CARL JUNG

Collective Unconscious

“If you call me an occultist because I am  Has roots int the ancestral past of the entire species

seriously investigating religious, mythological, folkloristic and  Human’s innate tendency to react in a particular way
philosophical fantasies in modern individuals and ancient whenever their experiences stimulate a biologically
texts, then you are bound to diagnose inherited response tendency

Freud as a sexual pervert since he is doing likewise with  More or less same for people in all cultures
sexual fantasies.”
 Active and influence a person’s thoughts, emotions, and
actions

ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY  Humans come into the world with inherited

predispositions to act or react in certain ways if their
-rests on the assumption that occult phenomena can and do
present experiences touch on these biologically based
influence the lives of everyone
predispositions
-essentially a psychology of opposites (each person is a
 At first, they are “forms without content, representing
composition of opposing forces), and self-realization is the
merely the possibility of a certain type of perception and
process of integrating the opposite poles into a single
action.” With more repetition these form begin to
homogeneous individual
develop some content and to emerge as relatively
autonomous archetypes

Individuation Archetypes

 A kind of psychological rebirth  Are ancient or archaic images that derive from the
collective unconscious.
 The goal of the psyche
 Generalized and derive from the contents of the
 Formed by our individual experiences and is therefore collective unconscious
unique to each of us
 Have a biological basis but originate through the
repeated experiences of humans’ early ancestors
Conscious  Expresses itself through dreams, fantasies and delusions
 Sensed by the ego (saw ego as the center of  Dreams are the main source of archetypal material
consciousness, but not the core of personality)
 Instincts - an unconscious physical impulse toward
 Self, the center of personality that Is largely action and the psychic counterpart to archetypes
unconscious
 Consciousness play a relatively minor role in analytical
Persona
psychology, and an overemphasis on expanding one’s
conscious psyche can lead to psychological imbalance  The side of personality that people show to the world

 Complete self and public self

Personal Unconscious  To become psychologically healthy, we must strike

BALANCE between the demands of society and what
 Embraces all repressed, forgotten, or subliminally
we truly are
perceived experiences of one particular individual

 Formed by our individual experiences and is therefore

unique to each of us True, we must acknowledge society, but if we over identify
with our persona, we lose touch with our inner self and
 Complexes - contents of the personal unconscious;
remain dependent on society’s expectations of us.
emotionally toned conglomeration of associated ideas;
individualized components of PU
Shadow  on the other hand, people who are overpowered by their
unconscious are often PATHOLOGICAL, with one-sided
 The archetype of darkness and repression
personalities
 Represents those qualities we do not wish to
 To actualize or fully experience the self, people must
acknowledge but attempt to hide from ourselves and
overcome their fear of the unconscious; prevent their
others.
persona from dominating their personality; recognize
 We must continually strive to know our shadow and the dark side of themselves (their shadow); and then
that this quest is our first test of courage. It is easier to muster even greater courage to face their anima or
project the dark side of our personality onto others, to animus.
see in them the ugliness and evil that we refuse to see
in ourselves
The essential thing is to differentiate oneself from these
Anima
unconscious contents by personifying them, and at the same
 The feminine side of men time to bring them into relationship with consciousness. Their
autonomy is a most uncomfortable thing to reconcile oneself
 Represents irrational moods and feelings to, and yet the very fact that the unconscious presents itself in
that way gives us the best means of handling it.
 Appears in dreams, visions, and fantasies in a
personified form

Development of Personality
All humans are psychologically bisexual and posses both a
masculine and a feminine side.
Childhood

AnarchicPhase
Animus
 chaotic and sporadic consciousness; islands of
 Masculine archetype of women consciousness may exist
 Symbolic of thinking and reasoning  enter consciousness as primitive images incapable of
being accurately verbalized
 The explanation for the irrational thinking and illogical
opinions often attributed to women Monarchic phase
 If a woman is dominated by her animus , no logical or  development of the ego and by the beginning of logical
emotional appeal and verbal thinking; children see themselves objectively
Self  often refer to themselves in the third person
 Each person possesses an inherited tendency to move  ego is perceived as an object but perceiver is not aware
toward growth, perfection, and completion of it.
 the archetype of archetypes because it pulls together Dualistic phase
the other archetypes and unites them in the process of
self-realization  ego is divided into the objective and subjective; children
now refers to themselves as the firs person
 Includes both personal and collective unconscious
images and thus should not be confused with the ego,  are aware of their existence as separate individuals
which represents consciousness only
 Islands of consciousness become continuous land,
 Many people have an overabundance of consciousness inhabited by an ego-complex that recognizes itself as
and thus the lack of “soul spark” of personality; that is both object and subject
they fail to realize the richness and vitality of their
personal unconscious and especially of their collective
unconscious. Youth

 the period from puberty until middle life

 strive to gain psychic and physical independence from  The process of “coming to self-hood” means that a
their parents, find a mate, raise a family, and make a person has all psychological components functioning in
place in the world. unity, with no psychic process atrophying.

 A period of increased activity, maturing sexuality,  People who have gone through the process have
growing consciousness, and recognition that the achieved realization of the self, minimized their persona,
problem-free era of childhood IS GONE FOREVER !!! recognized their anima or animus, and acquired a
workable balance between introversion and
 major difficulty is to overcome the natural tendency to
extraversion.
cling to the narrow consciousness of childhood, thus
avoiding problems pertinent to the present time of life.  The self-realized person must allow the unconscious
self become the core of personality ; achieves balance
 Conservative Principle - the desire to live in the past
between all aspects of personality (unconscious and
conscious).

Middle life Self-realized people are able to contend with both their
external and their internal worlds. Unlike psychologically
 35-40 disturbed individuals, they live in the real world and make
necessary concessions to it. However, unlike average people,
 The sun has passed its zenith and begins its downward
they are aware of the regressive process that leads to
descent
self-discovery. Seeing unconscious images as potential
 Period of tremendous potential material for new psychic life, self-realized people welcome
these images as they appear in dreams and introspective
reflection.
We cannot live in the afternoon of life according to the
programme of life’s morning; for what is great in the morning
will be little at evening, and what in the morning was true will Active imagination
at evening have become a lie.
 Useful technique for people who want to become better
acquainted with their collective and personal
unconscious and who are willing to overcome the
Old Age resistance that ordinarily blocks open communication
 People experience a diminution of consciousness just as with the unconscious.
the light and warmth of the sun diminish at dusk

 Jung believed that death is the goal of life and that life
can be fulfilling only when death is seen in this life
ALFRED ADLER

INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
A young man who does not fight and conquer
- each person is UNIQUE AND INDIVISIBLE
has missed the best part of his youth
- individual psych insists on the fundamental unity of
And an old man who does not know how to listen to the personality and the notion that inconsistent behavior does
secrets of the brooks, as they tumble down from the peaks of not exist
the valleys, makes no sense; he is a spiritual mummy who is
nothing but a rigid relic of the past. - Presents an optimistic view of people while resting heavily
on the notion of social interest, that is, a feeling of oneness
with all humankind.
Self-Realization

 Also called psychological rebirth or individuation  People are motivated mostly by social interest, that is, a
 The process of becoming an individual or whole person feeling of oneness with all humankind

 People are largely responsible for who they are

 Present behavior is shaped by people’s view of the
future
Striving for Personal Superiority
 Healthy people are aware of what they are doing and
 Strive for personal gain
why they are doing
 Their strivings are motivated by exaggerated feeling of
personal inferiority (inferiority complex)
People are born with weak, inferior bodies - a condition that
leads to feelings of inferiority and a consequent dependence
on other people. Striving for Success

 Motivated by social interest and the success of all

human kind
Main Tenets
 Concerned with goals beyond themselves
 1 dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving
for success or superiority  Capable of helping others; Maintain a sense of self
 People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior  Personal worth is tied closely to thei.zr contributions to
and personality human society
 Personality is unified and self-consistent

 The value of all human activity must be seen from a Subjective Perceptions
viewpoint of social interest
 People’s striving for superiority is not shaped by reality
 The self-consistent personality structure develops into a but their subjective perceptions of reality or fictions
person’s style of life (expectations of the future)
 Style of life is molded y people’s creative power

The whole person strives in a self-consistent fashion toward a

single goal, and all separate actions and functions can be
People strive toward a final goal of either personal
understood only as parts of this goal. The disturbance of one
superiority or goal of success for all humankind.
part of the body cannot be viewed in isolation; it affects the
entire person

Final Goal

 fictional and has no objective existence Organ Dialect

 Neither genetically or environmentally determined  The deficient organ expresses the individual’s goal

 Product of creative power (person’s ability to FREELY  The body organs “speak a language which is usually
shape their behavior and create their personality) more expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion
more clearly than words are able to do.”

 E.g. aman suffering from rheumatoid arthritis in his

Adler (1956) used the analogy of the playwright who builds
hands. His stiff and deformed joints voice his whole
the characteristics and the subplots of the play according to
style of life. It is as if they cry out, “See my deformity.
the final goal of the drama. When the final scene is known, all
See my handicap. You can’t expect me to do manual
dialogue and every subplot acquire new meaning. When an
work.” Without an audible sound, his hands speak of his
individual’s final goal is known, all actions make sense and
desire for sympathy from others.
each subgoal takes on new significance

We cannot oppose “consciousness” to “unconsciousness” as if

The Striving Force as Compensation
they were antagonistic halves of an individual’s existence. The
 Adler believed that ALL humans are BLESSED at birth conscious life becomes unconscious as soon as we fail to
with small, weak, and inferior bodies.
understand it—and as soon as we understand an unconscious  Second, as opposed to Freud’s rather paternalistic
tendency it has already become conscious theory that emphasizes the power and control of the
father, object relations theory tends to be more
maternal, stressing the intimacy and nurturing of the
Gemeinschaftsgefühl mother.

 Oneness with all humanity  Third, object relations theorists generally see human
contact and relatedness—not sexual pleasure—as the
 Membership in the social community of all people prime motive of human behavior.
 Social interest, social feeling, community feeling

 Originates from the mother-child relationship during  Mahler’s work was concerned with the infant’s struggle
early months of infancy to gain autonomy and a sense of self;
 the yardstick for measuring psychological health  Kohut’s, with the formation of the self;
 THE SOLE CRITERION OF HUMAN VALUES  Bowlby’s, with the stages of separation anxiety;

 Ainsworth’s, with styles of attachment.

SAFEGUARDING TENDENCIES

 People hide their inflated self-image and to maintain Object of the drive
their current style of life
 any person, part of a person, or thing through which the
 Largely conscious and shield a person’s fragile aim is satisfied.
self-esteem from public disgrace

 Only with reference to the construction of neurotic

symptoms  phantasies

 objects

Masculine protest - the belief that men are superior to  position ways of dealing with both internal and
women is a fiction that lies at the root of many neuroses external objects.

MELANIE KLEIN OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY The two basic positions are:

 the paranoid-schizoid position - a way of organizing

experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of
 Freud > 4-6 years being persecuted and a splitting of internal and external
objects into the good and the bad.
 Klein empahsized the importance of the first 4-6 months
after birth  depressive position - the feelings of anxiety over losing
a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting
 Sullivan - bad mother good mother
to destroy that object constitute
 Klein - bad breast good breast

Object relations theory is an offspring of Freud’s instinct

ABRAHAM MASLOW (motivation)
theory, but it differs from its ancestor in at least three
general ways. HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY
 First, object relations theory places less emphasis on  Humanistic Theory
biologically based drives and more importance on
consistent patterns of interpersonal relationships.  Transpersonal Theory

 Third force in psychology

 Fourth force in personality  they have a striving or motivational character

 Needs theory (Prepotency - the quality or state of being)

 Self-actualization theory 1. Physiological Needs

2. Safety

 adopted a holistic approach to motivation: That is, the 3. Love and Belongingness
whole person, not any single part or function, is
4. Esteem
motivated.
5. Self-Actualization

HDT assumes that the whole person is constantly being

motivated by one need or another and that people have the  A truly hungry person will not be overly particular about
potential to grow toward psychological health taste, smell, temperature, or texture of the food.
(self-actualization).

 BASIC ANXIETY - when people are not successful in their

(On marrying his first cousin...) This story should not be seen attempts to satisfy their safety needs
as a recommendation for marrying one’s first cousin, but it
does illustrate how brilliant people sometimes need only a
small shove to reach their potential.
 People who have received only a little amount of love
have a stronger needs for affection and acceptance than
do people who have received either a healthy amount of
 criticized both psychoanalysis and behaviorism for their love or no love at all.
limited views of humanity and their inadequate
understanding of the psychologically healthy person.

 his research on dominance and sexual behavior of TW0 LEVELS OF ESTEEM NEEDS
monkeys suggested that social dominance was a more
Reputation - the perception of the prestige, recognition, or
powerful motive than sex.
fame a person has achieved in the eyes of others

Self-esteem - a person's OWN feelings of worth and

ASSUMPTIONS confidence; reflects a "desire for strength, for achievement,
for adequacy, for mastery and competence, for confidence in
1. Holistic approach to motivation the face of the world, and for independence and freedom.
2. Motivation is usually complex

