medicine, 370(15), 1373–1376. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp1400254