Hijabophobia
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Hijabophobia is a type of religious and cultural discrimination against Muslim women who wear the hijab.[1] The discrimination has had manifestations in public, working and educational places.
Analysis
[edit]Hijabophobia is a term referring to discrimination against women wearing Islamic veils, including the hijab, chador, niqāb and burqa. It is considered a gender-specific type of Islamophobia,[2][3][1] or simply "hostility towards the hijab".[4] The term is applied to discourse based in colonial representations of Muslim women as victims oppressed by misogynistic cultures in academic circles.[1]
According to The Gazette, hijabophobia began as a French national phenomenon, citing the 1989 headscarf affair (French: l'affaire du foulard).[5] In France, according to Ayhan Kaya, Islamophobia is mixed with hijabophobia.[6] In a 2012 paper, Hamzeh posits that 'hijabophobia' encapsulates the sexist aspects of Islamophobia, in which Muslim women bear the brunt of anti-Muslim attacks.[7]: 25 Other studies referred to the way that the Islamophobia is laced with hijabophobia, creating a scapegoating system in which Muslim women are stimatized for using a hypervisible Islamic symbol.[8][9] The practice of Hijab is also viewed as a submission to the patriarchal discourse that the US media and Western communities stoke it as a part of the Islam religion. In a nutshell, Muslim women veils interfere with the culture of Western communities as being a symbol of extremism, backwardness, and oppression.[10][11]
Political scientist Vincent Geisser argues that hijabophobia became more widespread after the September 11 attacks, as evidenced by the number of laws regulating and restricting the hijab in public places and governmental offices.[12] A study found that Muslim girls in London perceived discrimination when wearing the hijab outside their immediate communities, and felt social pressure to not wear the hijab.[7] In addition, according to the ACLU, 69% of women who wore the hijab reported at least one incident of discrimination, compared to 29% of women who did not wear the hijab.[13]
Manifestations
[edit]Working places
[edit]European Court of Justice
[edit]A ruling by European Union's top law court, European Court of Justice, on 14 March 2017[a] allowed the employers "to ban staff from wearing visible religious symbols"[14] such as the hijab. The decision was criticized for disguising what Muslims described as "a direct attack on women wearing hijabs at work". As a result, by 2017, two women from France and Belgium were dismissed from work since they refused to remove their hijabs. Samira Achbita, a woman from Belgium, was dismissed from working in her company (G4S) as a result of the court ruling.[14] OpenDemocracy argued that the ruling was ostensibly based on the employer's wish "to portray a position of neutrality", and hence the court ruling was a normalization of hijabophobia.[15]
Public places
[edit]There are instances where Muslim dress have been banned in public spaces. The Muslim burqa was banned by local laws in Spain in 2010, though these laws began to be overturned by the Spanish Supreme Court in 2013.[16] Similarly, in 2016, France's Council of State began to overrule a ban on the burkini by over thirty French municipalities as Islamophobic.[17] FIFA's ban of the head cover in 2011–2014 is an example of hijabophobia.[2] In 2018, Austria banned full-face coverings in order to limit the visibility of orthodox Islam. This was criticized by police who were put in the position of charging people for wearing smog and ski masks. France and Belgium have enacted a similar ban since 2011. In 2015, a partial ban was introduced in the Netherlands and the German parliament banned face coverings while driving in September 2017.[18] Hijabophobia also influences the hospitality industry in Malaysia. Hotels believe employees that wear the headdress appear less professional; therefore causing islamophobic policies to be implemented.[19] On February 16, 2021, The National Assembly of France voted in favor of an “anti-separatism” bill that aims to reinforce the secular system in France by banning the wearing of hijabs for women under 18 while in public. In response, #handsoffmyhijab has been spreading across social media platforms. [20]
Schools
[edit]In 1994, the French Ministry for Education sent out recommendations to teachers and headmasters to ban Islamic veil in educational institutions. According to a 2019 study by the Institute of Labor Economics, more girls with a Muslim background born after 1980 graduated from high school after the ban was introduced.[21]
In October 2018, Austria banned headscarves for children in kindergarten. The ban was motivated by protecting children from family pressure to wear the headscarf.[22] According to an Austrian teachers' union, a ban for pupils aged up to 14 years should be considered, as that is the religious legal age (German: religionsmündig).[22]
In Quebec, public servants, including teachers, are banned from wearing religious garments, such as a kippa, hijab or turban at work.[23]
In January 2022, a number of colleges in South-Indian state of Karnataka stopped female students wearing a hijab from entering the campus. The issue has since then snow-balled into a major political controversy in India.[24] On 15 March 2022, through a highly controversial verdict, the Karnataka High Court upheld the hijab ban in educational institutions as a reasonable restriction of fundamental rights.[25][26]
Brands
[edit]In 2019, Decathlon, a French sportswear brand, made the decision to not sell hijab sportswear in France, following opposition to the clothing line from figures such as health minister Agnes Buzyn, who voiced her distaste for the garment on a radio show.[27]
Sports
[edit]Hijabophobia has led female athletes to be ineligible in sporting events due to wearing a hijab. One example is FIFA's 'hijab ban' crisis. The Iranian women's national soccer team was disqualified from the 2012 Olympics because the players wore hijabs.[28] Another example is unravelling in the French soccer league, as it is the only international body to exclude hijab-wearing women from practising the sport.[29]
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ The court verdict: "the prohibition on wearing an Islamic headscarf, which arises from an internal rule of a private undertaking prohibiting the visible wearing of any political, philosophical or religious sign in the workplace, does not constitute direct discrimination based on religion or belief within the meaning of that directive."
