Technical Report Writing
A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
The basis of modern English is old English or Anglo-
Saxon, a Germanic language spoken by the invaders of
the British Isles in the 5th century AD.
The pronunciation of old English words differs
considerably from that of their modern equivalents.
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
Would you recognize these words?
Old English Modern English
halig holy
gan go
ban bone
rap rope
hiaf loaf
bat boat
fot foot
cene keen
fyr fire
riht right
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
Over a period of time, words stopped being used in a
particular context. Instead, they would crop up in a
new context. This resulted in a change of meaning.
The word manuscript originally meant ‘that which is
written by hand’ (from the Latin ‘manu’, ‘by hand’, and
‘scriptus’, ‘written’), but today it refers also to material
written on a typewriter or computer. Another example
is the word place. O.E: “open space in a city,
market place, square”.
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
Word Original meaning
citizen city-dweller
fellow associate
box boxwood
junk old rope
bead prayer
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
There is another category of words where the meaning
has become restricted. ‘Wife’ originally meant ‘woman’
but is now restricted to a very special one.
Word Original meaning
deer animal
meat food
lesson reading
liquor liquid
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
Closely connected with expansion and restriction of
meaning is the change whereby a concrete word has
taken an abstract meaning, or an abstract term has
become more concrete.
An apposite example is the word humor, which in
medieval medicine was thought to be one of the four
fluids responsible for one’s health and disposition.
This word now refers to ‘temperament’ and ‘mood’
Thus shifting from a concrete to an abstract meaning.
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
Through the ages, words have risen or fallen on the social
scale by a process called pejoration and amelioration.
In the first instance, words that had a favorable implication
may ‘degenerate’ in meaning.
Word Original meaning
silly soul
foolish blessed fool
In modern English, they have acquired such negative
connotations that they are virtually banned from polite
conversation.
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
The opposite of this process, that is, amelioration and
elevation of meaning also happens.
Take some commonly used adjectives, like fond, nice, and
naughty
Fond was used by Shakespeare in the sense of foolish.
Nice (means ignorant) meant stupid, but later acquired a
pleasant connotation
Naughty literally meant ‘naught-like’, that is, worthless,
and it meant only that. Later it was used in the sense of
wicked, but nowadays it has weakened to a mild term of
reproach.
Words keep getting added to this list, and therefore, you
should constantly attempt to expand your vocabulary
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A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORDS
Slang is another category of language, very informal in nature.
Most people use slang, at times, to convey humor or sound
forceful or vivid.
Slang Meaning
a blue moon rare phenomenon
peg drink of brandy and water
never say die don’t despair
mind your eye be careful
mug up get by heart
I feel very fit well
in a wax angry
tin money
on the top moving
all serene all right
no go of no use
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Active and Passive Vocabulary
Your vocabulary, or the words that you know, can be
broadly divided into two categories: active and passive.
Words that fall into your active vocabulary are those that
you know well and feel confident about using in your
speech and writing.
Our passive vocabulary consists of words that we have
heard or read and understand, but do not feel too
confident about using.
To increase your active vocabulary, you must move words
from your passive to your active vocabulary by consciously
using them.
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Active and Passive Vocabulary
You can also increase your passive vocabulary by reading
widely or watching and listening to more serious programs
on television and radio.
An even more systematic way to improve your vocabulary is
to fit every new words you come across in a pattern:
Its grammatical class and usage
Its etymology (or origin of the word)
Which other words it combines with
Its exact meaning and how it relates to words with similar
meanings
Social situations where it can or cannot be used
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
While writing effectively comes as naturally as breathing to
some people, many others struggle with ‘writer’s block’ or
produce reams of poorly structured writing that confuse and
irritate their readers.
Good technical knowledge needs to be packed up by an equally
good writing style.
Broadly speaking, style is the way we write.
It is not only the ‘what’ of words but also the ‘how’.
Style varies from one individual to another in the selection,
arrangement, and execution of words.
