Feminist metaphysics
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Feminist metaphysics aims to question how inquiries and answers in the field of metaphysics have supported sexism. Feminist metaphysics overlaps with fields such as the philosophy of mind and philosophy of self.[1] Feminist metaphysicians such as Sally Haslanger,[2] Ásta,[3] and Judith Butler[3] have sought to explain the nature of gender in the interest of advancing feminist goals.
Another aim of feminist metaphysics has been to provide a basis for feminist activism by explaining what unites women as a group.[4] These accounts have historically centered on cisgender women, but philosophers such as Gayle Salamon,[5] Talia Mae Bettcher[6] and Robin Dembroff[7] have sought to further explain the genders of transgender and non-binary people.
Social constructionism
[edit]Social constructionism emerged in feminism as a response to biological determinist claims of female inferiority.[8] Existentialist philosopher Simone de Beauvoir argues in her seminal work The Second Sex that, although biological features distinguish men and women, these features neither cause nor justify the social conditions which disadvantage women.[3] The distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory is commonly attributed to Beauvoir, although this reading has been contested.[9]
Later theorists would challenge the commitment to the pre-social existence of sex, arguing that sex is socially constructed as well as gender.[3][8] For Monique Wittig, the division of bodies into sexes is the product of a heterosexual society.[10]
There is but sex that is oppressed and sex that oppresses. It is oppression that creates sex and not the contrary. The contrary would be to say that sex creates oppression, or to say that the cause (origin) of oppression is to be found in sex itself, in a natural division of the sexes preexisting (or outside of) society.[11]
— Monique Wittig, "The Category of Sex"
This is expanded by Judith Butler in Gender Trouble. Drawing on post-structuralist theory, Butler criticizes the dependence on a pre-discursive sex upon which gender would be constructed, instead proposing gender as a performative doing.[12]
Psychoanalytic theory
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In This Sex Which is Not One (1977), Luce Irigaray seeks to create a psychoanalytic narrative that incorporates Lacanian ideas while challenging its phallocentric elements.[13] Irigaray contends that women can cultivate a sense of identity and sexuality without needing to conform to phallic ideals, and that the female body is multifaceted and constantly evolving.[13]
Gender performativity
[edit]Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity can be seen as a means to show "the ways in which reified and naturalized conceptions of gender might be understood as constituted and, hence, capable of being constituted differently."[14]: 520 Referencing John L. Austin's speech act theory, Butler argues that gender is socially constructed through acts that are performative in that they serve to define and maintain identities. This view reverses the idea that a person's identity is the source of secondary actions (speech, gestures) – instead, identity is understood as the effect of symbolic communication.[15]
On Butler's hypothesis, the performative aspect of gender is perhaps most obvious in drag performance, which offers a rudimentary understanding of gender binaries in its emphasis on gender performance. Butler understands drag cannot be regarded as an example of subjective or singular identity, where "there is a 'one' who is prior to gender, a one who goes to the wardrobe of gender decides with deliberation which gender it will be today".[16]: 21 Consequently, drag should not be considered the honest expression of its performer's intent. Rather, Butler suggests that what is performed "can only be understood through reference to what is barred from the signifier within the domain of corporeal legibility".[16]: 24
According to Butler, gender performance is subversive because it is "the kind of effect that resists calculation", which is to say that signification is multiplicitous, that the subject is unable to control it, and so subversion is always occurring and always unpredictable.[16]: 29 Rosalyn Diprose lends a hard-line Foucauldian interpretation to her understanding of gender performance's political reach, as one's identity "is built on the invasion of the self by the gestures of others, who, by referring to other others, are already social beings".[17] Diprose implies that the individual's will, and the individual performance, is always subject to the dominant discourse of an Other (or Others), so as to restrict the transgressive potential of performance to the inscription of simply another dominant discourse.[17]
Female energy
[edit]Feminist theologian Mary Daly proposed in her work Gyn/Ecology (1978) the existence of a feminine nature that should be defended against "male barrenness".[18] "Since female energy is essentially biophilic", she writes, "the female spirit/body is the primary target in this perpetual war of aggression against life. Gyn/Ecology is the reclaiming of life-loving female energy."[19]
Janice Raymond had Daly as her advisor when writing The Transsexual Empire (1979), in which she states: "It is not hard to understand why transsexuals want to become lesbian-feminists. They indeed have discovered where strong female energy exists and want to capture it."[20]
Problem of universals
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In the context of feminist metaphysics, the problem of universals led to a division between gender realists and gender nominalists. Elizabeth Spelman identified in the 1980s a predominance of realism in Western feminist theory, which she accused of overlooking the differences between women.[21] Nominalism has since become the hegemonic view.[21][22]
See also
[edit]- Cultural feminism
- Materialist feminism
- Post-structural feminism
- Social constructionism
- Strategic essentialism
References
[edit]- ^ Haslanger, Sally; Sveinsdóttir, Ásta Kristjana (2011). "Feminist Metaphysics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2011 ed.). ISSN 1095-5054. OCLC 224325075.
