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Relative Alterseffekte: Im Leistungssport unvermeidbar?

Article  in  Sportwissenschaft · March 2010

DOI: 10.1007/s12662-009-0095-2

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 Hauptbeiträge

Sportwiss 2010 Joseph Baker1 · Jörg Schorer2 · Stephen Cobley3

DOI 10.1007/s12662-009-0095-2 1 Lifespan Health & Performance Laboratory, School of Kinesiology & Health Science,  
© Springer-Verlag 2010
York University, Toronto
2 Institut für Sportwissenschaft, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster
3 Carnegie Faculty of Sport & Education, Fairfax Hall, Headingley Campus,  

Leeds Metropolitan University, Leeds

Relative age effects

An inevitable consequence of elite sport?

Researchers in varying fields (e.g., educa- cational systems that use a date of Sep- fically, players born shortly after the “cut-
tion, epidemiology, and sport) have come tember 1st (e.g., UK) to group pupils result off ” date used for annual age groupings
to demonstrate that the social policy of in those with a birthday immediately af- were consistently over-represented com-
annual age-grouping, applied most com- ter this selection date (e.g., September 3rd) pared to their relatively younger peers. Si-
monly in school and sport, interacts with being almost 12 months older than a co- milar findings were reported among male
the characteristics of the developing in- hort member with a birthday on August Canadians participating in the elite deve-
dividual (i.e., chronological age relative 29th. Although the purpose of these age lopmental and junior ice-hockey leagues
to peers) to produce a developmental cli- divisions is clearly positive—maintaining (Barnsley & Thompson,1988; Barnsley et
mate that provides advantages to some general developmental similarities (i.e., al., 1985). Subsequently, and with few ex-
while disadvantaging others. The conse- biological, cognitive) among individuals ceptions (e.g., golf, Côté et al., 2006; soc-
quential outcomes resulting from this in- in the same age cohort—there is increa- cer referees, Cobley et al., 2008), greater
teraction are known as relative age effects sing evidence that standardized times for proportions of relatively older male ath-
(RAEs). The purpose of this review is to assessments, exams, and selections com- letes have been confirmed across juni-
provide an overview of the contempora- bined with the significant individual va- or and youth age groups (i.e., 10–18 year
ry research examining the problem. The riability within an annual cohort promote bands) and levels of competition (recreati-
following sections attempt to summarize participation and attainment inequalities on–elite representative) for popular team
(1) how age-grouping procedures affect among cohort members. Researchers ex- sports. A recent meta-analysis of RAEs in
immediate and long-term athlete deve- amining RAEs typically consider how the- sport (Cobley et al., 2009b) noted these
lopment in various contexts, (2) the me- se subtle age differences within an annual effects in baseball (Thompson et al., 1991,
chanisms causing RAEs, and (3) variables age group (Barnsley, Thompson & Barns- 1992), football (Verhulst, 1992; Musch &
moderating the size of these effects. La- ley, 1985) affect developmental outcomes. Hay, 1999; Helsen et al., 2005), ice-hockey
ter sections justify why both researchers Variability in attainment outcomes as (Wattie et al., 2007), swimming (Baxter-
and practitioners should work toward re- a function of relative age were first identi- Jones, 1995), volleyball (Grondin et al.,
solving RAEs together. An overview of fied in education (Armstrong, 1966; Frey- 1984), basketball (Hoare, 2000), tennis
potential strategies and solutions are of- man, 1965) and subsequent research has (Edgar & O’Donoghue, 2004), and rug-
fered. Nonetheless across the paper, aut- reinforced a consistent attainment dis- by (Abernethy & Farrow, 2005). On ave-
hors perceive existing work and potenti- advantage for the relatively youngest pu- rage across these studies, the relatively ol-
al solutions as “work in progress”, accep- pils across a range of education subject der (i.e., classed in quartiles as those wi-
ting that further research knowledge will disciplines (e.g., math or science), among thin the first 3 months of a cut-off date)
contribute toward identifying appropriate them physical education (see Cobley et al., were over 10% more likely to be represen-
solutions. 2009a for an example of this pervasive ef- ted in these contexts, compared to the re-
fect). In sport, RAEs were first noticed in latively younger (i.e., those with birth da-
What are relative age effects? Canadian ice-hockey and volleyball. Con- tes within the last 3 months of annual age-
trolling for general population distribu- grouping). More recently similar trends
To help provide a “level playing field” for tions, Grondin et al. (1984) found unequal have also been identified in basketball
individuals at different levels of develop- birth-date distributions for males and fe- (Delorme & Raspaud, 2009), rugby (Till
ment, most education and sports sys- males at recreational, competitive and se- et al., in press), and handball (Schorer et
tems group pupils or athletes according nior professional levels for both sports al., 2009; Schorer, Baker et al., in press;
to chronological age. For instance, edu- during the 1981/1982 season. More speci- Schorer, Cobley et al., in pressb).