However, some features of style are common to all good writers.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Clarity of thought is the most important feature of
writing style.
In the words of Walter Wells, ‘There should be no
vagueness, not the slightest doubt or confusion over
what the message says, not even for an instant’. (1985)
Before your hands do your work, let your mind do its
own.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
The other important factor you must always bear in
mind is your audience— who are you writing for?
Considering the topic from the reader’s point of view
will help you in determining the kind of language you
must use, level of formality and so on.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Adaptability
This is something that does not come naturally to any of
us, as when we think of concepts, ideas, and words, we
tend to think only from our point of view.
We work hard to put thoughts into words.
Whichever word comes to our mind, we immediately
give it a form and put it down on paper.
It might make sense to those whose perception is exactly
the same as ours but everyone else would interpret it in a
completely different way.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Adaptability
To adapt your communication, you have to analyze
your audience or receiver.
You should be aware of their intelligence level,
educational level, and also of their maturity level.
Knowing all these factors makes it easy for you to select
words that will effectively communicate to them.
Bearing these aspects in mind, first classify the audience
as hi-tech, low-tech, or lay.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Adaptability
Audience Level Choice of word & phrases Example
High-tech Use jargon, acronyms, or HCL corrodes pipes.
abbreviation without
explanation.
Low-tech Use jargon, acronyms, or HCL (hydrochloric
abbreviation with acid) corrodes pipes.
parenthetical definition.
Lay Avoid jargon, acronyms, and Concentrated acid
abbreviation. Instead, define damages the pipes and
technical terms elaborately therefore should not be
and give a brief explanation. used.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Another aspect of your writing that cannot be
neglected is spelling.
Why does spelling matter?
Many people feel that too much importance is
attached to correct spelling.
Why, for example, should a student writing an exam
be penalized for wrong spelling, when he is being
evaluated for his knowledge of science or history?
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
But the fact is that spelling is important.
Incorrect spelling conveys a poor impression of you as
a communicator.
It distracts the reader from getting your message.
Worse, it can convey the wrong meaning or no
meaning at all.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
There are many ways in which you can improve your
spelling:
A dictionary is your most useful tool for checking and
improving spelling. We have already discussed dictionaries in
the previous section.
Write regularly, using the words which you tend to misspell.
Always check the spellings, whether you are writing personal
or work-related messages.
You can improve spelling through your reading. Books are a
safer bet, so are magazines. Newspapers, produced in a hurry,
tend to have more errors.
Use mnemonics (pronounced nc-mon-ik)-—a set of words
that help you remember how to do something, e.g.
an island is land in water (island corresponds to is land)
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Often one word is confused with another which it
somewhat resembles. This is called malapropism.
Some examples of malapropism are the following:
When should I accept you next? (expect)
An ellipse of the sun occurred only yesterday. (eclipse)
A memorial battle was fought at Quebec in 1757. (memorable)
Gladiators are iron things which give out heat. (radiators)
Centimetre is an insect with hundred legs. (centipede)
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Clarity
The aim of good technical writing is clarity
If your memos, letters, and reports are unclear, you have
wasted your reader’s time.
Clarity can be achieved by providing specific details, writing
in the active rather than passive voice, and avoiding
acronyms, jargon, and obscure words.
Choose precise, concrete, and familiar words.
Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Economy of words is the third factor you should bear
in mind.
Selecting the word that fits best into the context,
avoiding wordiness, and using one’s judgment in
deciding the appropriate length of sentences and
paragraphs all go into making your writing a piece of
effective communication.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Economy
Wordy sentences are like a maze in which your readers
can get lost.
Worse, they might give up reading your correspondence
altogether, or merely skim through it.
On the other hand, economy with words will make your
writing understandable and appealing.
This will enhance readers’ interest and involvement.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Economy
Look at this wordy sentence: “To learn the functioning of
the machinery, you should not perfunctorily read the
brochure, rather, perspicacious learning will enable you
to know the exactness of functioning”.
