Early African

Civilizations 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1500

Section 1 Development of African Civilizations
Section 2 Kingdoms and States of Africa
Section 3 African Society and Culture

MAKING CONNECTIONS
How does the environment impact
where we live?
Mali’s Bandiagara escarpment is a sandstone cliff that rises about
1640 feet (500 m) above sand flats. When the Tellem built houses in
the cliffs, they probably used vines to reach them. Over the years the
climate has changed, and drought has reduced the vegetation. Today
the Dogon people farm and live above or below the cliffs. In this
chapter you will learn about Africa’s civilizations.
• Why might people choose not to live in existing houses?
• What types of natural disasters destroy housing in the
United States?

2000 B.C. A.D. 330 c. A.D. 1000

Trade thrives Stele of King Ezana, Bantu spread
between Egypt who converts ironworking
AFRICA and Nubia to Christianity across Africa

2000 B.C. A.D. 100 A.D. 1000

THE WORLD A.D. 630 A.D. 800

Muhammad returns Charlemagne crowned
to Makkah Roman Emperor

234
Dave Bartruff/CORBIS, age fotostock/SuperStock
 Comparing and
Kingdom
Contrasting om
Kingd na of Mali
King
of So dom
A.D. 1312 c. A.D. 1490 Create a Three- o f G ha ngha
i
Mansa Mūsā becomes Area south Pocket book and
King of Mali of Sahara use it to store notes about the people,
accepts Islam places, and events of the kingdoms of
Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Organize the
notes in the appropriate pocket.
A.D. 1500

A.D. 1279
Kublai Khan establishes
the Yuan dynasty in China
(ISTORY /.,).%
Chapter Overview—Visit glencoe.com to preview Chapter 7.

age fotostock/SuperStock, (t) HIP/Art Resource, NY, (b) AAAC/Topham/The Image Works
 Development of African Civilizations
The second-largest continent on Earth, Africa includes a
GUIDE TO READING dazzling array of landforms, from rugged mountains to vast
The BIG Idea river basins and deep canyons. Its climate varies from region to
Physical Geography The widely varied region, from mild climates suitable for farming to rain forests
geography of Africa influenced its culture and trade.
and arid deserts. Both Africa’s landforms and climate zones
Content Vocabulary influence the ways in which its people live.
• plateau (p. 236)
• savanna (p. 237)
The Impact of Geography
Academic Vocabulary
• so-called (p. 236) Africa includes a wide variety of landforms and a number of differ-
ent climate zones that have influenced its history and culture.
• resources (p. 239)
HISTORY & YOU What examples can you give of how landforms and climate
People and Places zones vary across North America? Learn why various regions of Africa developed
• Sahara (p. 236) differently.
• Great Rift Valley (p. 236)
• Congo River (p. 236)
The landforms and climates of Africa presented both challenges
• Kalahari Desert (p. 237)
and opportunities to its early civilizations.
• Nubia (p. 238)
• Kushites (p. 238)
• Ethiopia (p. 239) Landforms
• King ‘Ezānā (p. 239) After Asia, Africa is the largest of the continents. It stretches
nearly 5,000 miles (around 8,000 km) from the Mediterranean Sea
Reading Strategy in the north to the Cape of Good Hope in the south. The continent
Cause and Effect As you read, create a is almost completely surrounded by two oceans and two seas.
chart like the one below to help you study. As diverse as it is vast, Africa includes several distinct geo-
graphical zones. The northern fringe, on the coast washed by the
Cause Effect
Mediterranean Sea, is mountainous along much of its length.
South of the mountains lies the largest desert on Earth, the Sahara,
which stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean. To
the east is the Nile River, heart of the ancient Egyptian civiliza-
tion. Beyond that lies the Red Sea, separating Africa from Asia.
Africa south of the Sahara is divided into a number of major
regions. In the west is the so-called hump of Africa, which juts
like a massive shoulder into the Atlantic Ocean. Here the Sahara
gradually gives way to grasslands in the interior and then to trop-
ical jungles along the coast.
Far to the east is a very different terrain of snow-capped moun-
tains, upland plateaus, and lakes. A distinctive feature is the Great
Rift Valley, where mountains loom over deep canyons. Much of
this region is grassland populated by wild animals. Farther to the
south lies the Congo basin, with its dense vegetation watered by
the mighty Congo River. The tropical rain forests of this area then
fade gradually into the hills, plateaus (relatively high, flat land
areas), and deserts of the south.

236
 0°
CLIMATE ZONES AND GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA
I NS Medi
U N TA terranean Se
a
O 40°E 60°E
A S M
A TL Suez Canal
20°E SINAI PENINSULA
Canary Ni
Islands l

e
20°W S A H A R A

R.
TROPIC OF CANCER

Re
Cape Lake
LIBYAN Nasser

dS
AHAGGAR
Blanc MOUNTAINS NUBIA N
TIBESTI DESERT 20°N

ea
DESERT
MOUNTAINS
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eg

Cape

Ni

B lu
al

Verde

ge
de n
R.

eN
Lake
fA

rR
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White Gul

ile
.
Nile R.

R.
ETHIOPIAN
R. HIGHLANDS SOMA LI
B e nu e PENINSUL A

Y
LE
Lake

AL
Volta Lake

FT V
Tropical Turkana

.
n g U b an g i R

T RI
Tropical wet Gulf of Guinea Lake

GR E A
Tropical dry R.
Albert EQUATOR
0°
Dry Cape CONGO

o
Lake Kilimanjaro
Steppe ATLANTIC Lopez BASIN Victoria 19,340 ft. (5,895 m)

Co
Desert OCEAN N Lake Pemba Island
Midlatitude Tanganyika
Zanzibar Island
Mediterranean E
W Cape
Humid subtropical Delgado
BIÉ Lake
Marine west coast S PL ATEAU Malawi
KATA NGA
l
INDIAN
High latitude PL ATEAU

ne
Lake Z amb e OCEAN

an
Highland (climate Kariba z

Ch
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varies with elevation)

ue
.
Madagascar

iq
mb
NA

20°S

za
op o
mp
MIB

Mo
Li
R.

TROPIC OF CAPR
ICORN
DE S E R

KALAHARI
Africa’s geographical and climatic zones DESERT
T

affect the way its people live. O r a n ge

G

R.
ER
SB

1. Human-Environment Interaction
EN

AK 0 600 kilometers
Using the text and map, analyze Africa’s DR
food production capabilities. Cape of 0 600 miles
Good Hope Lambert Azimuthal
2. Regions Explain how Africa’s geography Equal-Area projection
affected its trading patterns.

Climate rains and warm temperatures produce dense

Africa includes four distinct climate forests where little farming and little travel
zones. A mild climate zone stretches across are possible. The rain forest is home to the
the northern coast and southern tip of tsetse (SET•see) fly, which infects both ani-
Africa. Moderate rainfall, warm tempera- mals and humans with sleeping sickness.
tures, and fertile land produce abundant Savannas, broad grasslands dotted with
crops that can support large populations. small trees and shrubs, exist both north and
Deserts form another climate zone, cov- south of the rain forest. They cover perhaps
ering about 40 percent of Africa. The Sahara 40 percent of Africa’s land area. The savan-
in the north and the Kalahari in the south nas get enough rainfall for farming and
are the two largest deserts. herding, but the rain is unreliable.
A third climate zone is the rain forest that
stretches along the equator and makes up ✓Reading Check Identifying What are Africa’s
about 10 percent of the continent. Heavy four climate zones?

CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 237

 Emerging Civilizations Kush
By 2000 b.c., a busy trade had arisen
and Religions between Egypt and the area to the south
known as Nubia. Egyptian merchants
Kush and Axum arose as strong early
civilizations. Later, Islam would influence Africa. traveled to Nubia to obtain ivory, ebony,
frankincense (a fragrant tree resin), and
HISTORY & YOU How do people in your region
leopard skins. Although Nubia was sub-
benefit from local natural resources? Read how the
ject to Egyptian control for many centuries,
early Africans used the resources in their environment.
it freed itself around 1000 b.c. and became
the independent state of Kush.
About seven or eight thousand years In 750 b.c., Kush conquered Egypt. In
ago, hunters and gatherers in Africa began 663 b.c., however, the Kushites, who were
to tame animals and grow crops. The mas- still using bronze and stone weapons, were
tery of farming, called the Agricultural overwhelmed by the Assyrians, who were
Revolution, gave rise to Africa’s first civili- armed with iron spears and swords. The
zations, including Egypt (discussed in Kushites, driven out of Egypt, returned to
Chapter 2), Kush, and Axum. their original lands in the upper Nile valley.

THE KINGDOMS OF KUSH AND AXUM

Two Centers of Trade in Africa

30°E 35°E Kingdom Kush Axum
30°N
Era 1000 B.C.–A.D. 150 A.D. 100–1400
Origins Nubia, ties to Egypt Arab colony
EGYPT
Language Coptic alphabet and Geez, a Semitic
hieroglyphics, later language, rulers spoke
0 200 kilometers Meroitic language Greek
Thebes Religion Polytheistic, similar to Became Christian state
0 200 miles
25°N Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection Egyptian religion in A.D. 330
Madinah Capital Meroë—temples, palaces, Axum—known for
(Medina) TROPIC OF CANCER
observatory, art, pyramids architecture and wealth
ARABIA
40°E Other Cities Napata—old capital of Adulis—port city on
Gebel Adda
Makkah
Kush kingdom the Red Sea
R.

(Mecca)
Re
le

N
Ni

dS

20°N W E
ea

Karmah
S

Dongola 45°E
KUSH Najran
Meroë
The kingdoms of Kush and Axum were both
Soba Kassala Adulis thriving trade centers. In 350 the Kush
15°N kingdom collapsed after an attack by Axum.
Axum
AXUM 1. Human-Environment Interaction
Sennar Saba How did the location of each kingdom
contribute to its development?
2. Regions Which neighboring regions
played a key role in the culture and history
of Kush and Axum?
 The economy of Kush was based on farming at first.
Kush soon emerged, however, as one of the major trading
states in the region, with its center at the city of Meroë
(MEHR•oh•wee). Meroë was located where a newly
opened land route across the desert to the north crossed
the Nile. Meroë had abundant iron ore resources. Having Vocabulary
1. Explain the significance of: Sahara, so-
learned iron ore smelting from the Assyrians, the Kushites
called, Great Rift Valley, Congo River,
made iron weapons and tools. plateau, Kalahari, savanna, Nubia, Kushites,
For the next several hundred years, Kush was a major resources, Ethiopia, King ‘Ezānā
trading empire. Kush provided iron products, ivory, gold,
ebony, and slaves from central and eastern Africa to the
Roman Empire, Arabia, and India. In return, the Kushites
Main Ideas
2. List the major landforms found in Africa.
received luxury goods from India and Arabia.
It seems likely that Kushite society was mostly urban. At 3. Identify the trade product that affected
first, state authorities probably controlled foreign trade. relations between Kush and Axum.
Extensive luxury goods found in private tombs indicate 4. Create a chart like the one below to
that material prosperity was relatively widespread. compare the occupations, natural
resources, imports, and exports of Kush
and Axum.
Axum
Kush Axum
Kush flourished from about 250 b.c. to about a.d. 150
but declined because of the rise of Axum. Located in what
is now Ethiopia, Axum was founded by Arabs and com-
bined Arab and African cultures.
Critical Thinking
Axum owed its prosperity to its location along the Red 5. The BIG Idea Making Connections
Sea, on the trade route between India and the Mediterra- How did trade help facilitate the spread of
nean. Axum exported ivory, frankincense, myrrh, and Islam across Africa?
slaves. It imported textiles, metal goods, wine, and olive oil.
6. Analyzing How did the technology of iron
For a time, Axum competed with the neighboring state of ore smelting help Kush to become a
Kush for control of the ivory trade. Probably as a result of powerful trading state?
this competition for ivory, in the fourth century a.d., King
7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the map on
‘Ezānā, the Axumite ruler, invaded and conquered Kush.
page 238. How did the size (land area) of
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Axumite civiliza- Axum compare to that of Kush?
tion was its religion. About a.d. 330, King ‘Ezānā converted
to Christianity, which was first brought to Axum by ship-
wrecked Syrians. The king made Christianity Axum’s official Writing About History
8. Narrative Writing Describe how Meroë’s
religion. Within a few centuries, a new religion—Islam—
location and its natural resources
brought profound challenges to the kingdom. contributed to the rise of Kush as a major
trading empire.
Rise of Islam
Islam rose from the Arabian Peninsula, and then spread
across the region. In 641, Arab forces captured Egypt. By
the early 700s, Arabs ruled North Africa’s coast west to the
Strait of Gibraltar. Muslim states also occupied lands along
the Red Sea. Their relationship with Christian Axum was
relatively peaceful. Beginning in the twelfth century, Mus-
lim states moved inland to gain control over the trade in
slaves and ivory. Axum fought back. By the early fifteenth
century, Axum had become involved in a growing conflict
with the Muslim state of Adal, located at the point
where the Indian Ocean meets the Red Sea. (ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Summarizing How did conquest and trade History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
affect the people of Kush and Axum?

239
 0 1,000 kilometers

0 1,000 miles
Miller projection

30°N
PERSIA

EGYPT Persian Gulf

CHINA
Re

(Arabian Gulf)
dS

TROPIC OF CANCER INDIA

Arabian
ea

Arabian Sea
20°N
Peninsula
N
Bay of
W Bengal
E
s
ind to Java
Zeila nW Calicut
S so
o and China
10°N on s
rM
ind

m me
W

Su
n

Ceylon
oo
ns
Mo

Mogadishu
ter

EQUATOR
0°
Win

INDIAN OCEAN

Java
Kilwa
10°S
Trade routes and commodities
Major trade route
Direction of trade

Madagascar Ivory Textiles

20°S
Great Copper Spices
Zimbabwe TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
Gold Porcelain
Iron ore Incense

30°E 40°E 50°E 60°E 70°E 80°E 90°E 100°E 110°E

30°S

The Great Mosque of

Kilwa, built of coral
limestone from the
Indian Ocean, dates
from the 11–13th
centuries.

Trading made Great

Zimbabwe the wealthy
capital of an inland African
society around 1290.

(l) Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY, (r) Chris Howes/Wild Places Photography/Alamy Images
 Early version of lateen,
or triangular sail

Trade Networks
From East Africa
To Asia
Crossing the Indian Ocean For over one thousand
years Arab traders controlled the sea routes from East
Africa to Asia. They began to sail these routes as early
as A.D. 500 and kept their hold on the valuable Indian
Ocean trade until 1500.
As they sailed back and forth across the Indian
Ocean, Arab traders and sailors took advantage of the
seasonal Indian Ocean wind patterns known as the
monsoons. Formed as a result of air warming or cool-
ing over the Asian continent, these winds blow in a
northeasterly direction in the spring and summer and
Hull made of planks of teak in a southwesterly direction in the fall and winter.
or coconut palm wood, Traders relied on the seasonal monsoon winds to help
stitched together with twine them cross the Indian Ocean to Asia in the late spring
and summer and return speedily to East Africa in the
late fall or winter.

