The teachings formulated by Mo Di, or “Mozi” in 430 BCE, were the earliest ethical and political theories in China. Central elements of this thought iThe teachings formulated by Mo Di, or “Mozi” in 430 BCE, were the earliest ethical and political theories in China. Central elements of this thought include a unified advocacy of an ethical and political order grounded in consequentialism that emphasizes impartial concern for all (undifferentiated love); active opposition to military aggression and harm to others; support for a centralized, authoritarian state led by a virtuous and benevolent sovereign and administered by a hierarchical, merit-based bureaucracy; and reverence for and obedience to Heaven and the ghosts of folk religion.
After the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE), this philosophy declined, disappearing completely by the mid-Han Dynasty, when Confucianism gained imperial support. It was not until the 19th century that Mozi was rediscovered and his teachings reevaluated....more
Admired for the beauty of her writing style, Sappho ranks with Archilochus and Alcaeus, among Greek poets, for her ability to impress readers with a lAdmired for the beauty of her writing style, Sappho ranks with Archilochus and Alcaeus, among Greek poets, for her ability to impress readers with a lively sense of her personality. Her language contains elements from Aeolic vernacular speech and Aeolic poetic tradition. Her phrasing is concise, direct, and picturesque. She has the ability to stand aloof and judge critically her own ecstasies and grief, and her emotions lose nothing of their force by being recollected in tranquillity.
As the goal of the Sapphic thiasos is the education of young women, especially for marriage, Aphrodite is the group’s tutelary divinity and inspiration. Sappho is the intimate and servant of the goddess and her intermediary with the girls. In the ode to Aphrodite, the poet invokes the goddess to appear, as she has in the past, and to be her ally in persuading a girl she desires to love her. Frequent images in Sappho’s poetry include flowers, bright garlands, naturalistic outdoor scenes, altars smoking with incense, perfumed unguents to sprinkle on the body and bathe the hair—that is, all the elements of Aphrodite’s rituals.
In Sappho’s poetry love is passion, an inescapable power that moves at the will of the goddess; it is desire and sensual emotion; it is nostalgia and memory of affections that are now distant, but shared by the community of the thiasos....more
Detailed study of virtue grounded in an investigation into the nature of rhetoric, art, power, temperance, and justice. As such, the dialogue maintainDetailed study of virtue grounded in an investigation into the nature of rhetoric, art, power, temperance, and justice. As such, the dialogue maintains an independent meaning and relates closely to Plato's overarching philosophical project of defining noble and proper human existence. It exists in the form of a mostly friendly (although sometimes blunt) conversation between Socrates and four fellow citizens. Chaerephon, an apparent contemporary of Socrates, is found talking to Plato's teacher at the beginning of the dialogue, but says little else during the conversation. Callicles, another of Socrates' peers (and here his harshest insulter), is Gorgias' host, as well as Socrates' adversary near the end of the argument. Gorgias is the famous orator (after whom this text is named), whose questioning serves as a catalyst for the debates around which Gorgias is centered. And Polus is Gorgias's inexperienced and eager student. It must be remembered that although the dialogue represents a fictional interaction, Socrates was in fact Plato's teacher. As a result, this character's words for the most part should be taken as indicative of actual Socratic structure and presentation, as well as serving as an expression of Plato's own positions.
Socrates wishes to question Gorgias about the scope and nature of rhetoric, so the two head to Callicles' house, where the great sophist can be found. The intense discussion that follows leads to the more general consideration of true versus false arts, a distinction based on the existing good as distinct from the pleasant. Although this is the first hint of the difference between the two notions, the point is not developed until much later in the dialogue.
The second part delves into the true essence of power, with the eventual conclusion that it exists both in a total lack of necessity and in the ability to perform only those actions that he/she independently desires. In this sense, for example, a tyrannical leader has no real power, because he must carry out actions (such as executions) as long as they are good for the state – not because the ruler independently desires them.
This specific inquiry quickly leads to the definition of what is the worst evil a person can commit, with the eventual determination that no evil outweighs inflicting evil and escaping punishment. Herein lies the text's first suggestion of an overarching question of right and wrong, a question that eventually results in a mapping of virtue.