Sportwissenschaft 2010  | 
 Hauptbeiträge

How are relative age ristics) compared to annual-age group players for the U18 European Champion-
effects caused? peers, then it is difficult to participate in ship, while Vincent and Glamser (2006)
sport at levels higher than recreational. found no RAEs among females in the
Several mechanisms have been hypothe- In addition to selection and the bene- US Olympic Developmental Program.
sized as causes of RAEs. Primarily, the- fits of accumulated experience, larger so- Delorme and Rauspaud (2009) reported
se focus on the role of maturational dif- cial factors are also implicated in RAEs. repeated and significant over-representa-
ferences (e.g., Barnsley & Thompson, For instance, Musch and Grondin (2001) tions of the relatively older (born in the
1988); for example, greater height and proposed that the existence of RAEs is de- first half of the annual age group) across
mass (to a degree) are thought to under- pendent on the depth (or amount) of com- the age-bands of 7–17 years for both fe-
pin successful performance in sports re- petition, such as the number of individu- male and male French basketball play-
quiring power, speed, and endurance (Ma- als wanting to access events or teams in a ers. Schorer, Cobley et al. (in press) no-
lina, 1994; Malina et al., 2004). Relatively given sport. Further, Helsen et al. (1998) ted significant RAEs for female and ma-
older players, as a result, are consistently proposed that the amount of opportuni- le junior developmental selection squads
and repeatedly advantaged (assuming si- ty (i.e., teams and clubs) available for par- in German handball, although the effect
milar cut-off dates are applied each and ticipation also affects RAE strength. The- sizes were smaller for female players. Si-
every year of competition), because their se factors emphasize the role of sport po- milar results for German youth soccer and
extended chronological age reflects grea- pularity and infrastructure in propagating handball were reported by Lames et al. (in
ter maturation at any given time, particu- conditions that perpetuate RAEs, sugges- press, cited in Lames, Augste, Dreckmann,
larly during childhood and adolescence ting that RAEs are less likely in sports Görsdorf & Schimanski, 2008). Possib-
(Norikazu, in press). Data from elite juni- with lower popularity, or in social con- le explanations for these inconsistencies,
or soccer players support such contenti- texts where infrastructure and provision particularly when compared to males, in-
on. Brewer et al. (1992) indicated that such exceed participation demand. As an exa- clude variations in the levels of competi-
players were above the 95th percentile for mple, Wattie et al. (2007) proposed that tion, sport popularity and age-band exa-
height and weight compared to age-mat- population expansion and participation mined. Related to this latter point, it has
ched normative data. Although such data increases in ice-hockey were antecedents been suggested that the size of RAEs may
reinforce maturation as a key antecedent to RAE emergence in Canadian ice-ho- be affected by additional maturational va-
of RAEs, it remains unclear precisely how ckey. Similar results were demonstrated riation at ages associated with the onset of
early maturity advantages lead directly to by Cobley et al. (2008) for German soc- puberty, generally applicable at the ages of
long-term athletic attainment. cer players and coaches. Both these stu- 13–15 in boys and 12–14 in girls (see Musch
There is some evidence to suggest that dies show that RAEs are not recent phe- & Grondin, 2001).
maturational differences lead to an incre- nomena, but are associated with the on- Similarly, an athlete’s chronological age
ased likelihood of being identified as ta- set of broader social events (i.e., increasing and/or stage of the career appear to mode-
lented and selected by coaches for higher popularity; change or lack of change in lo- rate RAEs. Against their original expec-
tiers of competition (Baker, Wattie, Cob- cal sporting infrastructure). Collectively, tations, Cobley et al. (2009b) noted that
ley, Faught & Montelpare, in press; Sherar such studies indicate that RAE “causes” the size of RAEs increased with age un-
et al., 2007). Being selected for the next are grounded in larger social and cultu- til late adolescence, but then decreased in
tier of development is often a necessary ral foundations. A complete understan- adult sporting contexts. At the adult elite
obstacle for competing at levels of sport ding of the direct and indirect inter-con- level, Bäumler (1998) examined German
beyond recreation, and thereby an impor- nections between these various contribu- Bundesliga players and concluded that re-
tant constraint on skill acquisition and ex- tors is necessary to develop sound strate- latively older players were more likely to
pertise development since selection leads gies to reduce or eliminate relative age in- drop-out from elite levels than relatively
to access to better resources and more op- equalities in sport. younger ones. Similar results were identi-
portunities to practice (Helsen et al., 1998). fied by Schorer et al. (in press) for the Ger-
Conversely, those not selected are less able How is the effect moderated? man handball league, but only in German
to access practice facilities, coaching, and players. With international players sho-
competition. Taken together, sport-related In addition to understanding the vari- wing clear RAEs across all career stages,
processes of maturation and selection ap- ous facets that may initiate and perpetu- German players demonstrated variability
pear to constrain an individual’s ability to ate RAEs in sport, it is important to un- over the different career stages. Specifical-
invest in practice and accumulate sport- derstand how these effects are moderated. ly, during the junior and early adult years
specific skill and experience, factors dee- The most notable moderator of RAEs ap- (i.e., post 18–21 years of age), clear RAEs
med critical for long-term attainment (see pears to be gender. Most studies of RAEs were observable, but in the later career
Baker & Horton, 2004). If a young athle- in sport have focused on male athletes and stage (i.e., above 30 years of age) RAEs
te does not show advanced maturational the few studies of female athletes sketch diminished. These intriguing results re-
characteristics or display outstanding per- an inconsistent picture of RAEs. For in- inforce the inherent complexity of RAEs
formance on standard test batteries (de- stance, Helsen et al. (2005) showed con- across an athlete’s development and ca-
pendent on advanced physical characte- sistent RAEs for male and female soccer reer. Further work is necessary to deter-