Inland Networks Swahili traders built regional

Manuscript
showing 13th-century trade links between inland African kingdoms and
sailing ship, called a states and coastal cities to obtain local trade goods for
dhow, used by Arab trade with Asia. These goods included natural resources
traders to travel such as ivory, copper, and iron, as well as rhinoceros
the Indian Ocean horn. Gold came to Sofalo from the area near Great
trade routes.
Zimbabwe.

Portuguese Take Control In the early 1500s, Arab

traders lost control of trade with Asia. In 1498
Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama established a sea
route to Asia across the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese
moved quickly to take control of trading at the East
African ports. Lacking large armies, weapons, or forts
for protection, the traders were no match for their
Portuguese attackers. The disruption of the long-estab-
lished networks ended East African trading.

1. Place How did the location of the East

African cities contribute to their suc-
cess as trading ports?
Arab merchants brought 2. Movement How did the movement of
Chinese porcelains to East goods along the Indian Ocean trade
Africa in the early 1400s. networks contribute to the spread of
ideas?

CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 241

(t) Sonia Halliday Photographs, (b) Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library
 Kingdoms and States of Africa
As African civilizations developed, great trading states arose.
GUIDE TO READING Traveling across the desert and over the wide Indian Ocean,
The BIG Idea traders from these states helped make their people rich and
Order and Security The expansion of powerful. Trade not only resulted in a transfer of ivory, gold,
trade enabled the kingdoms and states of Africa to
and other valuable merchandise, but also in a transfer of
protect their people and to prosper.
cultures, spreading religion, languages, and new ideas.
Content Vocabulary
• subsistence farming • stateless society
(p. 247) (p. 249) The Kingdom of Ghana
• Swahili (p. 248)
Trade in gold helped create a strong economy in Ghana, bringing
Academic Vocabulary wealth to its merchants and its kings.
• factor (p. 243) • security (p. 245) HISTORY & YOU Would you be willing to trade a lump of gold for a pile of salt?
• administrative (p. 244) Read why salt was so valuable to the Africans.

People and Places

• Ghana (p. 242) • Muhammad Ture Ghana, the first great trading state in West Africa, emerged as
• Berbers (p. 243) (p. 245) early as a.d. 500. The kingdom of Ghana was located in the upper
• Sundiata Keita • Bantu (p. 247) Niger River valley, a grassland region between the Sahara and the
(p. 244) • Mogadishu (p. 247) tropical forests along the West African coast. (The modern state of
• Mali (p. 244) • Mombasa (p. 247) Ghana takes its name from this early state, but is located in the
• Timbuktu (p. 244) • Kilwa (p. 247) forest region to the south.) Most of the people in the area were
• Mansa Mūsā (p. 244) • Ibn Battuta (p. 247) farmers living in villages under the authority of a local ruler.
• Sunni Ali (p. 245) • Zimbabwe (p. 249) Together, the villages formed the kingdom of Ghana.
The kings of Ghana were strong rulers who governed without
Reading Strategy any laws. They played active roles in running the kingdom, and
Categorizing Information As you read, their wealth was vast. Al-Bakri, an eleventh-century Muslim trav-
create a chart like the one below to help you study. eler, wrote of the Ghanaian king’s court:
Ghana Mali Songhai
PRIMARY SOURCE
“The king sits in audience or to hear grievances against officials in a domed
pavilion around which stand ten horses covered with gold-embroidered
materials. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated
with gold, and on his right are the sons of subordinate kings of his country
wearing splendid garments and their hair mixed with gold.”
—Al-Bakri

To protect their kingdom and enforce their wishes, Ghanaian

kings relied on a well-trained regular army of thousands of
men.
The people of Ghana had lived off the land for centuries. In ad-
dition they prospered from their possession of both iron and gold.
The region had an abundant supply of iron ore. The skilled
blacksmiths of Ghana were highly valued because of their ability
to turn this ore into tools and weapons.

242
 The Economy of the Kingdom of Ghana

Iron Ore Gold Mining

• created agricultural tools for use and trade • its location near one of Africa’s richest gold-
• created weapons used for use and trade producing areas increased Ghana’s wealth

Kingdom of Ghana’s
Economy
Trade
• traded with Muslim merchants
Agriculture • exchanged iron goods and gold for salt, metal
• fertile soil and iron tools helped farmers goods, textiles, and horses
produce a surplus of food allowing other • increased demand by Muslim merchants for gold,
parts of the economy to grow as currency increased Ghana’s trading power
Spoons and weights for
weighing gold dust

C07-13P

1. Determining Cause and Effect How

might the economy of the Kingdom of
Ghana have been different if it did not
have fertile soil?
2. Describing Describe the way Ghana
Salt at a salt mine used its natural resources to build its
economy.

Ghana also had an abundance of gold. in trade across the Sahara, since they were
The heartland of the state was located near well-adapted to desert conditions.
one of the richest gold-producing areas in As many as a hundred camels would be
all of Africa. Ghana’s gold made it the cen- loaded with goods and supplies for the
ter of an enormous trade empire. journey across the desert. The caravan
Ghanaians traded their abundant gold moved at a rate of about three miles (4.8
for products brought from North Africa. km) per hour. A caravan might take 40 to
Muslim merchants from North Africa 60 days to reach its destination.
exchanged metal goods, textiles, horses, The trading merchants and kings of
and salt with the Ghanaians. Salt, a highly Ghana often became wealthy. Kings also
desired item, was used to preserve food prospered because they imposed taxes on
and to improve food’s taste. It was also goods that entered or left the kingdom. By
important because people needed extra the eighth and ninth centuries, however,
salt to replace what their bodies lost in the much of this trade was carried by Muslim
hot climate. Other Ghanaian exports, merchants. They bought the goods from
including ivory, hides, and slaves, were local traders, using iron or copper or items
carried to the markets of the Mediterra- from as far away as Southwest Asia. They
nean and beyond. then sold them to Berbers, who carried
Trade across the desert was carried by them across the desert.
the Berbers, nomadic peoples whose camel
caravans became known as the “fleets of ✓Reading Check Examining What role did the
the desert.” Camels became a crucial factor Berbers play in African trade?

CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 243

(l) Charles O’Rear/CORBIS, (r) Art Archive/Musée des Arts Africains et Océaniens/Dagli Orti
 The Kingdom of Mali power on the gold and salt trade. Most of its
people, however, were farmers who grew
Powerful leadership helped Mali thrive. grains such as sorghum, millet, and rice.
The farmers lived in villages with local rul-
HISTORY & YOU Why do some empires and coun- ers, who served as both religious and
tries expand more easily than others? Read how West
African rulers were able to expand their empires.
administrative leaders. The ruler sent tax
revenues from the village to the king.