Does this sentence clearly convey its meaning?
Obviously not, because it contains far too many words,
several of them unfamiliar as well.
The better version is... “To know the functioning of the
machinery you have to vet the brochure thoroughly
rather than go through it cursorily”.
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ELEMENTS OF STYLE
Economy
As the writer, it is up to you to decide how long or short
your sentences should be, depending on the complexity
of the subject.
Nevertheless, bear in mind that long sentences hinder
comprehension.
As a general guideline, a paragraph need not contain
more than 50 words.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
The following guidelines will help you to achieve clarity
and economy in your writing.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Familiar Words
An important element in the use of words is the
selection of familiar words— words that are commonly
used in daily language.
Here one must rely on one’s judgement to decide which
words are more familiar.
A rule of thumb is to avoid stiff and difficult words as far
as possible.
For example, instead of using the word annihilate, use
destroy, instead of using corroborate, use verify and say
outdated instead of antiquated.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Familiar Words
Many writers fall into the trap of using high-sounding,
pompous words in the belief that this makes their works
more impressive.
In fact, such writing confuses the reader.
Particularly in business and technical communication,
there is no room for such writing.
The rapid pace of work life today demands that writing
be informal in tone, brief precise, and easy to grasp.
The writer must keep in mind the target readers and
cater to the lowest common denominator of this group.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Familiar Words
A famous lecturer was once asked the formula of success in
public speaking.
‘Well’, he said, ‘in promulgating your esoteric cogitations and
articulating superficial, sentimental and psychological
observations, beware of platitudinous ponderosity. Let your
extemporaneous decantation and unpremeditated expatiations
have intelligibility and veracious veracity without rodomontade
and thrasonical bombast. Sedulously avoid all polysyllabic
profundity pusillanimous vacuity and similar transgressions. Or
to put it a bit differently,’ he concluded,
‘talk simply, naturally, and above all, don’t use my words’!
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Familiar Words
The following examples show you how sentences can be
simplified using familiar expressions.
Example I
Original: Antiquated machinery was utilized for
experimentation.
Revised: Old machines were used for the test.
Example 2
Original: Company operations for the preceding accounting
period terminated with substantial deficit.
Revised: The company lost much money last year.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Concrete and Specific Words
Concrete and specific words are always preferable to abstract
words.
Concrete words permit a limited interpretation and convey
more definite meaning.
They tend to be more forceful, direct, and to the point, while
abstract words tend to be general and vague, and digress from
the point.
Good business communication is marked by words that have
clear meanings.
Concrete words stand for things that exist in the real world,
like chair, desk, automobile, flowers, the Taj Mahal, and so
on.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Concrete and Specific Words
Abstract words, on the other hand, cover broad
meanings—concepts, ideas, and feelings.
Instead of saying ‘The company suffered a tremendous
loss in the second quarter of last year”, it would make
more sense to directly say “The company suffered a 70%
loss in profits in the second quarter of last year”.
Quantifying the loss in the above example makes the
information more useful and creates a better impact.
Otherwise, it hardly conveys much meaning.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Concrete and Specific Words
Sometimes a sentence is correct in grammatical construction
but can be interpreted in a number of ways.
This is called structural ambiguity.
For example, ‘Lying at the bottom of the pool, I saw a gold
coin.’
Similarly ambiguity arises because of choice of words—the
word you have selected has multiple meanings.
This is called lexical ambiguity.
For example, The giant plant collapsed damaging many
buildings.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Concrete and Specific Words
Here is a list of some commonly used ambiguous words
you should avoid:
Nice
Big
All right
Picture
Any time
Adequate
Quite a bit
Progress
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Concrete and Specific Words
The examples below show you how ambiguous words and
phrases can be substituted to sound specific and clear:
Abstract Concrete
An industrial worker A welder
Furniture An arm chair
Good attendance record 100% attendance record
The leading company First among 3928 companies
The majority 73%
In the near future By Thursday noon
Substantial amount Rs 1,98,00,000 37
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Abbreviations Sparingly
An abbreviation is formed by combining the first letter
of each word in a phrase.