 |  Sportwissenschaft 2010
 Abstract · Zusammenfassung

mine how an athlete’s career stage might the combination of relative age within an- Sportwiss 2010 
be influenced by RAEs. It is possible that nual age-grouping. However, recent stu- DOI 10.1007/s12662-009-0095-2
© Springer-Verlag 2010
career stage is a proxy variable for incre- dies suggest in certain situations being re-
ased likelihood of injury, aging, physical latively younger may not be detrimental. Joseph Baker · Jörg Schorer ·  
and mental fatigue or a combination of all An exploratory study by Ste-Marie et al. Stephen Cobley
these factors (as hypothesized by Schorer, (2000) on Canadian regional junior fe- Relative age effects.
Cobley et al., in press), thereby explaining male gymnasts found that normal RAEs An inevitable consequence
the increased likelihood of earlier with- occurred before the age of 14, but after this of elite sport?
drawal in the relatively older player from age the effect reversed with the relatively
Abstract
elite sport participation. younger gymnasts more likely to partici-
The process of annual age-grouping, ap-
A third moderator reported in team pate and compete in regional level gym- plied most commonly in school and sport,
sport athletes is playing position. Ashford nastics. In addition, two studies by Wat- has been shown to produce a developmen-
and Heyndels (2007) noted that RAEs va- tie et al. (2007) found that relatively ol- tal climate that provides advantages to some
ried according to playing position in elite der athletes in junior developmental tiers while disadvantaging others. This inequal-
German soccer. The strongest effect sizes of ice-hockey in Canada were at a higher ity has a number of important short- and
long-term consequences known as relative
were found for goalkeepers and defenders, risk of injuries compared to their relative-
age effects (RAEs). This review summariz-
with RAEs not evident for forwards. In eli- ly younger counterparts. es current knowledge regarding the origins
te German handball, Schorer, Cobley et al. At the adult level, three studies provi- of RAEs, their effects on skill acquisition and
(in press) illustrated that RAEs were evi- de preliminary evidence suggesting that athlete development as well as possible solu-
dent in the “left-backcourt” position but it might be beneficial in the long term tions to this problem. The work done to date
not in the mirrored position of the “right- to be relatively younger. Baker and Lo- reinforces the conclusion that RAEs are re-
markably complex and are underpinned by a
backcourt”, which has essentially the same gan (2007) found that relatively younger number of social and procedural factors that
physical, technical and tactical demands. Canadian ice-hockey players were cho- make resolution of this inequality difficult.
This finding was explained by referring to sen earlier in the National Hockey League Throughout the review, we propose areas
the preferred laterality of players in the- draft than relatively older ones. Ashford where further work is needed to improve our
se two positions. Right-handers typical- and Heyndels (2007) demonstrated that understanding of this phenomenon.
ly play in the left-backcourt and left-han- relatively younger players in the Ger-
Relative Alterseffekte.