Ghana flourished for several hundred

years. Eventually weakened by wars, it
Reign of Mansa Musa
collapsed during the 1100s. In its place rose One of the richest and most powerful
new trading states in West Africa. The kings was Mansa Mūsā , who ruled from
greatest was Mali, established in the mid- 1312 to 1337 (mansa means “king”). Mansa
thirteenth century by Sundiata Keita. Mūsā doubled the size of the kingdom of
Mali. He created a strong central govern-
ment and divided the kingdom into prov-
Founding and Economy inces ruled by governors whom he
Like George Washington in the United appointed. Once he felt secure, he
States, Sundiata is considered the founder decided—as a devout Muslim—to make a
of his nation. Sundiata defeated Ghana and pilgrimage to Makkah.
captured its capital in 1240. He united the A king, of course, was no ordinary pil-
people of Mali and created a strong govern- grim. Mansa Mūsā was joined by thou-
ment. Extending from the Atlantic coast sands of servants and soldiers on this
inland as far as the famous trading city of journey. Accompanying the people were
Timbuktu (tihm•BUHK•TOO), present- hundreds of camels carrying gold, as well
day Tombouctou, Mali built its wealth and as food, clothing, and other supplies.
Everywhere he went, Mansa Mūsā lav-
ished gold gifts on his hosts and bought
hundreds of items with gold. In fact, by
putting so much gold into circulation in
such a short time, he caused its value to
fall.
Sundiata Keita Mansa Mūsā’s pilgrimage demonstrated
c. 1210–1255 Malian ruler his wealth and power. His journey also
had another legacy. Mansa Mūsā was
Sundiata belonged to a family that had ruled in Mali for about two
inspired to make Timbuktu a center of
centuries. Born with a disability, he was still unable to walk at seven
years old. Eventually, a blacksmith made braces for Sundiata’s legs and
Islamic learning and culture. In Timbuktu,
he gradually and painfully learned to walk. When his half-brother became he built mosques and libraries. He brought
ruler, Sundiata and his mother fled. While in exile, he became headman scholars to the city to study the Quran.
of a village and raised a personal army. After the kingdom of Susu con- Timbuktu became recognized as one of
quered Mali and killed Sundiata’s brothers, Sundiata marched the intellectual capitals of the Muslim
on Susu and killed their king. Because of bravery and world. The city attracted religious leaders,
courage, he became ruler, or mansa, of Mali. scholars, and artists from all over the Mid-
Sundiata ruled Mali from 1230 to dle East and Africa. As many as 20,000 stu-
1255. As a powerful warrior-king dents may have attended the famous
and the founder of the king- Sankore mosque.
dom of Mali, Sundiata Keita Mansa Mūsā proved to be the last pow-
became revered as the
erful ruler of Mali. By 1359, civil war
father of his country.
How did Sundiata
divided Mali. Within another hundred
become ruler of Mali? years a new kingdom—that of Songhai—
was beginning to surpass Mali.

✓Reading Check Summarizing What were

Mansa Mūsā’s accomplishments?

244 SECTION 2 Kingdoms and States of Africa

Illustration by David Wisniewski
 The Kingdom of Songhai Among his most important administra-
tive accomplishments was uniting rural
Situated along the Niger River, the and city dwellers, who often had differing
Songhai became powerful traders. interests, under a single government.
The Songhai Empire reached the height
HISTORY & YOU How do rivers promote trade?
Read how the Niger River helped the development
of its power during the reign of Muhammad
of Songhai. Ture. A military commander and devout
Muslim, Muhammad Ture overthrew the
son of Sunni Ali and seized power in 1493,
Like the Nile, the Niger River floods, thus creating a new dynasty, the Askia.
providing a rich soil for raising crops and Askia means “usurper.”
taking care of cattle. East of Timbuktu, the Muhammad Ture continued Sunni Ali’s
Niger makes a wide bend. Along the river, policy of expansion, creating an empire
south of that bend, a people known as the that stretched a thousand miles along the
Songhai established themselves there. Niger River. He was an able administrator
In 1009, a ruler named Kossi converted to who divided Songhai into provinces.
Islam and established the Dia dynasty. This Muhammad Ture maintained the peace
first Songhai state benefited from the Mus- and security of his kingdom with a navy
lim trade routes linking Arabia, North and soldiers on horseback. The chief cities
Africa, and West Africa. An era of prosperity of the empire prospered as never before
ensued with Gao as the chief trade center. from the expanding salt and gold trade.
Under Sunni Ali, who created a new After Muhammad Ture’s reign, Songhai
dynasty—the Sunni—in 1464, Songhai entered a period of slow decline. Near the
began to expand. Sunni Ali spent much of end of the sixteenth century, that decline
his reign on horseback and on the march as quickened when the forces of the sultan of
he led his army in one military campaign Morocco occupied much of Songhai. One
after another. His armies both defended observer wrote, “From that moment on,
Songhai territory from attacks by outsiders everything changed. Danger took the place
and conquered new territories. of security, poverty [took the place] of
Two of Sunni Ali’s conquests, Timbuktu wealth. Peace gave way to distress, disas-
and Jenné, were especially important. They ters, and violence.” By 1600, the Songhai
gave Songhai control of the trading Empire was little more than a remnant of
empire—especially trade in salt and gold— its former glorious self.
that had made Ghana and Mali so prosper-
ous. Sunni Ali not only controlled the ✓Reading Check Summarizing What were the
military, but the government of Songhai. key factors in Songhai’s rise to power?

TRADE IN WEST AFRICA, 800–1500

Fès 0° Tripoli Mediterranean Sea 40°E

Marrakech Cairo
Ni
S A H A R A Ghana, c. A.D. 1050
le

ATLANTIC Taghaza
R.

TROPIC OF CANCER Mali, A.D. 1300s

OCEAN
Re

Timbuktu Makkah Benin, c. A.D. 1500

d

20°N
(Tombouctou) (Mecca)
Songhai, A.D. 1500s
Se
a

Sene
Kumbi Trade route
Saleh
ga

Gold source
Ni
lR

ge

N Djenné
.

Sennar Salt source

rR
.

W Kano
E
S Benin See StudentWorks™ Plus
20°W 60°E
or glencoe.com.
0 600 kilometers

0 600 miles
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
 THE BANTUS SPREAD
IRON WORKING
Through migration, the Bantus spread ironworking axes and hoes. Africans replaced their stone and
through eastern and southern Africa. Early uses for iron wooden tools with these more effective, iron versions
likely included small personal items like razors, needles, that aided in agricultural advances and the rise of
and knives. Advances in iron-smelting eventually led to village life. Iron working was the key component in the
the development of agricultural implements such as rise of many African kingdoms.

Transfer of Development
Bantu Growth of Growth of
ironworking of better
migration agriculture villages
technology tools

THE BANTU MIGRATION

R.
B enue
Wh R .
N il

it e
e

Lake
i R.

Turkana
U b an g

Gulf of Guinea Co n g o R . Lake

EQUATOR Albert
0° Bantu homeland
Lake Bantu movements
N Lake Victoria INDIAN
Early Iron Age site
Tanganyika OCEAN
W E
Lake
S Malawi
0 600 kilometers

0 600 miles Z a m b e zi 60°E

Lambert Azimuthal
R.

Equal-Area projection
el
ann
Na

20°S
mbi

Ch

op o
KALAHARI mp
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN Li
b Des

ue
R.

DESERT
biq
er t

am

ATLANTIC O r an
oz

ge
OCEAN R. 1. Location Where does most of the iron-
M

working seem to have taken place?

