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Snakebites in Latin America
[edit]Snake envenoming is considered a public health problem in Latin America, where an estimated 70,000 bites occur each year. [1]
Epidemiological aspect
[edit]People most affected are those who live in poor agricultural areas, most often with men and young people, although accidents occur with all ages, with most bites occurring on the feet and hands. Most accidents happen during rainy periods, when agricultural activities are started. Indigenous communities are also vulnerable due to difficult access to health centers. In Central America, Panama records the highest number of annual bites, around 2,000. In South America it is Brazil, registering 26,000 to 29,000, second to Venezuela with 7,000, and Colombia with 4,000. Brazil and Costa Rica apparently have higher lethality rates, 0.42% and 0.5% respectively.[2]
Most important species
[edit]Most accidents are caused by snakes of the family Viperidae (Bothrops and Crotalus mainly) with 138 species of viperidae in Latin America. In Brazil, 70-90% of accidents are caused by Bothrops species. The most important are Bothrops asper known as the Fer-de-Lance or Terciopelo, found in Mexico, Central America and north South America, Bothrops atrox or Common lancehead edemic to the amazon, and Bothrops jararaca found in Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay. Other important species in South America include B. alternatus, B. moojeni, B. neuwied and B. jararacussu. In Brazil, the mortality rate reported by Bothrops is 0.39%, while that of rattlesnakes is 0.98%, Few accidents are caused by Bushmasters (Lachesis), but the mortality rate is high.
Few accidents are caused by elapids in Latin America, which are represented by coral snakes, of the genera Leptomicrurus (Amazonia) Micruroides (Mexico), Micrurus which is the most widely distributed, and sea snakes, with one species, the Yellow-bellied sea snake, found in Mexico, Central America and north South America. Coral snakes represent only 1-2% of elapid accidents in the region, with M. nigrocinctus, M. miparitus, M. lemniscatus, M. frontalis, M. corallinus and M. spixii being the main ones, while bites by Hydrophis platurus are extremely rare. [3]
Venom
[edit]Bothrops venom is composed of coagulating, anticoagulant, hemorrhagic, hemotoxic and cytotoxic agents.[4] But also myotoxins. The South American rattlesnake has neurotoxins, myotoxins and coagulants.[5] While that of Bushmaster, it has proteolytic, coagulant, hemorrhagic and neurotoxic activity. [6] Coral snake venom is a potent neurotoxin, causing neuromuscular block.[7] The yellow-bellied sea snake is extremely venomous, the venom of which contains neurotoxins and myotoxins.[8]
Symptomatology
[edit]Bothrops venom is mainly composed of proteolytic, coagulant, hemorrhagic activity, causing several symptoms, such as pain, edema, ecchymosis, blisters and local hemorrhage, in severe cases, tissue necrosis can lead to amputation. Systemic effects include severe bleeding, anuria, nausea, vomiting, pressure drop and shock. Symptoms such as kidney failure, septcemia, disseminated intravascular coagulation and cerebral hemorrhage are the main causes of death.
The venom of the South American rattlesnake has three activities, neurotoxic, myotoxic and low coagulant activity, neurotoxic symptoms are characterized by ptosis, flaccidity of the facial muscles, diplopia, ophthalmoplegia, in rare cases velopalatine paralysis occurs, the myotoxic action is responsible for causing generalized rhabdomyolysis, with muscle pain and myoglobinuria, the coagulant action results in blood incoagulobility, and slight gingival bleeding, other manifestations influence malaise, tiredness, sweat, vomiting, nausea, feeling of dry mouth and sleepy aspect. The main complications include tubular necrosis with renal failure and respiratory paralysis.
Lachesis's bite is rare, but serious, due to the high amounts it injects, the manifestations are similar to Bothrops, at the site of the bite there is pain and edema, hemorrhagic bubbles, vesicles and necrosis. Systemic effects include visual disturbances, dizziness, low blood pressure, reduced heart rate, abdominal pain and diarrhea. In the location of the bite, in severe cases, compartment syndrome, necrosis, secondary infection, obsessions and functional deficit may occur.