The next general portion contains a divergence from the rest of Gorgias' more typical investigative tone. Callicles spends a lot of time chastising Socrates and the fact that such an adult man would remain immersed in the pursuit of philosophy. Apparently Callicles sees this continued practice as a disgrace to adults. Here, more than anywhere else in the work, Socrates' search for truth is directly threatened by the prevailing beliefs of his contemporaries.
The fourth section follows the participants' investigation into the nature and value of temperance and justice. In this discussion, Socrates provides a somewhat abstract logical proof of the distinction between the good and the pleasant, thus resolving an issue begun in the first main section of the dialogue. For Plato and his teacher, the chaos of contemporary Greek society (especially in Athens) was based on the majority not recognizing this fundamental difference. This widespread carelessness, in turn, leads to a confusion of flattery by art, persuasion by truth, and other similar illusions. The conversation continues to conclude the topic with a rationale for proper existence in temperance and justice....more
Terence wasn't a mere translator of his Greek models, he showed both originality and skill in the incorporation of material from secondary models, as Terence wasn't a mere translator of his Greek models, he showed both originality and skill in the incorporation of material from secondary models, as well as occasionally perhaps in material of his own invention. Second, his Greek models probably had expository prologues, informing their audiences of vital facts, but Terence cut them out, leaving his audiences in the same ignorance as his characters. This omission increases the element of suspense.
Striving for a refined but conventional realism, Terence eliminated or reduced such unrealistic devices as the actor’s direct address to the audience. He preserved the atmosphere of his models with a nice appreciation of how much Greekness would be tolerated in Rome, omitting the unintelligible and clarifying the difficult. His language is a purer version of contemporary colloquial Latin, at times shaded subtly to emphasize a character’s individual speech patterns. Because they are more realistic, his characters lack some of the vitality and panache of Plautus’ adaptations; but they are often developed in depth and with subtle psychology. ...more
Confucian text, named for its author. Though the book was not generally recognized as a classic until the 12th century, a doctoral chair was establishConfucian text, named for its author. Though the book was not generally recognized as a classic until the 12th century, a doctoral chair was established as early as the 2nd century bce to teach the Mencius. When Zhu Xi, a great Neo-Confucian philosopher, published the Mencius together with three other Confucian texts in 1190, he created the classic known as Si shu (“Four Books”).
The book records the doings and sayings of the author and contains statements on the innate goodness of human nature. It also addresses the proper concerns of government and maintains that the welfare of the common people should come before every other consideration....more
Considered to be the most reliable source of the doctrine of the ancient sage Confucius (551–479 bc). It covers almost all the basic ethical concepts Considered to be the most reliable source of the doctrine of the ancient sage Confucius (551–479 bc). It covers almost all the basic ethical concepts “benevolence”, “the superior man”, “heaven”, “doctrine of the mean”, “proper conduct”, “adjustment to names”. The last inculcates the notion that all phases of a person’s conduct should correspond to the true significance of “names”—e.g., marriage should be true marriage, not concubinage.
Among many direct quotations attributed to Confucius is one explaining filial piety (xiao). If xiao means nothing more than providing for parents, said Confucius, even dogs and horses do that; xiao does not exist without genuine respect for parents. ...more
In Amphitruo, Mercury in a long monologue, urges viewers to listen carefully to the play, thus, he explains that the play is a tragicomI love Plautus.
In Amphitruo, Mercury in a long monologue, urges viewers to listen carefully to the play, thus, he explains that the play is a tragicomedy because there are gods, heroes, mythological scenes, but also slaves, comical situations. This is the first time in literary history that this generic expression is used. During this monologue, Plautus makes us believe that it is the real Jupiter who will play, another way to have a silent and respectful audience. Mercury explains the piece to us, the project of his father Jupiter, it is the real exhibition scene in this work.
This piece is characterized by its originality. She takes up a mythological story to introduce it into a farce. The Jupiter-Alcmene-Amphitryon trio thus corresponds to the traditional trio of the farce genre, the lover, the mistress and deceived husband.
