DEVELOPMENT

AL
UNIT-1
THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE
TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT
 This is a dynamic systems approach. Four
assumptions make up this broader view: that
development is (1) lifelong, (2)
multidimensional and multidirectional, (3)
highly plastic, and (4) affected by multiple,
interacting forces.
1. DEVELOPMENT IS LIFELONG: According to the
lifespan perspective, no single age period is supreme
in its impact on the life course. Rather, events
occurring during each major period, can have equally
powerful effects on future change. Within each period,
change occurs in three broad domains: physical,
2. DEVELOPMENT IS MULTIDIMENSIONAL AND
MULTI DIRECTIONAL: From a lifespan perspective, the
challenges and adjustments of development are
multidimensional— affected by an intricate blend of
biological, psychological, and social forces.
Lifespan development is also multidirectional, in at least
two ways. First, development is not limited to improved
performance. Rather, at every period, it is a joint
expression of growth and decline.
Second, besides being multidirectional over time,
change is multidirectional within each domain of
development. For example, some qualities of Sofie’s
cognitive functioning (such as memory) probably
declined in her mature years, her knowledge of both
English and French undoubtedly grew throughout her
life. And she also developed new forms of thinking
 3. DEVELOPMENT IS PLASTIC: Lifespan
researchers emphasize that development is plastic at
all ages. Example of a young student wanting to
pursue career in early 20s, and later wanting to marry
and have a family in late 20s or early 30s.
 Evidence on plasticity reveals that aging is not an
eventual “shipwreck,” as has often been assumed.
Instead, the metaphor of a “butterfly”—of
metamorphosis and continued potential— provides a
far more accurate picture of lifespan change.
 Still, development gradually becomes less plastic, as
both capacity and opportunity for change are
reduced. And plasticity varies greatly across
individuals. Some children and adults
experience more diverse life circumstances
 4. DEVELOPMENT IS INFLUENCED BY MULTIPLE,
INTERACTING FACTORS: According to the lifespan
perspective, pathways of change are highly diverse
because development is influenced by multiple forces:
biological, historical, social, and cultural. Although these
wide‐ranging influences can be organized into three
categories, they work together, combining in unique ways
to fashion each life course.
 Age‐Graded Influences. Events that are strongly
related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when
they occur and how long they last are called age‐graded
influences. For example, most individuals walk shortly
after their first birthday, acquire their native language
during the preschool years, reach puberty around age 12
to 14, and (for women) experience menopause in their
late forties or early fifties. These milestones are
influenced by biology, but social customs—such as
starting school around age 6, getting a driver’s license at
 History‐Graded Influences: Development is also
profoundly affected by forces unique to a particular
historical era. Examples include epidemics, wars, and
periods of economic prosperity or depression;
technological advances, such as the introduction of
television, computers, and the Internet; and changes
in cultural values, such as attitudes toward women
and ethnic minorities. These history‐graded
influences explain why people born around the same
time end to be alike in ways that set them apart from
people born at other times.
 Nonnormative Influences: Age‐graded and history‐
graded influences are normative—meaning typical, or
average— because each affects large numbers of
people in a similar way. Nonnormative influences are
events that are irregular: They happen to just one
 For example: Nonnormative influences that had a
major impact on the direction of Sofie’s life included
piano lessons in childhood with an inspiring teacher;
delayed marriage, parenthood, and career entry; and
a battle with cancer. Because they occur haphazardly,
nonnormative events are difficult for researchers to
capture and study. Yet, as each of us can attest from
our own experiences, they can affect us in
powerful ways.
 Nonnormative influences have become more powerful
and age‐graded influences less so in contemporary
adult development. Compared with Sofie’s era, much
greater diversity exists today in the ages at which
people finish their education, enter careers, get
married, have children, and retire. Indeed, Sofie’s
“off‐time” accomplishments would have been less
 Rather than envisioning a
single line of stagewise or
continuous change, lifespan
theorists conceive of
development more like tree
branches extending in
diverse directions. Many
potential pathways are
possible, depending on the
contexts that influence the
individual’s life course. Each
branch in this treelike image
represents a possible skill
within one of the major
domains of development.
The crossing of the
branches signifies that the
domains—physical,
cognitive, emotional, and
social—are interrelated.