Symptoms of coral bites can appear in less than an hour or more, at the site the symptoms are mild, with mild pain and paresthesia, systemic manifestations include loss of progressive muscle strength, vomiting, ptosis, ophthalmoplegia and myasthemic facies. Generalized myalgia may occur, velopalatine paralysis, which results in difficulty in swallowing, in more severe cases, flaccid paralysis of the respiratory muscles, resulting in severe respiratory failure, with death occurring quickly.[9]
The venom of Hydrophis platurus causes damage to skeletal muscle, resulting in myoglobinuria, neuromuscular paralysis and kidney damage.[10]
Other important species
[edit]Other genera of medical importance include Bothriechis (palm vipers), which are of arboreal habits, found in Mexico, central America and northern South America.It has a venom of hemotoxic activity, causing local damage, such as severe pain, blisters, bruises and even gangrene.[11] B. schlegelii is the most widespread and venomous of Bothriechis genus, with hypotensive, procoagulant, necrotoxic, myotoxic and hemorrhagic activity, symptoms include local pain, swelling, ecchymosis, local bleeding and blisters, severe cases including blood incoagulobility, systemic hemorrhage (including bleeding in the brain), necrosis, compartment syndrome, pressure drop, shock, loss of coagulation factors (disseminated intravascular coagulation), renal failure and multiple organ dysfunction.[12] The genus agkistrodon, found in Latin America from Mexico to northwestern Costa Rica.[13] Agkistrodon bilineatus, is one of the main causes of bites in its geographic reach, the reported symptoms of the bite include severe pain, local bleeding, edema, nasal and gingival bleeding, petechiae, hematuria, shock, renal failure and necrosis.[14]
Prevention
[edit]The use of leather shoes, boots and gloves can help to reduce accidents.[15]
References
[edit]- ^ Sant’Ana Malaque, Ceila Maria; Gutiérrez, José María (2016), Brent, Jeffrey; Burkhart, Keith; Dargan, Paul; Hatten, Benjamin (eds.), "Snakebite Envenomation in Central and South America", Critical Care Toxicology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–22, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20790-2_146-1, ISBN 978-3-319-20790-2, retrieved 2020-10-02
- ^ Sant’Ana Malaque, Ceila Maria; Gutiérrez, José María (2016), Brent, Jeffrey; Burkhart, Keith; Dargan, Paul; Hatten, Benjamin (eds.), "Snakebite Envenomation in Central and South America", Critical Care Toxicology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–22, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20790-2_146-1, ISBN 978-3-319-20790-2, retrieved 2020-10-02
- ^ Sant’Ana Malaque, Ceila Maria; Gutiérrez, José María (2016), Brent, Jeffrey; Burkhart, Keith; Dargan, Paul; Hatten, Benjamin (eds.), "Snakebite Envenomation in Central and South America", Critical Care Toxicology, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–22, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20790-2_146-1, ISBN 978-3-319-20790-2, retrieved 2020-10-02
- ^ "Os venenos das serpentes e seus efeitos". Blog do NUROF-UFC (in European Portuguese). 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2020-10-02.
- ^ Bueno, L. G. F.; Leite, G. B.; Cruz-Höfling, M. A.; Rodrigues-Simioni, L.; Oshima-Franco, Y. (00/2007). "Effects of manganese (Mn2+) on neurotoxic and myotoxic activities induced by Crotalus durissus terrificus and Bothrops jararacussu venoms in chick biventer cervicis preparations". Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases. 13 (2): 479–499. doi:10.1590/S1678-91992007000200007. ISSN 1678-9199.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Pardal, Pedro Pereira de Oliveira; Bezerra, Ismael Silva; Rodrigues, Liliam da Silva; Pardal, Joseana Silva de Oliveira; Farias, Paulo Henrique Seabra de (2007-03). "Acidente por Surucucu (Lachesis muta muta) em Belém-Pará: Relato de caso". Revista Paraense de Medicina. 21 (1): 37–42. ISSN 0101-5907.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ http://www.dive.sc.gov.br/conteudos/agravos/publicacoes/ProtocoloClinicoAcidenteSerpenteElapidae2014.pdf
- ^ News, Opening Hours Closed to the public until Spring 2020 Address 1 William StreetSydney NSW 2010 Australia Phone +61 2 9320 6000 www australian museum Copyright © 2020 The Australian Museum ABN 85 407 224 698 View Museum. "Yellow-bellied Sea Snake". The Australian Museum. Retrieved 2020-10-02.
{{cite web}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Pinho, F. M. O.; Pereira, I. D. (2001-03). "Ofidismo". Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira (in Portuguese). 47 (1): 24–29. doi:10.1590/S0104-42302001000100026. ISSN 0104-4230.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Zheng, J.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, S.; Zhao, Y.; Li, W.; Yan, C. (2019-10). "EP.125SCN4A mutation causes episodic myotonia and persistent paralysis with internalized blood vessels in skeletal muscle". Neuromuscular Disorders. 29: S204. doi:10.1016/j.nmd.2019.06.583. ISSN 0960-8966.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Bothriechis". Características, Hábitat y Reproducción. (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2020-10-02.
- ^ Galofre-Ruiz, Mario. "ENVENOMATION CAUSED BY THE BITE OF THE SNAKE BOTHRIECHIS SCHLEGELII. REPORT OF TWO CASES IN COLOMBIA". Case reports. 3 (1): 1–7.
- ^ "Agkistrodon". Características, Hábitat y Reproducción. (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2020-10-02.
- ^ Campbell, Jonathan A.; Lamar, William W. (2004). The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Comstock Pub. Associates. ISBN 978-0-8014-4141-7.
- ^ Pinho, F. M. O.; Pereira, I. D. (2001-03). "Ofidismo". Revista da Associação Médica Brasileira. 47 (1): 24–29. doi:10.1590/S0104-42302001000100026. ISSN 0104-4230.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)