3. People are continually motivated by one need or another THREE OTHER CATEGORIES OF NEEDS
4. All people are motivated by the same basic needs 1. Aesthetic Needs
5. Needs can be arranged on a hierarchy 2. Cognitive Needs

3. Neurotic Needs
Hierarchy of Needs

 a concept that assumes that lower level needs must be  motivated by the need for beauty and aesthetically
satisfied or at least relatively satisfied before higher pleasing experiences
level needs become motivators.
 desire to know, solve mysteries, to understand, and to
be curious (a pathology that takes the form of if need is
not satisfied)
Conative Needs / Basic needs

 the five needs composing the hierarchy

 leads to stagnation and pathology; they perpetuate an B-values (BEING VALUES)
unhealthy style of life and have no value in the striving
 metaneeds to indicate that they are ultimate level of
for self-actualization
needs

 external people are motivated by eternal verities

Maslow believed that even though all behaviors have a cause,
 expressive rather than coping behavior
some behaviors are not motivated. In other words, not all
determinants are motives.  experience existential illness when metaneeds are not
met

Deprivation of any of the B-values results in meta

EXPRESSIVE BEHAVIOR - UNMOTIVATED
pathology, or the lack of a meaningful philosophy of life.
 frequently unconscious and takes place naturally

COPING BEHAVIOR
15 TENTATIVE QUALITIES THAT CHARACTERIZE
 ordinarily conscious, effortful, learned, and determined
SELF-ACTUALIZING PEOPLE TO AT LEAST SOME DEGREE
by the external environment; serves some aim or goal,
and is motivated by some deficit need

1. More Efficient Perception of Reality

METAPATHOLOGY the absence of values, the lack of  easily detect phoniness
fulfillment, and the loss of meaning of life; pathology cause
by the deprivation of self-actualization  discriminate between genuine and fake

 less afraid with the unknown

INSTINCTOID NEED human needs that are innately  greater tolerance for ambiguity
determined

2. Acceptance of Self, Others and Nature

HIGHER LEVEL NEEDS
 lack phoniness and self-defeating guilt
 love, esteem, self-actualization
 tolerate weakness in others and are not threatened by
others' strength

CRITERIA FOR SELF_ACTUALIZATION

 they were free from psychopathology 3. Spontaneity, Simplicity, and Naturalness

 had progressed through the hierarchy of needs  ordinarily live simple lives in the sense that they have no
need to erect a complex veneer designed to deceive the
 embracing the B-value (truth, beauty, justice, simplicity, world
humor, etc.)
 unpretentious and not afraid or ashamed to express joy,
 full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, awe, elation, sorrow, anger, or other deeply felt
potentialities emotions.
Self-actualizing individuals fulfilled their needs to grow, to
develop, and to increasingly become what they were capable
of becoming. 4. Problem-Centering

 task-oriented and concerned with problems outside

themselves
The the self-actualization means to become everything that
one can become, to actualize or fulfill one's potential.  their occupation is not merely a means of earning a
living but a vocation, a calling, and end in itself.
5. The Need for Privacy

 they have a quality of detachment that allows them to 11. The Democratic Character Structure
be alone without being lonely
 friendly and considerate with other people regardless of
 they are self-movers, resisting society's attempts to class, color, age, or gender
make them adhere to convention.
 desire and ability to learn from everyone
 global concern for the welfare of others without
 realize that less healthy individuals have much to offer
becoming entangled in minute and significant problems
them, and they are respectful and even humble before
these people

6. Autonomy  they fight against evil people and evil behavior

 achieved only through satisfactory relations with others

 no longer depends on others for self-esteem 12. Discrimination Between Means and Ends

 have a clear sense of right and wrong conduct and have

little conflict about basic values
7. Continued Freshness of Appreciation
 they enjoy doing something for its own sake and not
 self-actualizing people have the wonderful capacity to
just because it is a means to some other end
appreciate again and again, freshly and naively, the
basic goods of life, with awe, pleasure, wonder, and
even ectasy.
13. Philosophical Sense of Humor
 retain their constant sense of good fortune and
 keen perception of beauty, truth, and
gratitude for it.
reality--ingredients that form the foundation of true
creativity

8. PEAK EXPERIENCE Maslow remarked that first-rate soup was more creative than
second-rate poetry.
 mystical time

 feeling of trancendence
14. Resistance to Enculturation
 people see the whole universe as unified or all in one
piece, and they see clearly their place in that universe  In important matters, they can become strongly aroused
to seek soical change and to resist society's attempts to
 often experience a disorientation in time and space, a
encultuate them.
loss of self-consciousness, an unselfish attitude, and an
ability to transcend everyday polarities  less enculturated, less flatened out, less molded

9. Gemeinschaftsgefuhl 15. Love, Sex, and Self-Actualization

 Adler's term for social interest, community feeling, or a  D-Love deficiency love
sense of oneness with all humanity.
 B-Love
 a kind and caring attitude toward other people

The Jonah Complex

10. Profound Interpersonal Relations
 fear of success, fear of being one's best, and a feeling of
 interpersonal relations that involves deep and profound awesomeness in the presence of beauty and perfection
feelings for individuals
 the human body is simply not string enough to endure
 choose healthy people as friends the ecstasy of fulfillment for any length of time
Desacralization - the type of science that lacks emotion, joy, Congruence
wonder, awe, and rapture
Empathy
Resacralize - to instill human values, emotion, and ritual.
Unconditional Positive Regard

Taoistic Attitude for Psychology

The Self and Self-Actualization
 noninterfering, passive, and receptive.
Actualization Tendency - organismic experiences; refers to
 abolish prediction and control as the major goals of the whole person-conscious and unconscious, physiological
science and replace them with sheer fascination and the and cognitive; organisms tendency to move toward
desire to release people from the controls so that they fulfillment.
can grow and become less predictable
Self-actualization - the tendency to actualize the self as
perceived in awareness; the desire of the perceived self to
reach fulfillment.
The proper response to mystery, is not analysis but awe.

**discrepancy exists when the organism and the perceived

self are not in harmony
CARL RANSOM ROGERS

PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
Self-Concept
HUMANISTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY
 includes all aspects of one's being and one's experiences
PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY that are perceived in awareness (though not always
accurately) by the individual.

 once people form their self-concept, they find change

 focused on the hows rather than the whats and significant learnings quite difficult
 helper of people and not a constrctor of theories The Ideal Self
 Sigmund Koch  one's view of self as one wishes to be

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS **a wide gap between the ideal self and the self-concept
indicates incongruence and an unhealthy personality
1. Formative Tendency
**psychologically healthy individuals perceive little
 tendency to evolve from simpler to more complex forms
discrepancy between their self-concept and what they ideally
 the entire universe, a creative process, is in operation would like to be.