For example, WHO is the abbreviation for World Health
Organization.
We are all familiar with other abbreviations like FBI
(Federal Bureau of Investigation), POTA(Prevention of
Terrorism Act), PAF (Pakistan Air Force), and IBM
(International Business Machines).
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Abbreviations Sparingly
While working in your chosen field, you will learn its
technical terms and abbreviations.
In due course, you will use these terms and
abbreviations freely in communicating with people m
the same area of work.
While abbreviations help you to achieve brevity and are
necessary in technical documents, too much
dependence on them leads to loss of clarity.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Use Abbreviations Sparingly
Whether you are writing a technical document or sending an
informal electronic mail, to avoid turning your document into
gobbledygook, remember the following:
Introduce abbreviations the first time you use them by defining
them in full, parenthetically.
Restrict the number of abbreviations in individual sentences.
When addressing non-expert readers, try to avoid using more
than one abbreviation in a sentence.
Use the full term for an abbreviation when beginning a new
section or when the term has not been used for several pages in
your technical document.
If you are using many potentially confusing abbreviations, define
them in a separate glossary (an alphabetized list of terms,
followed by their definitions). 40
GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Clichés
Clichés are overused words and phrases that have lost their
appeal.
Just as nobody likes to use a coin worn out by constant use,
similarly nobody likes hackneyed, once-fashionable phrases
that add little or no meaning to what we say.
Some well-known clichés are: food for thought, teeming
millions, last but not the least, fishing in troubled waters, and
to burn the midnight oil.
Writing becomes unimpressive and stale when you resort to
an indiscriminate usage of clichés. Hence avoid using them in
your technical communication.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Clichés
Example 1
Original: The report discusses threadbare the problem of
Air Pollution in Pakistan,
Revised: The report discusses the problem of Air Pollution in
Pakistan in detail
Example 2
Original: The Engineers left no stones unturned to
construct the bridge in time.
Revised: The Engineers worked very hard to construct the
bridge in time.
But remember a few clichés convey the idea so effectively that
it becomes extremely difficult to improve upon them or think
of a substitute.
So the key is, if you find a cliché which best expresses your
meaning, then use it unhesitatingly.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Excessive Use of Jargon
Jargon is defined as ‘language full of technical or special
words’.
Every profession has its own jargon.
Doctors communicate with each other in medical terms
which are seldom understood by the common man.
Similarly software professionals, resort to the use of
computer-related jargon.
The use of jargon is acceptable so long as the communication
takes place among colleagues in the same field or profession.
But to sustain the interest of a large readership it is necessary
to minimize or avoid the use of jargon since the reader may
not be a specialist in the subject.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Excessive Use of Jargon
It is undoubtedly difficult to communicate technical matter in
non-technical language.
But the ability to do so can be acquired with practice.
Jargon is most often used on the false premise that complex
ideas cannot be expressed without the use of highly technical
language.
But, in effect, jargon only helps to widen the semantic gap
between the professional and the layman.
One of the hallmarks of effective communication is its ability to
reach a population larger than that for which it is intended.
If such is the goal, excessive use of jargon has little role to play.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Excessive Use of Jargon
The following rules will help you while using Jargon:
When a word or a phrase from the general vocabulary
expresses your thought as well and as precisely as a specialized
term, always use the general term.
Even if the specialized term is more precise and economical
than the general term, do not use it unless you are sure that
the reader would understand it.