References
[edit]- ^ a b c Hamzeh, Manal (2012). Pedagogies of Deveiling: Muslim Girls and the Hijab Discourse. IAP. ISBN 9781617357244. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ a b Manal, Hamzaeh (1 July 2017). "FIFA's double hijabophobia: A colonialist and Islamist alliance racializing Muslim women soccer players". Women's Studies International Forum. 63: 11–16. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2017.06.003. ISSN 0277-5395.
- ^ MOHAMED-SALIH, Veronica. "Stereotypes regarding Muslim men and Muslim women on the Romanian Internet: a qualitative comparative analysis for 2004-2009 and 2010-2015" (PDF). Journal of Gender and Feminist Studies (4). Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ Shebaya, Halim (15 March 2017). "The European Court Has Normalized Hijabophobia". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 4 September 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ Proceedings of the Fourth and Fifth Annual Symposia of the Institute of Islamic and Arabic Sciences in America. IIASA. 1999. ISBN 9781569230220. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- ^ Kaya, Ayhan (2012). Islam, Migration and Integration: The Age of Securitization. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137030221. Archived from the original on 15 December 2019. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
- ^ a b Keddie, Amanda (2017). Supporting and Educating Young Muslim Women: Stories from Australia and the UK. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317308539. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ Alimahomed-Wilson, Sabrina (1 April 2017). "Invisible Violence: Gender, Islamophobia, and the Hidden Assault on U.S. Muslim Women". Women, Gender, and Families of Color. 5 (1): 73–97. doi:10.5406/womgenfamcol.5.1.0073. ISSN 2326-0939. S2CID 157235368.
- ^ Keddie, Amanda (4 July 2018). "Disrupting (gendered) Islamophobia: the practice of feminist ijtihad to support the agency of young Muslim women". Journal of Gender Studies. 27 (5): 522–533. doi:10.1080/09589236.2016.1243047. ISSN 0958-9236. S2CID 152069404.
- ^ Joosub, Noorjehan; Ebrahim, Sumayya (August 2020). "Decolonizing the hijab: An interpretive exploration by two Muslim psychotherapists". Feminism & Psychology. 30 (3): 363–380. doi:10.1177/0959353520912978. ISSN 0959-3535. S2CID 218810235.
- ^ Dankook University; Eum, IkRan (10 October 2017). "Korea's response to Islam and Islamophobia: Focusing on veiled Muslim women's experiences". Korea Observer - Institute of Korean Studies. 48 (4): 825–849. doi:10.29152/KOIKS.2017.48.4.825.
- ^ Cesari, Jocelyne (2014). The Oxford Handbook of European Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199607976. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 4 September 2018.
- ^ "ACLU". Archived from the original on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
- ^ a b "Employers allowed to ban the hijab: EU court". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 12 September 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
Employers are entitled to ban staff from wearing visible religious symbols, the European Union's top law court ruled on Tuesday, a decision Muslims said was a direct attack on women wearing hijabs at work.
- ^ "The European Court has normalized 'Hijabophobia'". openDemocracy. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 29 January 2020.
- ^ Ferschtman, Maxim; de la Serna, Cristina (22 March 2013). "Case Watch: Spanish Supreme Court Repeals City Burqa Ban". Case Watch. Open Society Foundations. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
- ^ Bittermann, Jim; McKenzie, sheena; Shoichet, Catherine E. (26 August 2016). "French court suspends burkini ban". CNN. Turner Broadcasting System, Inc. Archived from the original on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 13 October 2018.
- ^ Oltermann, Philip (27 March 2018). "Austrian full-face veil ban condemned as a failure by police". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
- ^ Finieli, Salsabilla Terra; Hasan, Rusni; Zain, Nor Razinah Mohd (20 December 2018). "Hijabophobia: A Closed Eye Challenge towards Muslim Friendly Hospitality Services in Malaysia". Malaysian Journal of Syariah and Law. 6 (3): 1–9. doi:10.33102/mjsl.vol6no3.87. ISSN 2590-4396. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
- ^ "'Law against Islam': French vote in favour of hijab ban condemned". Aljazeera. Archived from the original on 20 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021.
- ^ "Effects of banning the Islamic veil in public schools". newsroom.iza.org. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 27 December 2019.
- ^ a b "Kopftuchverbot für Volksschüler: "Prüfen derzeit"". krone.at (in German). 25 October 2018. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2018.
- ^ "Teachers turned away over religious symbols ban as school year begins". CBC. 9 September 2019. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2019.
- ^ "Karnataka's hijab row: A fragile regime's latest assault on right to choice". The News Minute. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
- ^ "Karnataka High Court hijab verdict lacks reason, makes up baseless new rules for fundamental rights". The Quint. Archived from the original on 18 March 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2022.
- ^ "Hijab verdict: a grave constitutional wrong". Deccan Herald. Archived from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2022.
- ^ Seale, Alexander (28 February 2019). "Decathlon capitulates to French hijabophobia". trtworld.com. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
- ^ Hamzeh, Manal (July 2017). "FIFA's double hijabophobia: A colonialist and Islamist alliance racializing Muslim women soccer players". Women's Studies International Forum. 63: 11–16. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2017.06.003.
- ^ OLOW, FADUMO (9 April 2021). "France's hijab ban threatens to strip sport of its ability to empower". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2021.