2. Actualizing Tendency

 the tendency within all humans to move toward Levels of Awareness (3)
completion or fulfillment of potentials
Awareness is the symbolic representation of some portion of
Maintenance similar to Maslow's hierarchy of needs; food, our experience; consciousness and symbolization
air, safety
1. Ignore or Denied (unconcious/repressed)
Enhancement need to become more, to develop, and to
2.Accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the
achieve growth; curiosity, playfulness, self-exploration,
self-structure
friendship and confidence that one can achieve psychological
growth 3. Experiences perceived in a distorted form
  the protection of the self-concept against anxiety and
threat by the denial or distortion of experiences in
Denial of Positive Experiences
consistent with it
Becoming a Person

Process necessary to becoming a person

Disorganization
1. An individual must make contact with another person
 sometimes defenses fail and behavior becomes
 Positive regard - a need to be loved, liked, or accepted disorganized or psychoticism
by another person
 incongruence is too obvious or occurs suddenly
 Positive self-regard - the experience of prizing or valuing
 vulnerable to disorganization during therapy
one's self

** the source of POSITIVE SELF-REGARD lies in the POSITIVE

REGARD we receive from others but once established, it is **Rogers never wavered in his disdain for using diagnostic
autonomous and self-perpetuating. labels to describe people

**the person becomes in a sense her significant social other

PSYCHOTHERAPY

Barriers to Psychological Health 1. Conditions

Conditions of Worth for therapeutic growth to take place, the following

conditions are necessary and sufficient
 opposite of unconditional positive regard
 anxious or vulnerable client must come in contact with a
 positive regard is conditional
congruent therapist
External Evaluations - prevents us from being completely
 client must perceive the characteristics
open to our experiences .
 contact must be of some duration

Incongruence
Congruence
 Incongruence between the organismic experience and
self-concept is the source of psychological disorders a general quality possessed by the therapist

Vulnerability  more basic

 unaware of the discrepancy between their organismic  exists when a person's organismic experiences are
self and their significant experience matched by an awareness of them and by an ability and
willingness to openly express these feelings.
 the greater the incongruence, the more vulnerable we
are  to be congruent means to be real or genuine, to be
whole or integrated, to be what one truly is
Anxiety and Threat
 involves feelings; awareness; and expression
 gaining awareness of the incongruence

 anxiety is as state of uneasiness or tension whose cause

is unknown; anxiety leads to threat "One can be less than perfect and yet become an effective
psychotherapist." Rogers, 1980
 threat an awareness that our self is no longer whole or
congruent

Defensiveness Unconditional Positive Regard

 experiencing a warm, positive and accepting attitude

toward what is the client
 the attitude is without possessiveness, without stage 4 talk of deep feelings but not presently felt; begin to
evaluation, and without reservations question values; start to see incongruence

 caring about another without smothering or owning stage 5 begun to undergo significant change and GROWTH;
that person key: begin

 therapists accept and prize their clients without any stage 6 experience dramatic growth and an IRREVERSIBLE
restrictions or reservations and without regard to the movement toward becoming fully functioning and
clients' behavior self-actualizing; begin to develop unconditional positive
self-regard; physiological loosening people experience their
whole organismic self, as their muscles relax, tears flow,
Because I care about you, I can permit you to be autonomous circulation improves, and physical symptoms disappear.
and independent of my evaluations and restrictions. You are a
**if therapy were to be terminated at ths point, clients would
separate person with your own feelings and opinions
still progress to the next level.
regarding what is right or wrong. The fact that i care for you
does not mean that I must guide you in making choices, but stage 7 can occur outside the therapeutic encounter; fully
that I can allow you to be yourself and decide what is best for functioning persons of tomorrow; able to generalize their
you. experience; organismic self and self-concept is NOW
UNIFIED!!!!

Regard - there is a close relationship and that the therapist

sees the client as an important person . 3. Outcomes

positive - the direction of the relationship is toward warm  The most basic outcome of successful client-centered
and caring feelings therapy is a congruent client who is less defensive and
more open to experience. Each of the remaining
unconditional - the positive regard is no longer dependent on
outcomes is a logical extension of this basic one.
specific client behaviors and does not have to be continually
earned  MORE CONGRUENT

Empathic Listening PERSONS OF TOMORROW

Empathy - clients know that another person has entered their  fully functioning persons
world of feelings without prejudice, projection, or evaluation;
 successful clients
means temporarily living in others life, moving about in it
delicately moving without judgments; does not involve  more adaptable; more likely to survive
uncovering unconscious feelings but it suggests that a
therapist sees things from the client's POINT OF VIEW and  open to their experiences
that the client feels SAFE and UNTHREATENED
 trust in their organismic self; wouldn't depend on others

 live fully in the moment; experience a constant state of

sympathy feeling for the client fluidity and change

empathy feeling with the client existential living - tendency to live in the moment

harmonious relations with others

2. Process  more integrated; more whole with no artificial boundary

between conscious processes and unconscious ones
Stages of Therapeutic Change
 basic trust of human nature; would not harm others for
stage I unwilligness to communicate; rigid and resistant personal gain
stage 2 slightly less rigid; may talk about personal feelings  enjoy a greater richness in life
stage 3 freely talk about self; past future tense but avoid
present; refuse to accept their emotions
**persons of tomorrow must be inclined to look within, to be  means to emerge or to become; essence implies a static
tune with internal feelings and values, to be intuitive and immutable substance
creative, to be open to experiences, to welcome change, to
 suggests process; essence refers to product
have a fresh outlook, and to possess a solid trust in
themselves.  associated with growth and change; essence signifies
stagnation and finality
SELF DISCREPANCY THEORY

 E. Tory Higgins
existentialists affirm that people's essence is their power to
 real self-ought self discrepancy
continually redefine themselves through the choices they
 real-ideal discrepancy - lead to dejection-related make.
emotions (depressions, sadness, disappointment)

 real-sought discrepancy lead to agitation-related

existentialists hold that ultimately each of us is responsible
motions (anxiety, fear, threat)
for who we are and what we become

MOTIVATION AND PURSUING GOALS

existentialists are basically ANTITHEORETICAL
**Setting goals is easy, but setting the right goals can be
to them, theories further dehumanize people and render
more difficult than it seems
them as objects
**source of psychological distress is incongruence or when
one's ideal self does not sufficiently overlap with her
self-concept and this incongruence can be represented in the AUTHENTIC EXPERIENCE TAKES PRECEDENCE OVER
goals the person chooses to pursue ARTIFICIAL EXPLANATIONS