20°E 2. Human-Environmental Interaction
0° 40°E What affect did the Bantu migration have
on other Africans?
Societies in East Africa and eighth centuries a.d., the eastern coast
of Africa became a part of the trading net-
The migration of the Bantu and Indian work along the Indian Ocean. Beginning in
Ocean trade changed East Africa. the eighth century, Muslims from the Ara-
bian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf began
HISTORY & YOU Why do people migrate to new
regions? Read how the Bantus spread their culture.
to settle at ports along the coast.
The result was the formation of a string
of trading ports that included Mogadishu
In eastern Africa, a variety of states and (moh•guh•DEE•shoo), Mombasa, and
societies took root. Islam strongly influ- Kilwa in the south. Merchants in these cit-
enced many of them. Some became ies grew very wealthy. One of the most
extremely wealthy through trade. magnificent cities was Kilwa, which was
located in what is now Tanzania.
Migration of the Bantus In the fourteenth century, two monu-
mental buildings were constructed in
South of Axum, along the shores of the
Kilwa of coral cut from the cliffs along the
Indian Ocean and inland from the moun-
shore. One was the Great Mosque of Kilwa.
tains of Ethiopia, lived a mixture of peo-
Even grander was the Husuni Kubwa pal-
ples. Some lived by hunting and food
ace, an enormous clifftop building that
gathering, while others raised livestock.
contained more than a hundred rooms.
In the first millennium b.c., farming peo-
Members of Kilwa’s wealthy elite built
ples who spoke dialects of the Bantu
their houses near the palace and the Great
(BAN•too) family of languages began to
Mosque. With imported Chinese porcelain
move from the Niger River region into East
and indoor plumbing, these homes pro-
Africa. They moved slowly, not as invad-
vided a luxurious lifestyle.
ing hordes, but as small communities.
Arab traveler Ibn Battuta, who lived in
Recent archaeological work has provided
the fourteenth century, was among those
many insights into Bantu society. Their
who visited the cities of Kilwa, Mogadi-
communities were based on subsistence
shu, and Mombasa. One of the most widely
farming—growing crops for personal use,
traveled people of his time period, Battuta
not for sale. Grains like millet and sorghum
traveled as many as 75,000 miles, visiting
were the primary crops, along with yams,
almost all Muslim countries and even
melons, and beans. Iron and stone tools
reaching China. As Battuta traveled, he
were used to farm the land. Men hunted or
recorded his impressions about the places
conducted local trade in salt, copper, and
he visited.
iron ore, while women tilled the fields and
No stranger to the architectural wonders
cared for the children.
of his time, Battuta called Kilwa, which he
The Bantus spread iron-smelting tech-
visited in 1331, “one of the most beautiful
niques across Africa and the knowledge of
towns in the world.” Kilwa’s splendor did
high-yield crops like yams and bananas.
not last long, however. Kilwa began to
Some time after a.d. 1000, descendants of a
decline, and the Portuguese finished the
Bantu tribe established the prosperous city
job in 1505 by sacking the city and destroy-
of Great Zimbabwe. The center of a thriv-
ing its major buildings.
ing state, Great Zimbabwe dominated the
Located just north of the Equator, Moga-
trade route to the coast.
dishu was also founded by Arab traders.
Arising in the tenth century, this trading
Indian Ocean Trade and Ports port enjoyed hundreds of years of prosper-
On the eastern fringe of the continent, ity, but declined in the sixteenth century.
the Bantu-speaking peoples began to take Arab traders settled Mombasa, which is
part in the regional sea trade up and down located on the coast of present-day Kenya,
the East African coast. in the eleventh century. Like Mogadishu
With the growth in regional trade fol- and Kilwa, Mombasa played a key role in
lowing the rise of Islam during the seventh trade across the Indian Ocean.

CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 247

 Indian Ocean Trade
100°E 120°E

Trade route
40°E
Aral
60°E 80°E

Cas
Sea
Black Sea

pian
Items not available in Africa — such
40°N as cotton, silk, and porcelain — were
Sea He
imported from Asia. ng .)
Hua ow R
l
SYRIA (Yel
Alexandria Baghdad ASIA Luoyang 140°E

R.
Jerusalem PERSIA Chang’an

Indus
(Yangtze
g R.)
Cairo Persian Gulf i an
gJ Hangzhou
Brahmaputra R. an
(Arabian Gulf)

Ch
CHINA

R.
Madinah Ganges R.

y
add
EGYPT (Medina) Quanzhou
TROPIC OF CANCER

aw
Arabian Peninsula Guangzhou

Me
le

Irr
Ni

k
Makkah
R.

on
20°N (Mecca)

g
INDIA

R.
Red Sea Bay of
NUBIA South PACIFIC
Arabian Bengal
Axum Sea China OCEAN
Socotra Sea

ETHIOPIA Ceylon
AFRICA
Mogadishu Melaka
Strait of
Malacca

Su
0°
EQUATOR Borneo

ma
Molucca

tra
Malindi Islands
Trade, intermarriage, and travel spread INDIAN
Mombasa Islam and Arab culture through the regions OCEAN
Zanzibar south and east of the Arabian Peninsula. Java
Kilwa Timor
Comoro Is.
East African city-states obtained
Mozambique
gold, ivory, iron and slaves from
trade with inland kingdoms. Between A.D. 800 and 1500, powerful city-states
flourished around the African ports of Kilwa,
Zimbabwe Madagascar Sofala, Mombasa, and Malindi.
N TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

1. Regions What kind of items did Africa export?

0 800 kilometers
W E 2. Human-Environment Interactions In addi-
0 800 miles
Robinson projection S tion to trade, what other factors aided in the
spread of Islam?

As time passed, a mixed African- arose as a result of trade between people

Arabian culture, eventually known as from Arab lands and the Bantu people who
Swahili (swah•HEE•lee), began to emerge lived along Africa’s eastern coast. The lan-
throughout the coastal area. Intermarriage guage incorporated words from both Bantu
was common among the ruling groups. and Arabic. It enabled these two groups of
Gradually, the Muslim religion and Arabic people without a common language to
architectural styles became part of a soci- communicate and trade. As Arab trade in
ety that was still largely African. ivory and slaves spread north and west,
The term Swahili (from sahel, meaning the Swahili language spread there, too.
“coast” in Arabic, and thus “peoples of the
coast”) was also applied to the major lan- ✓Reading Check Describing How did the arrival
guage used in the area. The Swahili language of Arab traders influence life in eastern Africa?

