The emergence of the interdisciplinary field of salivary bioscience has created opportunity for neonatal researchers to measure multiple components of biological systems non-invasively in oral fluids. The implications are profound and potentially high impact. From a single oral fluid specimen, information can be obtained about a vast array of biological systems (e.g., endocrine, immune, autonomic nervous system) and the genetic polymorphisms related to individual differences in their function. The purpose of this review is to describe the state of the art for investigators interested in integrating these unique measurement tools into the current and next generation of research on gonadal steroid exposure during the prenatal and neonatal developmental periods.

The emergence of the interdisciplinary field of salivary bioscience has created opportunity for neonatal researchers to measure multiple components of biological systems non-invasively in oral fluids. The implications are profound and potentially high impact. From a single oral fluid specimen, information can be obtained about a vast array of biological systems (e.g., endocrine, immune, autonomic nervous system) and the genetic polymorphisms related to individual differences in their function. The purpose of this review is to describe the state of the art for investigators interested in integrating these unique measurement tools into the current and next generation of research on gonadal steroid exposure during the prenatal and neonatal developmental periods.

Cortisol output in response to emotion induction procedures was examined at child age 24 months in a prospective longitudinal sample of 1,292 children and families in predominantly low-income and nonurban communities in two regions of high poverty in the United States. Multilevel analysis indicated that observed emotional reactivity to a mask presentation but not a toy removal procedure interacted with sensitive parenting to predict cortisol levels in children. For children experiencing high levels of sensitive parenting, cortisol output was high among children exhibiting high emotional reactivity and low among children exhibiting low emotional reactivity. For children experiencing low levels of sensitive parenting, cortisol output was unrelated to emotional reactivity.

Psychosocial stressors like intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure are associated with increased risk of childhood asthma. Longitudinal studies have not investigated the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity (and associated alterations in cortisol release) in the child IPV exposure-asthma association. We sought to investigate this association, and to assess whether this relationship differs by child HPA reactivity. This secondary analysis used longitudinal cohort data from the Family Life Project. Participants included 1,292 low-income children and mothers; maternal interview and child biomarker data, including maternal report of IPV and child asthma, and child salivary cortisol obtained with validated stress reactivity paradigms, were collected when the child was 7, 15, 24, 35, and 48 months. Using structural equation modeling, maternal IPV when the child was 7 months of age predicted subsequent reports of childhood asthma (B=0.18, p=.002). This association differed according to the childs HPA reactivity status, with IPV exposed children who were HPA reactors at 7 and 15 months of age--defined as a ≥10% increase in cortisol level twenty minutes post peak arousal during the challenge tasks and a raw increase of at least .02μg/dl--being significantly at risk for asthma (7 months: B=0.17, p=.02; 15 months: B=0.17, p=.02). Our findings provide support that children who are physiologically reactive are the most vulnerable to adverse health outcomes when faced with environmental stressors.

BACKGROUND: Advancing understanding of the developmental origins of neuroendocrine-immune (NEI) functioning is key to elucidating the biological mechanisms involved in health and disease risk across the lifespan. This study examined whether prenatal maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity moderates child NEI relations and explored the consistency of this moderating effect across gestation. METHODS: Pregnant women participated in five prenatal study visits from 24 to 38 weeks gestation. At each visit, women provided a saliva sample. In a 5-year follow-up study, children (nfemale = 25, nmale=20) provided four saliva samples and participated in behavioral assessments and challenge tasks. Prenatal maternal saliva samples were assayed for cortisol. Child saliva samples were assayed for cortisol and cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα) as indices of HPA and inflammatory activity. Multilevel mixed-effects models examined the moderation of child NEI relations by prenatal maternal cortisol. RESULTS: Among males, average prenatal maternal cortisol did not moderate child NEI relations. Among females, average prenatal maternal cortisol moderated some child NEI relations with higher prenatal cortisol associated with more positive cortisol-cytokine relations at age five. When examined by gestational time point, there were more significant NEI moderation effects by maternal cortisol from later gestation (≥ 30 weeks) than earlier. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest prenatal maternal HPA activity may moderate child NEI functioning. Additional research conducted with more heterogeneous and larger samples is needed to fully understand these relations. Furthering our knowledge of NEI development has important research and clinical implications, particularly for understanding and addressing conditions with inflammatory pathophysiologies, such as depression and cardiovascular disease.

Cortisol output in response to emotion induction procedures was examined at child age 24 months in a prospective longitudinal sample of 1,292 children and families in predominantly low-income and nonurban communities in two regions of high poverty in the United States. Multilevel analysis indicated that observed emotional reactivity to a mask presentation but not a toy removal procedure interacted with sensitive parenting to predict cortisol levels in children. For children experiencing high levels of sensitive parenting, cortisol output was high among children exhibiting high emotional reactivity and low among children exhibiting low emotional reactivity. For children experiencing low levels of sensitive parenting, cortisol output was unrelated to emotional reactivity.

Background

Advancing understanding of the developmental origins of neuroendocrine-immune (NEI) functioning is key to elucidating the biological mechanisms involved in health and disease risk across the lifespan. This study examined whether prenatal maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity moderates child NEI relations and explored the consistency of this moderating effect across gestation.

Methods

Pregnant women participated in five prenatal study visits from 24 to 38 weeks gestation. At each visit, women provided a saliva sample. In a 5-year follow-up study, children (n_female = 25, n_male=20) provided four saliva samples and participated in behavioral assessments and challenge tasks. Prenatal maternal saliva samples were assayed for cortisol. Child saliva samples were assayed for cortisol and cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα) as indices of HPA and inflammatory activity. Multilevel mixed-effects models examined the moderation of child NEI relations by prenatal maternal cortisol.

Results

Among males, average prenatal maternal cortisol did not moderate child NEI relations. Among females, average prenatal maternal cortisol moderated some child NEI relations with higher prenatal cortisol associated with more positive cortisol-cytokine relations at age five. When examined by gestational time point, there were more significant NEI moderation effects by maternal cortisol from later gestation (≥ 30 weeks) than earlier.

Conclusions

The findings suggest prenatal maternal HPA activity may moderate child NEI functioning. Additional research conducted with more heterogeneous and larger samples is needed to fully understand these relations. Furthering our knowledge of NEI development has important research and clinical implications, particularly for understanding and addressing conditions with inflammatory pathophysiologies, such as depression and cardiovascular disease.

Psychosocial stressors like intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure are associated with increased risk of childhood asthma. Longitudinal studies have not investigated the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity (and associated alterations in cortisol release) in the child IPV exposure-asthma association. We sought to investigate this association, and to assess whether this relationship differs by child HPA reactivity. This secondary analysis used longitudinal cohort data from the Family Life Project. Participants included 1,292 low-income children and mothers; maternal interview and child biomarker data, including maternal report of IPV and child asthma, and child salivary cortisol obtained with validated stress reactivity paradigms, were collected when the child was 7, 15, 24, 35, and 48 months. Using structural equation modeling, maternal IPV when the child was 7 months of age predicted subsequent reports of childhood asthma (B=0.18, p=.002). This association differed according to the child's HPA reactivity status, with IPV exposed children who were HPA reactors at 7 and 15 months of age--defined as a ≥10% increase in cortisol level twenty minutes post peak arousal during the challenge tasks and a raw increase of at least .02μg/dl--being significantly at risk for asthma (7 months: B=0.17, p=.02; 15 months: B=0.17, p=.02). Our findings provide support that children who are physiologically reactive are the most vulnerable to adverse health outcomes when faced with environmental stressors.