Organismic Valuing Process (OVP) Man is nothing else but what he makes of himself. Such is
the first principle of existentialism. SARTRE (1957)
 a natural instinct directing us toward the most fulfilling
pursuits

 a visceral or unexplainable gut feeling that architecture, BASIC CONCEPTS OF EXISTENTIALISM

not biology, is the right path
1. Being-in-the-World
 Explored further by Ken Sheldon and colleagues
Dasein - the basic unity of person and environment;
German word literally means to exist in the world and is
generally written as being-in-the-world.
**Intrinsic motivation and fulfillment are connected because
intrinsically motivated activities represent the ideal self

Alienation is the illness of our time, and it manifests itself in

three areas:
ROLLO REESE MAY
 separation from nature
EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
 lack of meaningful interpersonal relations

 alienation from the authentic self

Kierkegaard emphasized a balance between freedom and
responsibility

Three simultaneous modes in their being-in-the-world

EXISTENCE  Umwelt - environment around us
 takes precedence over essence
 We cannot escape the Umwelt; we must learn to live
in the world around us and to adjust to changes
Ontological - they refer to the nature of being and not to
within this world
feelings arising from specific situations or transgressions
 Freud's theory, with its emphasis on biology and
instincts, deals mostly with Umwelt
Separation guilt - a result of our separation from nature
 Mitwelt - our relations with other people

If we treat people as objects, then we are living in Umwelt;

Dasein of the person is respected; Sullivan and Rogers Intentionality - the structure that gives meaning to
experience and allows people to make decisions about the
 Eigenwelt - our relationship with our self; means to be
future; without it, people could neither choose nor act on
aware of oneself as a human being and to grasp who we
their choice
are as we relate to the world of things amd to the world
of people

Will - the capacity to organize one's se;f so that movement in

a certain direction or toward a certain goal may take place

2. Nonbeing
FORMS OF LOVE
 The awareness in turn, leads to the dread of not being;
nothingness  Sex - physiological need that seeks gratification through
the release of tension
 To grasp what it means to exist, one needs to grasp the
fact that he might not exist  Eros - a psychological desire that seeks procreation or
creation through and enduring union of the love one;
 other forms: addiction; promiscuous sexual activity;
built in care and tenderness; salvation of sex
other compulsive behaviors
 Philia - an intimate nonsexual friendship between two
 blind conformity to society's expectations or as
people
generalized hostility that pervades our relations to
others  Agape - altruistic love; esteem for the other, the
concern for the other's welfare beyond any gain that
can get out of it; the love of God for man.
Existential psychology is concerned with the individual's
struggle to work through life's experiences and to grow
toward becoming more fully human.

**Healthy adult relationships blend all four forms of love.

Anxiety is the dizziness of freedom. The acquisition of
freedom inevitably leads to anxiety. Freedom cannot exist
without anxiety, nor can anxiety exist without freedom. TYPES OF FREEDOM

**Freedom is the individual's capacity to know that he is the

determined one**
Normal anxiety - common to all; threat
1. Existential Freedom - the freedom to act on the choices
Neurotic anxiety - a reaction which is disproportionate to the that one makes; the freedom of doing
threat, involves repression and other forms of intrapsychic
conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-off of 2. Essential Freedom - freedom of being
activity and awareness; values transformed into dogma

Destiny - the design of the universe speaking through the

Guilt - when people deny their potentialities, fail to design of each one of us.
accurately perceive the needs of fellow humans, or remain
oblivious to their dependence on the natural world
**We cannot erase our destiny, but we can choose how we  The best explanation for human behavior lies in
shall respond, how we shall live out our talents which people’s expectations that their behaviors are
confront us. advancing them toward goals.

 empirical law of effect - defines reinforcement as

any action, condition, or event which affects the
Myths are not falsehoods; rather, they are conscious and
individual’s movement toward a goal.
unconscious belief systems that provide explanations for
personal and social problems. 5) people are capable of anticipating events

JULIAN ROTTER AND WALTER MISCHEL: Four variables to make accurate predictions

Cognitive Social Learning Theory Prediction Formula Variables

Rest on the assumption that cognitive factors help shape how 1. Behavior Potential is the possibility or likelihood that a
people will react to environmental forces. particular response will occur at a given time and place.

 The behavior potential in any situation is a function of

both expectancy and reinforcement value.
 Bandura - Social Cognitive Theory
 hold expectancy constant and vary reinforcement value
 Rotter - Social Learning Theory
 hold reinforcement value constant and vary expectancy.
 Mischel - Cognitive Social Theory

delay of gratification
Rotter employs a broad definition of behavior, which refers to
any response, implicit or explicit, that can be observed or
Julian B. Rotter measured directly or indirectly.

 author of locus of control scale

 primary concern is predicting human behavior 2. Expectancy is a person’s expectation of being reinforced;
the subjective probability that a given behavior will lead to a
particular outcome or reinforcer.
Rotter's Social Learning Theory  Total expectancy of success is a function of both one’s
generalized expectancy and one’s specific expectancy.
5 Basic Hypothesis
 Total expectancy partially determines the amount of
1) assumes that humans interact with their meaningful
effort people will expend in pursuit of their goals.
environments

 People’s reaction to environmental stimuli depends on

the meaning or importance that they attach to an event. expectancy is formed based onpast behaviors. the more
Reinforcements are not dependent on external stimuli often a behavior has led to reinforcement in the past, the
alone but are given meaning by the individual’s stronger the person's expectancy that the behavior will
cognitive capacity. Rotter believes that human achieve that outcome now.
behavior stems from the interaction of environmental
and personal factors.

**SPI junkfoods** 3. Reinforcement Value the preference a person attaches to

any reinforcement when the probabilities for the occurrence
2) assumes that human personality is learned of a # of different reinforcements are all equal; another name
for the outcomes of our behavior.
3) assumes that personality has a basic unity

4) motivation is goal directed

**also subjective
the same event or experience can vastly differ in desirability,  Behavior is the result of neither environmental events
depending on the individual's life experience. nor personal traits; rather, it stems from the interaction
of a person with his or her meaningful environment.

 “a complex set of interacting cues acting upon an

What determines the reinforcement value for any event,
individual for any specific time period”
condition, or action?

a) Individual Perception
BP = f(E & RV)
 Internal reinforcement - ur own value
 The likelihood of a person's exhibiting a particular
 External reinforcement - events, conditions, or actions
behavior is a function of the probability that behavior
on which one’s society or culture places a value
will lead to a given outcome and desirability of the
b) One's need outcome.

 a specific reinforcement tends to increase in value as  If expectancy is and reinforcement value are both hig,
the need it satisfies becomes stronger then behavior potential will be high.

 a starving child places a higher value on a bowl of soup  If either expectancy or reinforcement value is low, then
than the moderately hungry one behavior potential will be lower.

c) Expected consequences for future reinforcements.