When you have to use the specialized term repeatedly, define
it carefully at its first appearance.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Excessive Use of Jargon
The following ‘examples show some technical jargon and the
corresponding meaning for laypersons:
Technical Jargon Familiar Expressions
Accrued interest Unpaid insurance
Annual premium Annual payment
Assessed valuation Value of property for tax
Charge to your principal Increase balance of your loan
Conveying title Signing and recording a deed
Maturity date Final payment date
Per diem Daily
Mach-2 Twice the speed of sound
Catalysis Accelerated decomposition or
composition of a substance
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Foreign Words and Phrases
Like jargon, some writers use foreign words and phrases to
flabbergast readers and to impress them about the writer’s
scholarship.
Such phrases are falsely believed to impart a sense of dignity to the
writing.
It makes little sense to use words like vide supra or raison d’etre in
place of better understood English equivalents like ‘see above’ and
‘the justification for’ respectively.
Some foreign words are unavoidable and are also universally
understood and accepted.
Some examples are: etc. (etcetera), i.e. (id est), e.g. (exampli gratia),
a.m. (ante meridiem), p.m. (post meridian), and so on . It is not
wrong therefore to use such words or phrases.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Redundancy and Circumlocution
Often it is seen that writers tend to use unnecessary words or resort
to needless repetition of an idea.
This makes the writing redundant.
Redundancy is the part of a message that can be eliminated without
loss of much information.
Some examples of redundancy are—the superfluous words are
italicized—basic fundamentals, return back, adequate enough,
resume again, the month of May, few in number, detailed perusal,
true fact and so on.
Superfluity in writing is also brought about by beating around the
bush or writing in a circumlocutory or roundabout fashion.
In these cases the entire sentence needs to be rewritten in order to
make it crisp and precise.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Redundancy and Circumlocution
Examples
Original: Unemployment decline, which has continued over
the past four months, indicates that the recession has
bottomed and the upturn in the economy is a fact.
Revised: The strong reversal of unemployment trends
indicates an improvement in the economy.
Original: It is not believed that the proposed design will meet
all the required specifications based on the previous test
experiences obtained in the laboratory
Revised: Lab tests indicate that the proposed design will not
meet all requirements.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Discriminatory Writing
In today’s all-inclusive society, it is wrong on a writer’s part to
alienate a section of the masses through the usage of
discriminatory words.
Such writing is offensive and does not speak well of the
author’s open-mindedness.
All too prevalent are sexist words—words that differentiate
people based on their sex.
Although this form of discrimination can be against both
sexes, most instances involve discrimination against women,
the reason being that a large number of words suggest male
superiority and chauvinism.
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Discriminatory Writing
A sentence like ‘A student in KMC does his homework
well before coming to class’ shows a sexist bias,
considering the fact that KMC is a co-educational
institute!
The use of masculine pronouns can be eliminated in
three ways:
Rewording the sentence: ‘A student in KMC does the assigned
homework well before coming to classes.’
By making a dual reference: ‘A student in KMC does his or her
home work .
Make the reference plural: ‘Students in KMC do their
homework …’
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GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVENESS
Avoid Discriminatory Writing
Words that stereotype by race, nationality or sexual orientation
must also be avoided.
Statements like ‘Jews are miserly’, ‘Muslims are jihad-lovers’,
‘Negroes do menial jobs’, ‘Harijans are meant to be suppressed’,
‘Italians are Mafia members’, and ‘Gays are perfectionists’ do no
good to enhance the writer’s image.
Also, it is no longer acceptable to use words that stereotype by age
or typecast people with disabilities.
Terms like ‘deaf and dumb’, ‘mentally retarded’, and ‘handicapped’
sound highly insensitive.
Gentler and more humane words like ‘physically challenged’ or
‘mentally challenged’ convey the same meaning but with a greater
degree of sensitivity
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Conclusion
Choosing simple words
Using words with precision
Making a conscientious effort to express yourself plainly
Say what you mean and no more
Frills and verbal tricks, unfamiliar words, inflated or worn
out phrases, and needless repetition should not be allowed
to creep into your writing.
In the words of Charles C. Cotton, ‘The writer does the
most, who gives the reader the most information and takes
from him the least time’.
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THE END
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