- ^ Haslanger, Sally (March 2000). "Gender and Race: (What) Are They? (What) Do We Want Them To Be?". Noûs. 34 (1): 31–55. doi:10.1111/0029-4624.00201. ISSN 0029-4624.
- ^ a b c d Sveinsdóttir, Ásta Kristjana (2011), Witt, Charlotte (ed.), "The Metaphysics of Sex and Gender", Feminist Metaphysics: Explorations in the Ontology of Sex, Gender and the Self, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 47–65, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3783-1_4, ISBN 978-90-481-3783-1
- ^ Bach, Theodore (January 2012). "Gender Is a Natural Kind with a Historical Essence". Ethics. 122 (2): 231–272. doi:10.1086/663232. ISSN 0014-1704. S2CID 143867213.
- ^ Salamon, Gayle (2010). Assuming a body: transgender and rhetorics of materiality. New York, NY: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 9780231149594.
- ^ Bettcher, Talia. Power, Nicholas; Halwani, Raja; Soble, Alan (eds.). "Trans Women and the Meaning of "Woman"". The Philosophy of Sex: 233–250.
- ^ Dembroff, Robin (10 August 2019). "Beyond Binary: Genderqueer as Critical Gender Kind" (PDF). Philosopher's Imprint. S2CID 111381570. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2020.
- ^ a b Grosz, Elizabeth (2011). "Refiguring bodies". Volatile bodies: toward a corporeal feminism. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press. ISBN 9780253208620.
- ^ Viveros Vigoya, Mara (2015-01-06). Disch, Lisa; Hawkesworth, Mary (eds.). Sex/Gender. Vol. 1. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199328581.013.42.
- ^ Zerilli, Linda (1990). "The Trojan Horse of Universalism: Language as a "War Machine" in the Writings of Monique Wittig". Social Text (25/26): 146–170. doi:10.2307/466245. ISSN 0164-2472. JSTOR 466245.
- ^ Wittig, Monique (2001). "The Category of Sex". The straight mind and other essays (5. [print.] ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-7917-1.
- ^ Hood-Williams, John; Harrison, Wendy Cealey (February 1998). "Trouble with Gender". The Sociological Review. 46 (1): 73–94. doi:10.1111/1467-954X.00090. ISSN 0038-0261.
- ^ a b Brunner, José (1997). "Fear and Envy: Sexual Difference and the Economies of Feminist Critique in Psychoanalytic Discourse". Science in Context. 10 (1): 129–170. doi:10.1017/S0269889700000302. ISSN 0269-8897. PMID 11619828.
- ^ Butler, Judith (December 1988). "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory". Theatre Journal. 40 (4): 519–531. doi:10.2307/3207893. JSTOR 3207893.
- ^ Cavanaugh, Jillian R. (2015-03-10). Performativity (Report). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0114.
- ^ a b c Butler, Judith (November 1993). "Critically queer". GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies. 1 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1215/10642684-1-1-17.
- ^ a b Diprose, Rosalyn (1994). The bodies of women: ethics, embodiment, and sexual difference. London New York: Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 9780415097833.
- ^ Alcoff, Linda (1988). "Cultural Feminism versus Post-Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory". Signs. 13 (3): 405–436. doi:10.1086/494426. ISSN 0097-9740. JSTOR 3174166.
- ^ Daly, Mary (1978). Gyn-ecology: the metaethics of radical feminism. Boston: Beacon. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-8070-1511-7.
- ^ Raymond, Janice G. (1994). The transsexual empire: the making of the she-male. Athene series (Reissued with a new introduction on transgender, reprint ed.). New York: Teachers College Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-8077-6272-1.
- ^ a b Stoljar, Natalie (2011), Witt, Charlotte (ed.), "Different Women. Gender and the Realism-Nominalism Debate", Feminist Metaphysics, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 27–46, doi:10.1007/978-90-481-3783-1_3, ISBN 978-90-481-3782-4, retrieved 2024-03-06
- ^ Mikkola, Mari (2001). "Elizabeth Spelman, Gender Realism, and Women". Hypatia. 21 (4): 77–96. doi:10.1353/hyp.2006.0054. ISSN 1527-2001.
Further reading
[edit]- Battersby, Christine. The Phenomenal Woman: Feminist Metaphysics and the Patterns of Identity. New York: Routledge, 1998. ISBN 978-0-415-92035-3 OCLC 37742199
- Howell, Nancy R. A Feminist Cosmology: Ecology, Solidarity, and Metaphysics. Amherst, N.Y.: Humanity Books, 2000. ISBN 978-1-573-92653-9 OCLC 36713191
- Raschke, Debrah. Modernism, Metaphysics, and Sexuality. Selinsgrove: Susquehanna University Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-575-91106-9 OCLC 63679917
- Witt, Charlotte. Feminist Metaphysics Explorations in the Ontology of Sex, Gender and the Self. Dordrecht: Springer, 2010. ISBN 978-9-048-137831 OCLC 695386850
- Schües, Christina, Dorothea Olkowski, and Helen Fielding. Time in Feminist Phenomenology. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-253-00160-3 OCLC 747431814
- Witt, Charlotte. The Metaphysics of Gender. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-0-199-74040-6 OCLC 706025098