 Rotter believes that people are capable of using Theory of General Constructs
cognition to anticipate a sequence of events leading to
 Are broad and abstract
some future goal and that the ultimate goal contributes
to the reinforcement value of each event in the  Allows one to make many predictions, across situations,
sequence. from knowing only a small amount of information.

Example

Minimal goal - the least amount of reinforcement that still  Knowing that someone is a generally hostile person
has a positive value. If people achieve an outcome that equals allows us to make predictions that this individual will be
or exceeds their minimal goal, they will feel that they hostile toward a range of people. Across situations, this
succeeded. person is likely to be more hostile to others than is
someone low in hostility.
Reinforcement-reinforcement sequences
 However, our ability to predict how hostile this person
(clusters of reinforcement)
would be to Jane, for example, is limited, because the
 Reinforcements seldom occur independently of future are may be other factors that determine whether this
related reinforcements individual will treat Jane in a hostile way during a
particular encounter.

 On the other hand, if we know that this person hates

Humans are goal oriented; they anticipate achieving a goal if Jane, we can predict with a high level of accuracy that
they behave in a particular way. Other things being equal, this person will be hostile toward Jane. But, we will not
goals with the highest reinforcement value are most be able to predict whether this person will treat other
desirable. Desire alone, however, is not sufficient to predict people in a hostile way.
behavior.

STRENGTH OF ROTTER'S THEORY:

4. Psychological Situation that part of the external and
internal world to which a person is responding. Explicitly blends specific and general constructs, offering the
benefits of each.
 Each individual's experience is unique.

Physical Comfort - most basic need

NEED VALUE - mean preference value of a set of functionally GEORGE KELLY - Personal Construct Theory
related reinforcements
Personal inquiry into one's world

At the core of Rotter’s social learning theory is the notion

 "Metatheory" (Theory about theories)
that reinforcement does not automatically stamp in
behaviors but that people have the ability to see a causal  It is “a psychology of the human quest. It does not say
connection between their own behavior and the occurrence what has or will be found, but proposes rather how we
of the reinforcer. People strive to reach their goals because might go about looking for it”
they have a generalized expectancy that such striving will be
successful.  People anticipate events by the meanings or
interpretations they place on those events amd shapes
their behavior
These tendencies seemed to be especially true in situations  Constructs - meanings and interpretations
that people regarded as ambiguous or novel (Rotter, 1992) or
when people were not clear whether the outcome of their - ways of interpreting
behavior was due to their skill or to chance. Rotter (1990) has
 People are not victims of circumstances, because
suggested that both the situation and the person contribute
alternative constructions are always available
to feelings of personal control.
(Constructive Alternativism)

-"the way" they anticipate events

INTERPERSONAL TRUST
 Behavior is based on reality or on people’s perception
 a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the of reality
word, promise, oral or written statement of another
 The universe is real, but that different people construe it
individual or group can be relied on
in different ways.
 Rotter saw interpersonal trust as a belief in the
 Conclusions are open to reconsideration and
communications of others when there is no evidence for
reformulation.
disbelieving, whereas gullibility is foolishly or naively
believing the words of other people.  Every theory can be slightly tilted and viewed from a
new angle. This approach, of course, means that Kelly’s
theory is not exempt from restructuring. Indeed, Kelly,
MALADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR more than any other personality theorist, formulated a
theory that encourages its own demise.
Maladaptive behavior in Rotter’s social learning theory is any
persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a
desired goal. It frequently, but not inevitably, arises from the
1. Constructive Alternativism
combination of high need value and low freedom of
movement: that is, from goals that are unrealistically high in  People always have alternative ways of looking at things.
relation to one’s ability to achieve them. All of our present interpretations of the universe are
subject to revision or replacement.

 People strive to make sense out of their continuously

People may also have low freedom of movement because
changing world.
they make a faulty evaluation of the present situation. For
example, people sometimes underestimate their intellectual  Different people construe reality in different ways.
abilities because, in the past, they have been told that they
were stupid. Even though their need values are not  The philosophy of constructive alternativism assumes
unrealistically high, they have a low expectation of success that the piece-by-piece accumulation of facts does not
because they wrongly believe that they are incapable, for add up to truth; rather, it assumes that facts can be
example, of performing well in school or competing looked at from different perspectives.
successfully for a higher level job.  A person’s interpretation of events is more important
than the events themselves.
Kelly believed that the person, not the facts, holds the key to In other words, people’s behaviors (thoughts and actions)
an individual’s future. Facts and events do not dictate are directed by the way they see the future.
conclusions; rather, they carry meanings for us to discover.
We are all constantly faced with alternatives, which we can
explore if we choose, but in any case, we must assume "A tentative assumption open to question and scientific
responsibility for how we construe our worlds. We are testing."
victims of neither our history nor our present circumstances.
That is not to say that we can make of our world whatever
we wish. We are “limited by our feeble wits and our timid
+You are skeptic about the thought of being in a wrong job or
reliance upon what is familiar”. We do not always welcome
company so you end up being unemployed+
new ideas. We often find restructuring disturbing and thus
hold on to ideas that are comfortable and theories that are
well established.
2B) SUPPORTING COROLLARIES

a. Construction corollary (Similarities Among Events)

2. PERSONAL CONSTRUCT
 a person anticipates events by construing their
 One’s way of seeing how things (or people) are alike and replications.
yet different from other things (or people).
 No two events are exactly alike, yet we construe similar
 For example, you may see how Ashly and Brenda are events so that they are perceived as being the same.
alike and how they are different from Carol. The
comparison and the contrast must occur within the  You encountered such thing before and you would likely
same context. For example, to say that Ashly and come to a conclusion similar to what you have
Brenda are attractive and Carol is religious would not encountered.
constitute a personal construct, because attractiveness b. Individuality Corollary (Differences Among People)
is one dimension and religiosity is another. A construct
would be formed if you see that Ashly and Brenda are  persons differ from each other in their construction of
attractive and Carol is unattractive. Both the events.
comparison and the contrast are essential.
 Although Kelly (1955) emphasized individual differences,
**see Shopee he pointed out that experiences can be shared and that
people can find a common ground for construing

experiences. This allows people to communicate both

2A) BASIC POSTULATE verbally and nonverbally. However, due to individual
The basic postulate assumes that “a person’s processes are differences, the communication is never perfect.
psychologically channelized by the ways in which [that
person] anticipates events.”
c. Organization Corollary (Relationships among Constructs) -
 Person’s processes - a living, changing, moving human people evolve, for [their] convenience in anticipating events,
being. He did not recognize motives, needs, drives, or a construction system embracing ordinal relationships
instincts as forces underlying motivation. Life itself between constructs”
accounts for one’s movement.
 Different people organize similar events in a manner
 Channelized - people move with a direction through a that minimizes incompatibilities and inconsistencies.
network of pathways or channels. People are already in
movement; they merely channelize or direct their
processes toward some end or purpose.
d. Dichotomy Corollary
 Ways of anticipating events - people guide their actions
- a construct is an either-or proposition—black or white, with
according to their predictions of the future. Neither the
no shades of gray.
past nor the future per se determines our behavior.
Rather, our present view of the future shapes our they have some choice in following alternative courses of
actions. action.
 h. Fragmentation Corollary (Incompatible constructs)
inconsitencies
e. Choice Corollary
“A person may successively employ a variety of constructive
- that people choose the alternative in a dichotomized
subsystems which are inferentially incompatible with each
construct that they see as extending their range of future
other."
choices.