248 SECTION 2 Kingdoms and States of Africa

Societies in South Africa
In southern Africa, independent villages organized into
states, the most powerful of which was Zimbabwe.
HISTORY & YOU Why might groups of villages organize into a unified Vocabulary
state? Read how the organization of village in southern Africa was differ- 1. Explain the significance of: Ghana,
ent from the rest of the continent. Berbers, factor, Mali, Sundiata Kieta,
Timbuktu, administrative, Mansa Mūsā,
Sunni Ali, Muhammad Ture, security, Bantu,
In the southern half of the African continent, states subsistence farming, Mogadishu,
formed more slowly than in the north. Until the eleventh Mombasa, Kilwa, Ibn Battuta, Swahili,
century a.d., most of the peoples in this region lived in stateless societies, Zimbabwe.
what are sometimes called stateless societies—groups of
independent villages organized by clans and led by a local Main Ideas
ruler or clan head. 2. Identify the mineral that gave Ghana its
In the grassland regions south of the Zambezi River, a trading power.
mixed economy of farming, cattle herding, and trade had 3. Name the river on which the Songhai
developed over a period of many centuries. Villages were Empire was located.
usually built inside walls to protect the domestic animals 4. Create a chart like the one below
from wild animals at night. Beginning in the eleventh cen- describing the cultural and technological
tury, some of these villages in southern Africa gradually contributions made by Ghana, Mali, and
united. Zimbabwe.
From about 1300 to about 1450, Zimbabwe (zihm•BAH•
bwee) was the wealthiest and most powerful state in the Kingdom Contributions
region. It prospered from the gold trade with the Swahili Ghana
Mali
trading communities on the eastern coast of Africa. Indeed,
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe’s gold ended up in the court of Kublai Khan,
emperor of China.
The ruins of Zimbabwe’s capital, known as Great Zim- Critical Thinking
babwe, illustrate the kingdom’s power and influence. The 5. The BIG Idea Determining Cause and
Effect What motivated the people of Africa
town sits on a hill overlooking the Zambezi River and is
to trade?
surrounded by stone walls. Ten thousand residents would
have been able to live in the area enclosed by the walls. 6. Making Inferences Why might an
Artifacts found at the site include household implements, anthropologist be interested in Ibn Battuta’s
writings?
ornaments made of gold and copper, and porcelain
imported from China. 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the weights
The Great Enclosure, whose exact purpose is not known, on page 243. How were they used to
dominated the site. It was an oval space surrounded by a measure gold? Why do you think they were
decorated?
wall 800 feet long, 17 feet thick, and 32 feet high (about 244
m long, 5 m thick, and 10 m high). Near the Great Enclo-
sure were smaller walled enclosures that contained round Writing About History
houses built of a mudlike cement on stone foundations. In 8. Narrative Writing Imagine you are a
the valley below was the royal palace, surrounded by a trader in a Berber caravan. Describe the
preparations you must make and thoughts
high stone wall.
about your journey.
The massive walls of Great Zimbabwe are unusual. The
local people stacked granite blocks together without mor-
tar to build the walls. By the middle of the fifteenth cen-
tury, however, the city was abandoned, possibly because
of damage to the land through over-grazing or natural
disasters such as droughts and crop failures.
(ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Evaluating What do the walled enclosures tell History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
us about Great Zimbabwe?

249
 African Society and Culture
African societies were based on extended family units, with
GUIDE TO READING most people living in rural villages. Most Africans shared
The BIG Idea common traditional religious beliefs and customs, especially
Ideas, Beliefs, and Values African the honoring of their ancestors. Through unique musical forms
society was centered on village and family life, with
and storytelling, Africa’s rich cultural heritage was passed from
distinct religious beliefs and a rich culture.
one generation to the next—influencing world culture today.
Content Vocabulary
• lineage group (p. 251) • diviner (p. 253)
• matrilineal (p. 252) • griot (p. 255) Aspects of African Society
• patrilineal (p. 252)
African society was strongly influenced by values and customs,
such as the importance of the family, common ancestors, and community
Academic Vocabulary education.
• founding (p. 253) • culture (p. 254)
HISTORY & YOU There’s a traditional African saying that it takes a village to
People and Places educate a child. Read how African society was set up to achieve this goal.
• Yoruba (p. 253) • Ife (p. 255)
• Nigeria (p. 253) • Benin (p. 255)
African towns often began as fortified walled villages and grad-
• Ashanti (p. 253)
ually grew into larger communities serving several purposes.
These towns were the centers of government and trade, with mar-
Reading Strategy kets filled with goods from faraway regions. African towns were
Compare and Contrast As you read
also home to artisans skilled in metalworking, woodworking,
this section, use the chart below to compare and
contrast the duties and rights of women and men in
pottery making, and other crafts, as well as farmers who tilled the
African society. soil in the neighboring fields.
Because most African societies did not have written languages,
Duties Rights much of what we know about these societies comes from descrip-
Women tions recorded by foreign visitors, such as the Arab traveler Ibn
Men Battuta. Indeed, African society had several unusual features,
including the relationship of African kings to their subjects. For
example, African rulers would frequently hold an audience to
allow people to voice their complaints.

King and Subject

In most Asian societies, the royal family and the aristocracy
were largely isolated from the rest of the people. In Africa, the
gulf between king and common people was not as great. Fre-
quently, the ruler would hold an audience (meeting) to let people
voice their complaints. Nevertheless, the king was still held in a
position high above all others.
The relationship between king and subject in many African
states helped both sides. Merchants received favors from the king,
and the king’s treasury was filled with taxes paid by merchants.
It was certainly to the benefit of the king to maintain law and
order in the kingdom so that the merchants could practice their
trade.

250
 Kinship with Ancestors in African Societies

Many peoples placed

mother-and-child figures
in shrines near graves.

Face masks worn during

initiation and funerary rites also
linked the living to ancestors.
Ancestors were consulted for
advice and aid before a
significant event or undertaking.

In many African societies, the spirits of ancestors were believed to

participate in family and community life. They also were invoked
and honored during regular celebrations, such as a harvest festival,
and during rites that marked birth, adulthood, marriage, and death.
1. Making Inferences Why were ancestors held in such high
esteem in African societies?
2. Drawing Conclusions Why might mother-and-child figures
have had significance in African societies?

Family and Lineage leading members of the lineage group—had

Few Africans, of course, ever had an much power over the others in the group. A
audience with their kings. Most people lineage group provided mutual support for
lived in small villages in the countryside. all its members. Members of extended fami-
Their sense of identity was determined by lies and lineage groups were expected to
their membership in an extended family take care of one another.
and a lineage group.
At the basic level was the extended fam- The Role of Women
ily, made up of parents, children, grandpar- Women were usually subordinate to men
ents, and other family dependents. They in Africa, as they were in most early societ-
lived in small, round dwellings made of ies around the world. In some cases, they
packed mud, with a thatch roof of plant were valued for the work they could do or
material such as straw. These extended fam- for their role in having children and thus
ily units were in turn combined into larger increasing the size of the lineage group.
communities known as lineage groups. Women often worked in the fields while
Lineage groups served as the basic build- the men of the village tended the cattle or
ing blocks of African society. All members hunted. In some communities, women
of a lineage group could claim to be were merchants.
descended from a real or legendary com- There were some key differences between
mon ancestor. As in China, the elders—the the role of women in Africa and elsewhere.

CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 251

(l) Michael Graham-Stewart/Bridgeman Art Library, (r) Charles & Josette Lenars/CORBIS
 In many African societies, lineage was to enter the community fully. This transi-
based on the mother rather than the father. tion—which occurred at the time of
History In other words, these were matrilineal puberty—was marked by an initiation cer-
ONLINE
societies (societies in which descent is emony in which young people were kept
Student Web
Activity— traced through the mother), rather than isolated from the community. They then
Visit the Glencoe patrilineal societies (societies in which underwent a ritual ceremony in which
World History Web site descent is traced through the father). they symbolically died and were reborn.
at glencoe.com to One Arab traveler noted, “A man does Young females were then considered fully
learn more about not pass on inheritance except to the sons of women; young males fully men. Both
African culture.
his sister to the exclusion of his own sons.” entered completely into the life of the
Women were often permitted to inherit community.
property, and the husband was often
expected to move into his wife’s house. Slavery
When we use the term African slavery,
Community Education we usually think of the period after 1500,
and Initiation when European slave ships carried mil-
In a typical African village, a process lions of Africans in bondage to Europe or
existed for educating young people and the Americas (see Chapter 13). Slavery,
preparing them to become part of the com- however, did not begin with the coming of
munity. For example, in the Congo, by the the Europeans. It had been practiced in
1400s, both boys and girls were raised by Africa since ancient times. Furthermore, as
their mothers until the age of six. From we have seen, slavery was not unique to
their mothers, they learned language, their Africa, but was common throughout the
family history, and the songs that gave world.
meaning to their lives. At six, boys and Berber groups in North Africa regularly
girls went their separate ways: girls to the raided farming villages south of the Sahara
“house of the women,” boys to the “house for captives. The captives were then taken
of the men.” northward and sold throughout the Medi-
Fathers then took control of their sons’ terranean. The use of captives for forced
education. Boys learned how to hunt and labor or for sale was also common in Afri-
fish, how to grow plants, and how to clear can societies further south and along the
the fields for planting. By experience, coast of East Africa.
young males learned how to live and sur- Slaves included people captured in war,
vive in the natural world. debtors, and some criminals. They were
Girls continued to learn what they not necessarily seen as inferior but as
needed from their mothers. This included trusted servants. Some were even respected
how to take care of the home and work in for their special knowledge or talents.
the fields. Girls also learned what they Life was difficult for most slaves. Those
would need to be good wives and moth- who worked on farmlands owned by the
ers. Marriage and motherhood would be royal family or other wealthy landowners
their entry into the world of the commu- toiled hard, long hours. Others were
nity for females. enrolled as soldiers and were sometimes
As the children matured, they played a better off.
larger role in the community. Boys cleared Many slaves were used in the royal
the fields, built houses, and took part in household or as domestic servants in pri-
village discussions and ceremonies. Girls vate homes. These slaves usually had the
took over more responsibility for house- best existence, with decent living condi-
hold tasks, took care of younger brothers tions. In Muslim societies in Southwest
and sisters, and attended village ceremo- Asia, slaves might at some point even win
nies, especially those connected to mar- their freedom.
riages and funerals.
Finally, young people reached a point in ✓Reading Check Summarizing Describe the
their upbringing where they were expected role of lineage groups in African society.