Mostellaria - The Ghost
Philolaches has borrowed a lot of money to buy the freedom of the slave-girl he loves. One day, he is having a house party with his friends, when his slave Tranio interrupts the merry-making to announce that Philolaches' father has returned unexpectedly and will arrive from the harbour at any minute. Amid the general panic, Tranio has an idea. He hustles Philolaches and his friends into the house and locks the door. The father now arrives. Tranio greets him respectfully but pretends that it is dangerous to enter the house because it is haunted by the ghost of a man once killed there.
Rudens - The Rope
Palaestra, stolen from her parents by pirates, is reunited with her father, Daemones, ironically, by means of her pimp, Labrax. The story is, however, far more complex; in particular, humour is derived from the interactions between slaves and masters, and the changes in friendships throughout. ...more
Aristotle inaugurates in the Constitution of the Athenians a research that he wanted to be as scientific as possible of the political evolution of AthAristotle inaugurates in the Constitution of the Athenians a research that he wanted to be as scientific as possible of the political evolution of Athens, the scholar places his personal preferences always behind the search for truth.
The first part of the work, constitutes an account of the various evolutions of the constitution of the Athenians. Aristotle begins at the trial of the Alcmaeonides, in -632, and goes until 403 BC. The author relies in particular on the works of Herodotus, Thucydides and Androtion, among others, without enslaving himself to any of them.
The philosopher also draws information from works of partisan argument for the political struggle, and from official documents, or, when these are lacking, from the remaining institutions that he tries to interpret. The sources to which he has recourse being sometimes in disagreement because of their partiality, either in favor of the democrats or the oligarchs, Aristotle seeks in most cases to reconcile them by retaining in each of them what he thinks to be their some truth; despite the disparities or contradictions that may result from such a method.
The second part of the book deals with the institutions of the city. Aristotle is first interested in the right of citizenship, which includes the conditions of access to citizenship, then he addresses issues related to the organization of institutions, such as the magistracies and finally the courts....more
Sanskrit for “Song of God" is an episode recorded in the great Sanskrit poem of the Hindus, the Mahabharata. It occupies chapters 23 to 40 of Book VI Sanskrit for “Song of God" is an episode recorded in the great Sanskrit poem of the Hindus, the Mahabharata. It occupies chapters 23 to 40 of Book VI of the Mahabharata and is composed in the form of a dialogue between Prince Arjuna and Krishna, an incarnation of the god Vishnu. Composed perhaps in the 1st or 2nd century ce.
On the brink of a great battle between warring branches of the same family, Arjuna is suddenly overwhelmed with misgivings about the justice of killing so many people, some of whom are his friends and relatives, and expresses his qualms to Krishna, his charioteer—a combination bodyguard and court historian. Krishna’s reply expresses the central themes of the Gita. He persuades Arjuna to do his duty as a man born into the class of warriors, which is to fight, and the battle takes place. Krishna’s argument incorporates many of the basic teachings of the Upanishads, speculative texts compiled between 1000 and 600 bce, as well as of the philosophy of Samkhya Yoga, which stresses a dualism between soul and matter (mind-body dualism). He argues that one can kill only the body; the soul is immortal and transmigrates into another body at death or, for those who have understood the true teachings, achieves release (moksha) or extinction (nirvana), freedom from the wheel of rebirth. Krishna also resolves the tension between the Vedic injunction to sacrifice and to amass a record of good actions (karma) and the late Upanishadic injunction to meditate and amass knowledge (jnana). The solution he provides is the path of devotion (bhakti). With right understanding, one need not renounce actions but merely the desire (kama) for the fruits of actions, acting without desire (nishkama karma).
The moral impasse is not so much resolved as destroyed when Krishna assumes his doomsday form—a fiery, gaping mouth, swallowing up all creatures in the universe at the end of the eon—after Arjuna asks Krishna to reveal his true cosmic nature. In the middle of this terrifying epiphany, Arjuna apologizes to Krishna for the many times when he had rashly and casually called out to him as a friend. He begs Krishna to return to his previous form, which the god consents to do, resuming his role as intimate human companion of the warrior Arjuna....more