ders in the right-backcourt. Considering man soccer Bundesliga had higher wa-
Im Leistungssport
that around 90% of the normal populati- ges when reaching the German Bundesli-
unvermeidbar?
on is right handed (Raymond et al., 1996), ga than their relatively older counterparts,
Schorer, Cobley et al. (in press) postulated but only for goalkeepers and defenders, Zusammenfassung
that there is likely to be greater competiti- not forwards. In handball, Schorer, Cob- Die jährliche altersbezogene Gruppierung, so
wie sie in Schule und Sport üblich ist, erzeugt
on amongst players for the left-backcourt ley et al. (in press) showed that the pro-
ein Entwicklungsklima, das manche bevor-
position. The applicability of the laterali- portion of relatively younger players in- zugt, andere benachteiligt. Diese Ungleich-
ty explanation has also been reinforced in creased throughout the later stages of the heit hat eine Reihe relevanter kurz- und lang-
a recent study of male professional ten- careers (above 30 years of age). They hy- fristiger Konsequenzen zur Folge, die zusam-
nis players (Loffing, Cobley & Schorer, pothesized that some relatively younger mengefasst werden mit dem Begriff relative
2009). Their data show significant RAEs athletes develop superior skills that help Alterseffekte („relative age effects“, RAE). Wir
geben eine Übersicht zum aktuellen Wissens-
for right-handers, but not for left-handers, them remain in an unfavorable system. stand über die Entstehung von RAE sowie zu
suggesting that left-handers in tennis gain Although playing against older, more ca- ihren Effekten auf den Erwerb sportlicher Fä-
advantages which circumvent the RAEs. pable opponents may promote superior higkeiten und die Entwicklung des einzel-
Although the variables identified abo- development in technical and/or tactical nen Sportlers. Zusammengefasst werden
ve (gender, age/stage of career, and play- skills, it is important to note that these hy- auch mögliche Lösungen für die Probleme,
die sich aus RAE ergeben. Die bisherigen Ar-
ing position) have been found to mode- potheses have not been adequately inve-
beiten unterstützen unser Fazit, dass RAE au-
rate relative age effects, it is probable that stigated and, more important, do not ju- ßergewöhnlich komplex sind und dass sie
others will be identified as research in this stify a sport structure that disadvantages von einer Reihe gesellschaftlicher und proze-
area continues. In the following sections, a large number of its participants, parti- duraler Faktoren, die eine Aufhebung dieser
we explore the development and social ra- cularly at an early age. Perhaps the most Ungleichbehandlung erschweren, noch ver-
mifications of this pervasive effect. appropriate approach would be to better stärkt werden. An verschiedenen Stellen un-
serer Übersicht zeigen wir Bereiche auf, in de-
understand what factors lead to the im-
nen für ein umfassenderes Verständnis des
Are relatively younger athletes proved skill development in some athletes Phänomens RAE weitere Forschung notwen-
always disadvantaged? compared to others. dig ist.
The research outlined in the previ-
In most of the sporting contexts exami- ous sections provides a strong inclusi-
ned to date relatively younger athletes ha- onary, developmental, health and mo-
ve been described as disadvantaged by ral argument to justify why researchers,