252 SECTION 3 African Society and Culture

Religious Beliefs Ashanti gods could not always be trusted,
humans needed to appease them to avoid
Most African societies held similar, their anger. Some peoples believed that the
traditional beliefs; the spread of Islam challenged creator god had lived on Earth but left in
these African beliefs. disgust at human behavior. However, the
god was also merciful and could be paci-
HISTORY & YOU Do you know about religious
practices in Africa? Read about the development of fied by proper behavior.
religions in Africa. One way to communicate with the gods
was through ritual. This process was usu-
ally carried out by a special class of diviners,
Early African religious beliefs varied people who believe they have the power to
from place to place. Most African societies foretell events, usually by working with
shared some common religious ideas. One supernatural forces. Many diviners were
of these was a belief in a single creator god. employed by the king. This was done to
The Yoruba peoples in Nigeria, for exam- guarantee a bountiful harvest or to protect
ple, believed that their chief god sent his the interests of the ruler and his subjects.
son Oduduwa down from Heaven in a Another key element in African religion
canoe to create the first humans. The Yor- was the importance of ancestors. Each lin-
uba religion was practiced by many of the eage group could trace itself back to a
slaves transported to the Americas. founding ancestor or group of ancestors.
Sometimes, the creator god was joined Ritual ceremonies were dedicated to ances-
by a whole group of lesser gods. The tors because the ancestors were believed to
Ashanti people of Ghana, for example, be closer to the gods. They had the power
believed in a supreme being called Nyame, to influence, for good or evil, the lives of
whose sons were lesser gods. Because the their descendants.

RELIGION IN AFRICA

0° 20°E 40°E

CARTHAGE Mediterranean Sea

20°W
TROPIC O
F CANCER EGYPT
20°N
Re
dS
ea

SONGHAI KUSH
GHANA
AXUM
MALI
YORUBA ETHIOPIA
N ASHANTI

EQUATOR
0° W E

S
ATLANTIC INDIAN
CONGO OCEAN
OCEAN
0 1,000 kilometers MALAWI KILWA
0 1,000 miles 1. Movement Islam spread to which
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
20°S
early African kingdoms by 1250?
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN 2. Location Which kingdoms had not
Limit of Christian influence, 1100 been introduced to Islam or
Areas with both Christian and Christianity by 1250?
Muslim influence, 1100
Limit of Muslim influence, 1250
 Many African religions shared a belief in The process was even more gradual in
an afterlife. Human life, it was thought, East Africa. It had less success in areas of
consisted of two stages. The first stage was Ethiopia, where, as we have seen, Christi-
life on Earth. The second stage was an after- anity continued to gain followers. Islam
life. Ancestral souls would live on in the was first brought to East Africa by Muslim
afterlife as long as the lineage group contin- traders from Arabia, but it did not gain
ued to perform rituals in their names. many converts there until the twelfth and
African religious beliefs were challenged, thirteenth centuries. At that time, Swahili
but not always replaced, by the arrival of culture emerged, and many upper-class
Islam. Islam swept across northern Africa in people converted to Islam.
the wake of the Arab conquest. It was slower In some ways, the beliefs of Islam were
to penetrate the lands south of the Sahara. in contrast to traditional African beliefs
The process likely began as a result of trade, and customs. Islam’s rejection of spirit
as merchants introduced Muslim beliefs to worship ran counter to the beliefs of many
the trading states south of the desert. Africans and was often ignored in practice.
At first, conversion took place on an indi- Likewise, Islam’s insistence on distinct
vidual basis. Initially, African rulers did not roles for men and women was contrary to
convert to Islam themselves, although they the relatively informal relationships in
welcomed Muslim traders and did not try many African societies. As elsewhere, in
to keep their subjects from adopting the Africa, imported ideas were combined
new faith. The first rulers to convert were with native beliefs to create a unique brand
the royal family of Gao at the end of the of Africanized Islam.
tenth century. By the end of the fifteenth
century, much of the population south of ✓Reading Check Describing What role do
the Sahara had accepted Islam. ancestors play in African religion?

Music and dance were fundamental • The complex rhythms and

to African festivals and religious improvisation of Africans’
observances. African musical traditions musical heritage enriched
included call-and-response (lead singer American music.
with chorus), improvisation, and
• African music has been
polyrhythmic (multiple beats at once)
percussion. African Americans
an important ingredient
incorporated these traditions with in the development of
European music, creating new vocal and American musical
instrumental forms. Blues (solo and styles.
guitar) and ragtime (piano) became
popular in the 1890s. Blues, ragtime,
brass band, and syncopated dance music
fused into jazz. Beginning in the 1940s Charles Lloyd performs at
and 1950s, American popular music was Monterray Jazz Festival
dominated by African American forms:
rhythm and blues, rock and roll, soul, 
funk, disco, hip-hop, and rap. 
   
1. Explaining How did African rhythms make their way in to the
United States?
2. Making Connections Listen to blues, gospel, jazz, and rag-
time music. Describe the similarities and the differences, then
compare these types of music to contemporary popular music.