i. Commonality Corollary (Similarities Among People) “To

f. Range Corollary (Range of Convenience) the extent that one person employs a construction of
experience which is similar to that employed by another, [that
- A construct is convenient for the anticipation of a finite person’s] processes are psychologically similar to those of the
range of events only other person.”
 A concept includes all elements having a common  they must merely construe their experiences in a similar
property, and it excludes those that do not have that fashion.
property. The concept tall includes all those people and
objects having extended height and excludes all other  Kelly also assumes that no two people ever interpret
concepts, even those that are outside its range of experiences exactly the same. Americans may have a
convenience. similar construction of democracy, but no two
Americans see it in identical terms.
 The idea of construct contrasts tall with short, thus
limiting its range of convenience. “That which is outside
the range of convenience of the construct is not
j. Sociality Corollary (Sociality corollary)
considered part of the contrasting field but simply an
area of irrelevancy “People belong to the same cultural group, not merely
because they behave alike, nor because they expect the same
things of others, but especially because they construe their
f. Experience Corollary experience in the same way”

-“A person’s construction system varies as he [or she]  “People belong to the same cultural group, not merely
successively construes the replications of events” because they behave alike, nor because they expect the
same things of others, but especially because they
construe their experience in the same way”
Basic to personal construct theory is the anticipation of
events. We look to the future and make guesses about what
will happen. Then, as events become revealed to us, we either **In interpersonal relations, people do not only observe the
validate our existing constructs or restructure these events to behavior of the other person; they also interpret what that
match our experience. The restructuring of events allows us behavior means to that person.**
to learn from our experiences.

A role refers to a pattern of behavior that results from a

The events themselves do not constitute experience—it is person’s understanding of the constructs of others with
the meaning we attach to them that changes our lives. whom that person is engaged in a task. One’s role does not
depend on one’s place or position in a social setting but
rather on how one interprets that role. Arlene’s roles as
student, employee, and daughter would be considered
g, Modulation Corollary (Adaptation to Experience) - The
variation in a person’s construction system is limited by the
peripheral roles. More central to her existence would be her
permeability of the constructs within whose range of core role. With our core role, we define ourselves in terms of
convenience the variants lie. who we really are. It gives us a sense of identity and provides
us with guidelines for everyday living.
 This corollary follows from and expands the experience
corollary.
 In Kelly’s view, psychologically healthy people validate
their personal constructs against their experiences with
 the real world. They are like competent scientists who  behavior is expressive as well as adaptive. people not
test reasonable hypotheses, accept the results without only adjust to their environment, but also reflect on it
denial or distortion, and then willingly alter their and interact with it in such a way as to cause their
theories to match available data. Healthy individuals not environment to adjust to them
only anticipate events but are also able to make
 Dynamic organization - integration and interrelatedness
satisfactory adjustments when things do not turn out as
of the various aspects of personality; personality is
they expected.
organized and patterned.
 Unhealthy people, on the other hand, stubbornly cling
 Psychophysical - emphasizes the importance of both
to outdated personal constructs, fearing validation of
the psychology and the physical aspects of psychology
any new constructs that would upset their present
comfortable view of the world. Such people are similar  Determine - suggests that personality is something and
to incompetent scientists who test unreasonable does something; personality is not merely the mask we
hypotheses, reject or distort legitimate results, and wear, nor is it simply behavior. IT REFERS TO THE
refuse to amend or abandon old theories that are no INDIVIDUAL BEHIND THE FACADE, THE PERSON BEHIND
longer useful. THE ACTION.

 Characteristic - individual or unique

Kelly defined a disorder as “any personal construction which  Human beings are both product and and process; people
is used repeatedly in spite of consistent invalidation.” have some organized structure while, at the same time
possess the capability of change.

GORDON ALLPORT
Personality is not a static organization; it is constantly
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
growing or changing.
uniqueness of an individual

Conscious Motivation
 Morphogenic science - study of the individual
 healthy adults are generally aware of what they are
 advocated an eclectic approach doing and their reasons for doing it.

 argued against particularism, or theories that emphasize

a single aspect of personality
Characteristics of a Healthy Person
 DO NOT FORGET WHAT YOU HAVE DECIDED TO
 proactive behavior - people not only react to external
NEGLECT
stimuli, but they are capable of consciously acting on
 Emphatically opposed to reducing all human motivation their environment in NEW and INNOVATIVE ways and
to one master drive causing their environment to react to them.

 Psychologists should always realize that much of human  Motivated by conscious processes which allow them to
nature is not included in any single theory. be more flexible and autonomous

 emphasized the role of conscious motivation

6 Criteria for The Mature Personality

PERSONALITY IS THE DYNAMIC ORGANIZATION WITHIN THE 1. Extension of the sense of self. Continually seek to identify
INDIVIDUAL OF THOSE PSYCHOPHYSICAL SYSTEMS THAT with and participate in event outside of themselves;
DETERMINE HIS UNIQUE ADJUSTMENTS TO HIS Gemeinschaftsgefuhl - social interest
ENVIRONMENT
2. Warm relating of self to others. Have the capacity to love
others in an intimate and compassionate manner
3. Emotional Security or Self-acceptance. Accept themselves
for who they are, and they possess EMOTIONAL POISE. DOn’t
Secondary Dispositions
tend to be overly upset when things don’t go as planned
 Less conspicuous but far greater in number
4. Realistic Perception of Their Environment. Do not bend
reality to fit their own wishes. Problem oriented rather than  Occur with some regularity and are responsible
self-centered.

5. Insight and Humor. Know themselves and have a

nonhostile sense of humor Motivational Dispositions

6. Unifying Philosophy of Life. Have a clear view of the  Intensely experienced dispositions
purpose of life.
 Strongly felt dispositions which receive their motivation
from basic needs and drives.

STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY  Initiate action

 Similar to Maslow’s concept of coping behavior

Personal Dispositions Stylistic Dispositions

 they permit researchers to study a single individual  Dispositions that are less intensely experienced

 A generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the  Guide actions

individual) with the capacity to render many stimuli
 E.g. neat appearance
functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide
consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and stylistic  Similar to Maslow’s idea of expressive behavior
behavior
**no distinct division between the two

Allport and Henry Odbert (1936) counted 17,953 personally

People are motivated to dress because of a basic need to stay
decriptive words in the 1925 version of Webster’s New
warm, but the manner in which they attire themselves is
International Dictionary to identify personal dispositions.
determined by their stylistic personal dispositions.

LEVELS OF PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS

Proprium

 all characteristics that are “peculiarly mine”

Cardinal Dispositions
 being an important part of self
 Eminent characteristic or ruling passion so outstanding
 refers to those behaviors and characteristics that people
that it dominates people’s lives
regard as warm, central, and important part of their
 Most people do not have a cardinal disposition, but lives
those few people who do are often known by that single
 include basic drives and needs that are ordinarily met
characteristic.
and satisfied WITHOUT MUCH DIFFICULTY;
 Imeldific, narcissistic, chauvinistic
 tribal customs such as wearing clothes, saying “hello” to
people, and driving at the right side of the road;

Central Dispositions  habitual behaviors such as smoking or brushing one’s

teeth, that are performed automatically and that are
 Everyone has central dispositions which include the 5-10 not crucial to the person’s sense of self.
most outstanding characteristics around which a person
life’s focuses.

 Guide much of a person’s adaptive and stylistic As the warm center of personality, the proprium includes
behavior. those aspects of life that a person regards as important to a
 sense of self-identity and self-enhancement (Allport, 1955). antecedent tensions from which the acquired system
The proprium includes a person’s values as well as that part developed
of the conscience that is personal and consistent with one’s
 a present motive is functionally autonomous to the
adult beliefs.
extent that it seeks new goals; behavior will continue
even as the motivation changes

A generalized conscience—one shared by most people  One need not to look beyond the motive for hidden or
within a given culture—may be only peripheral to a person’s primary causes
sense of personhood and thus outside that person’s
 PEOPLE DO THINGS SIMPLY BECAUSE THEY LIKE TO DO
proprium. THEM

 Believed that adult motives are built primarily on

conscious, self-sustaining, contemporary systems.
Motivation
 contemporary and self-sustaining; it grows out of an
 Allport believed that most people are motivated by
earlier motive but is functionally independent of it.
present drives rather than past events and are aware of
what they are doing and have some understanding of
why they are doing it.
WHATEVER MOVES US MUST MOVE NOW. The past per se is
Peripheral motives unimportant.

 Those that reduce a need

Propriate strivings Perseverative Functional Auntonomy

 Seek to maintain tension and disequilibrium  Perseveration - the tendency of an impression to leave
an influence on subsequent experience.

 Based on simple neurological principles

Psychoanalysis and the various learning theories are basically
 E.g. a rat that has learned to run a maze in order to be
homeostatic, or reactive, theories because they see people as
fed but then continues to run the maze even after it has
being motivated primarily by needs to reduce tension and to
become satiated. Why does it continue to run? Allport
return to a state of equilibrium. An adequate theory of
would say that the rat runs the maze just for the fun of
personality, Allport contended, must allow for proactive
it.
behavior (a comprehensive theory).

Propriate Functional Autonomy

 Psychology studies behavioral patterns and general
laws and, on the other, growth and individuality.  occupations, hobbies, and interests are closer to the
core of personality
 Sometimes people are motivated to seek tension, not
merely reduce it.

 The mature person, however, is not motivated merely The lives of healthy adults are future oriented, involving
to seek pleasure and reduce pain but to acquire new preferences, purposes, plans, and intentions. These processes,
systems of motivation that are functionally independent of course, are not always completely rational, as when people
from their original motives. allow their anger to dominate their plans and intentions.

Functional Autonomy Psychological growth can take place at any age

 Allport’s most distinctive and most controversial

postulate; theory of changing
EYSENCK, McCRAE, AND COSTA’S TRAIT AND FACTOR
 “any acquired system of motivation in which the THEORIES
tensions involved are not of the same kind as the
 Such chance events “is one’s fate decided by bureaucratic Surface Traits
stupidity”
 Represent behavioral tendencies that are literally
Raymond B. Cattell superficial

 Did not have a direct influence on Eysenck  The exist on the surface and can be observed

 Some familiarity of Cattell’s trait theory enhances the

understanding of Eysenck’s Three

 Used an inductive method of gathering the data that is,

Source Traits
he began with NO preconceived bias concerning the
number or name of traits or types; In contrast, Eysenck  The core personality structure
used the deductive method, to identify three
personality factors. That is, he had some PRECONCEIVED  Ability Traits - skills and abilities that allow the
hypothesis in mind before he began gathering data. individual to function effectively; intelligence

 Yielded 35 primary, or first-order, traits, which measure  Temparament Trais - involve emotional life and the
mostly the temperament dimension of personality. stylistic quality of behavior; tendency to be calm vs
emotional
 23 characterize the normal population
 Dynamic Traits - concern the striving, motivational life
 12 measure the pathological dimension of the individual
 The largest and frequently studied of the normal traits
are the 16PF
Oblique Method
Three Different Media of Observation
 Advocated by Cattell
 L Data (life record)- observations made by other people
 Assumes some positive or negative correlation and
 Q Data - self-reports refers to an angle of less than or more than 90 degrees
 T Data - objective tests

Factor Loadings Orthogonal Rotation

 correlations of scores with factors  Advocated by Eysenck
 Give us an indication of the purity of the various factors  Orthogonally rotated axes are at right angles to each
and enable us to interpret their meanings other
 E.g. if the scores for algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
and calculus contribute to Factor X but not to other
factors, they will have high factor loadings on X
EYSENCK’S FACTOR THEORY

Unipolar traits  Highlights the biological existence

 Scaled from zero to some large amount  suggests that the psychometric traits of P, E, and N can
combine with one another and with genetic
 Height, weight, intellectual ability determinants, biological intermediates, and
experimental studies to predict a variety of social
behaviors, including those that contribute to disease.
Bipolar traits

 Extend from one pole to an opposite pole, with zero

Criteria for Identifying Factors
representing the midpoint
 Psychometric Evidence
 Introversion vs extraversion, liberalism vs conservatism
 Must also possess heritability and must fit an
established genetic model

 Must make sense from a theoretical view (deductive)

 Must possess social relevance