Sportwissenschaft 2010  | 
 Hauptbeiträge

coaches and administrators should mo- tively youngest) across the competitive ju- help center coaches’ attention to potential
ve toward examining RAEs more purpo- nior hockey system. Similar to the Novem selection bias as a result of cross-section-
sefully and attempt to identify and evalu- systems, the RAF strategy would appear al athlete assessment or selection. Likewi-
ate solutions—solutions that try to elimi- to partially reduce RAEs. However, inhe- se, simply monitoring for RAEs in selec-
nate RAEs and their potential to generate rent within these proposals are adminis- tion and participation may prove useful,
present and long-lasting participation and trative and logistical complexity, making helping coaches delineate identifying ge-
attainment equalities. their adoption challenging for youth sport nuine advanced skill observed in athletes,
governing bodies. from advanced performance competen-
What are the solutions to Alternative solutions have focused cy underpinned by early maturation rela-
relative age effects? on ensuring athlete heterogeneity upon tive to peers. To assist with this process,
sports teams. This could be done by im- coaches are advised to integrate criteria
As relative age effects arise from social plementing player quotes, where selec- based on perceptual, cognitive and motor
conditions and processes such as talent tions must meet specified distributions to skill as part of athlete selection. Such crite-
selection, it should be possible to reduce prevent favoring the relatively older (Bar- ria, designed specific to the performance
or eliminate these trends. However, to da- nsley & Thompson, 1988), or by regula- demands of respective sports, could help
te this has proven difficult even though se- ting the average age of a whole team (Hel- reduce the association and dependence
veral solutions have been proposed. Initi- sen, Starkes, & Van Winckel, 1998; 2000), upon physical attribute measurement and
al solutions focused on modifying annu- or the distribution of playing time. Others assessment. However, and yet again, the
al age groupings, by either advocating a have suggested grouping participants ac- implementation of any such strategies
change in the age-group cut-off date (e.g., cording to height and weight classifica- would necessitate fundamental changes
from January to June), rotating cut-off da- tions, similar to boxing and wrestling in the attitudes, training and organization
tes from year to year (Barnsley et al., 1985), (Baxter-Jones, 1995; Musch & Grondin, structure of developmental sport. Here,
or by altering age-grouping bandwidths. 2001). Although these strategies may be supportive and collaborative work with a
Ultimately, such modifications only lead more sensitive to individual variability in responsive sport governing body seems a
to corresponding shifts in RAEs, relative physical characteristics, they again may pertinent future direction for applied re-
to the new cut-off dates applied. This is ex- prove difficult to integrate into sport sys- searchers.
emplified within data samples taken from tems if substantial support from gover-
Australian, Belgian, German, and English ning bodies is not gained. Future directions and conclusions
soccer (see Cobley et al., 2008; Helsen, Other less complex solutions involve
Starkes & Van Winckel, 2000; Musch & delaying the processes of selection and re- Ironically, the existence of RAEs may un-
Hay, 1999; Simmons & Paull, 2001). presentation until after puberty and ma- dermine the effectiveness of talent iden-
To prevent a “fixed-bias” across all turation (i.e., 15–16 years of age). This tification and development programs
sports, Grondin et al. (1984) proposed that may initially seem a more radical step for by passing over (i.e., missing) talented
age-group bandwidths should be expan- some sports contexts; however it is gene- young athletes in favor of relatively ol-
ded to 15 and 21 months rather than the rally and only within the last 20–30 years der, less talented ones. The research sum-
typical 12 month annual age-groupings. that sport has seen an increasing prolifera- marized in this review illustrates the con-
This proposal would rotate cut-off dates tion of representative local, regional juni- textual complexity of relative age effects
across particular ages and regularly chan- or and adolescent sports teams. These de- in sport. While the bulk of research in this
ge group composition. Similarly, Boucher velopments invite earlier athlete scrutiny, area emphasizes the RAE problem, more
and Halliwell (1991) proposed a 9-month assessment, identification, and selection, recent studies have moved towards de-
bandwidth (referred to as the Novem sys- events which are proposed to inflate the veloping a more comprehensive under-
tem) to reduce potential age inequalities likelihood and magnitude of relative age standing of RAEs. These and future stu-
in a given group and ensure that the sa- inequality. By delaying or even reversing dies are necessary to create a sound the-
me participants (i.e., relatively older or these processes, and protecting the initial oretical understanding of the origins and
younger) were not disadvantaged year af- stages and ages of sporting involvement, implications of RAEs as well as to identify
ter year. With more elaboration, Hurley et interested and motivated youngsters of all ways in which sport systems can be mo-
al. (2001) presented the Relative Age Fair ages have a better chance at experiencing dified to reduce or remove RAEs in the
(RAF) cycle to overcome RAE trends in and enjoying sport prior to involvement future. Perhaps most important, the so-
junior ice-hockey. The RAF aimed to al- in any selection system. cial policies that perpetuate RAEs seem
ter cut-off dates by 3 months for each and The strategy of simply raising aware- contrary to the notion of sport as an ave-
every consecutive year of participation. ness of RAEs among those responsible nue for positive youth development for
Like prior rotational proposals, this sys- for the infrastructure and coordination of all involved. Serious attention to redu-
tem would ensure players experienced youth sport may also be effective (Cobley cing or eliminating RAEs by sport gover-
being placed in each of the four quartile et al., 2009b). Increasing awareness and ning bodies, administrators, and coaches
positions (i.e., Quartile 1=relatively oldest, understanding of RAEs, as part of coach is required. These possible interventions
Quartile 2, Quartile 3 & Quartile 4=rela- training and education programs, may should be evaluated in the long turn.

 |  Sportwissenschaft 2010
Corresponding address 14. Cobley, S., Schorer, J. & Baker, J. (2008). Relative 34. Raymond, M., Pontier, D., Dufour, A. B. & Møller, A.P.
age effects in elite German soccer: a historical ana- (1996). Frequency-dependent maintenance of left
Joseph Baker lysis. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26, 1531–1538. handedness in humans. Proceedings of the Royal
Lifespan Health & Performance Laboratory, 15. Côté, J., MacDonald, D.J., Baker, J. & Abernethy, Society London B, 1627–1633.
School of Kinesiology & Health Science,   B. (2006). When “where” is more important than 35. Schorer, J., Baker, J., Büsch, D., Wilhelm, A. & Pabst,
York University “when”: birthplace and birthdate effects on the J. (2009). Relative age, talent identification and
4700 Keele St., M3J 1P3 Toronto achievement of sporting expertise. International youth skill development: Do relatively younger
Ontario Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 1065–1073. athletes have superior technical skills? Talent De-
Kanada 16. Delorme, N. & Raspaud, M. (2009). The relative age velopment and Excellence, 1, 45–56.
effect in young French basketball players: a study 36. Schorer, J., Baker, J., Lotz, S. & Büsch, D. (in press).
bakerj@yorku.ca
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