Craig Lovell/CORBIS
African Culture
Africa’s rich culture of paintings, carvings, sculpture, music,
and dance often served a religious purpose.
HISTORY & YOU How has African culture influenced world culture? Vocabulary
Read about early African cultural practices. 1. Explain the significance of: lineage groups,
matrilineal, patrilineal, Yoruba, Nigeria,
In early Africa, as in much of the rest of the world at the Ashanti, diviner, founding, culture, Ife,
Benin, griot.
time, the arts—whether painting, literature, or music—
were a means of serving religion. A work of art was meant
to express religious conviction. Main Ideas
The earliest art forms in Africa were rock paintings. The 2. Describe how children were educated in
most famous examples are in the Tassili Mountains in the early African societies.
central Sahara. These paintings show the life of the peo- 3. Explain the importance of honoring
ples of the area as they shifted from hunting to herding ancestors in traditional African religious
and eventually to trade. practices.
Wood-carvers throughout Africa made remarkable 4. Identify the ways that religion was
masks and statues. The carvings often represented gods, expressed in African culture, using a web
spirits, or ancestral figures and were believed to embody diagram like the one below.
the spiritual powers of the subjects. Terra-cotta (clay) and
metal figurines served a similar purpose. For example, Religious
terra-cotta human figures and human heads found near Expression
the Nigerian city of Nok are thought to have had religious
significance. The Nok culture is the oldest known West
African culture to have created sculpture.
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, metalworkers Critical Thinking
at Ife (EE•feh), the capital of the Yoruba people, in what is 5. BIG Idea Comparing and Contrasting
now Nigeria, produced handsome bronze and iron stat- Choose one early society you previously
ues. The Ife sculptures may have influenced artists in studied. Compare and contrast it to early
Benin in West Africa, who produced equally impressive African society. How were they similar?
Different?
works in bronze during the same period. The Benin sculp-
tures include bronze heads, many of kings, and figures of 6. Defending Explain the role of art, music,
various types of animals. and dance in African society. Explain why
Like wood carving and sculpture, African music and you think these subjects should or should
not be part of every school’s curriculum.
dance often served a religious purpose. African dancing
served as a way to communicate with the spirits. It was 7. Analyzing Visuals Examine the images
also “the great popular art of the African people.” With its on page 251. What can you deduce from it
strong rhythmic beat, African music would influence mod- about the role of the family in African
society?
ern Western music.
African music also had a social purpose. It was used to
pass on to young people information about the history of Writing About History
the community. In the absence of written language, the 8. Expository Writing Music, dance, and
words to songs served to transmit folk legends and reli- storytelling do not leave archaeological
evidence in the same way as buildings or
gious traditions from generation to generation.
roads. Describe how historians have been
Storytelling, usually by priests or a special class of story- able to determine the significance of the
tellers known as griots (GREE•OHZ), served the same performing arts in African society.
purpose. Storytellers were historians who kept alive a peo-
ple’s history. For example, much of what we know about
Sundiata Keita—the founder of the kingdom of Mali—has
come down to us from the oral traditions of the griot. (ISTORY /.,).%
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
✓Reading Check Explaining Why were storytellers important in History, go to glencoe.com and click Study Central.
African society?

255
 Preserving the Past
Some of what we know about the distant past, in almost all parts of the
world, comes from stories passed down orally over countless generations. In
some cases, the stories are preserved with such rigor that they rival written
accounts in veracity. Such is the case of the stories of the history of West Africa,
preserved over the years by a remarkable group of people who devote their lives
to remembering and reciting their cultures’ histories: the griots (GREE•ohs).

A Lifetime of Training—Griots
spent years and decades
BECOMING A GRIOT memorizing the long and complex
histories they spent their lifetimes
telling. Most began as children.

A Family Affair—Most griots

learned the craft, at least initially,
from their griot parents. In
various times and places, griot
schools trained apprentices.

Griots and Griottes —Traditionally,

most griots were male. However,
female griots, sometimes called
griottes, played an important role
THE ORAL TRADITION
in West African society as well. The word literature often refers to written works such as books, plays,
and poetry. In West Africa there is a long tradition of oral literature. These
hero stories, fables, poems, and other “literary” works have been passed
on for centuries. In the 1900s, scholars began publishing written transla-
tions of these works. By doing so, the universal nature of the messages in
these tales has been appreciated well beyond West Africa.

256
 MANY ROLES
Historians—Griots memorized and recited
the long and complex history of a people.
Their stories included details about events
that occurred centuries before. Heralds—Griots served as intermediaries
between the kings and the people, and
between the kings and foreign rulers.
Griots accompanied Mansa Mūsā on his
Genealogists—Intertwined in the griots’ great trek to Makkah.
description of events was genealogy of
the people: vital information in a culture
where kinship is fundamental.

Advisors—Griots were traditionally assigned to

elite families and to rulers. The griots’ wisdom and
wealth of knowledge proved invaluable in helping
rulers learn from the past and uphold traditions.

Entertainers—Compelling stories,
poetic language, and musical
accompaniment kept listeners
spellbound even as they learned.

Teachers—Griots preserved and

protected the essence of cultural
traditions for the next generation.

GRIOTS TODAY ANALYZING VISUALS

The tradition of the griot is alive and well in West Africa today.
1. Making Inferences
Many modern griots perform all of the traditional roles. But today’s What qualities do you think
griots are more often popular entertainers who put on shows, appear an outstanding griot would
on television, record CDs, and sing people’s praises in exchange for need to possess?
payment or gifts. Their work often mixes traditional stories and 2. Explaining Why do people
modern commentary. find it important to preserve
stories of the past?

257
 Visual Summary
You can study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes
and flash cards to your PDA from glencoe.com.

The Lion Temple, Kush

EARLY AFRICAN SOCIETIES

• For centuries until A.D. 150, Kush’s advanced civilization in
the upper Nile thrived on trading ivory and ebony with
Egypt, India, and Arabia.
• Evolving from an Arab colony, Axum succeeded Kush as a
major trading power in East Africa.
• Once the Muslims conquered Egypt, they began to set up
Islamic states in Northern Africa, transforming the culture.

Terracotta Horse and Rider, Mali

Societies that traded also exchanged
cultural ideas, as seen in this Kush
temple built in an Egyptian style.

AFRICAN KINGDOMS
• In the upper Niger River valley, the kings of Ghana ruled a
trading empire based on gold.
• With legendary rulers Sundiata Keita and Mansa Mūsā, the
kingdom of Mali replaced Ghana’s dominance in the 1200s.
• Bantu-speaking peoples slowly migrated east and south,
spreading the use of iron tools in farming.
• In the 1300s and 1400s, cities on the eastern coast traded
with India and Arabia while the wealthy state of Zimbabwe
prospered in the south.

Art flourished in the kingdom of

Mali. This figure may represent an
Nok Head, the Niger River official or visitor to the court.

AFRICAN SOCIETY AND CULTURE

• In Africa extended families and lineage groups were
the basic units for village societies.
• Communication with a creator god through rituals and
ancestors typified many African religions.
• Arab merchants brought Islam to East and Southern
Africa, and it began to gain converts in the 1300s.
• Religion drove artistic expression, exemplified in West
African sculptures, while griots or storytellers preserved
It is not clear what the literature and history.
Nok heads were used for,
but they were most likely
ritualistic.

258 CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations

(t) Picture Contact/Alamy Images, (c b) Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY
 Assessment
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
TEST-TAKING TIP
Look for clues in a question before you make an answer choice. You can use these hints to help you
eliminate incorrect answer choices.

Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas

Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
the sentence.
Section 1 (pp. 236–239)
1. are broad grasslands that cover about 40 percent 5. What is the name of a major desert in Africa other than the
of Africa’s land area. Sahara?
A Savannas A Great Rift
B Plateaus B Mombasa
C Lowlands C Kalahari
D Highlands D Ashanti

2. farming means growing crops for personal use, not 6. What was the name of the major trading center in Kush?
for sale.
A Mogadishu
A Organic
B Cairo
B Home
C Timbuktu
C Domesticated
D Meroë
D Subsistence

7. To which body of water did Axum owe much of its

3. are societies in which descent is traced through the prosperity?
mother, not the father.
A Indian Ocean
A Patrilineal societies
B Mediterranean Sea
B Matrilineal societies
C Red Sea
C Lineage groups
D Niger River
D Ashanti groups

Section 2 (pp. 242–249)

4. Another word for griot is .
8. Which was the first great trading state to emerge in West
A merchant Africa?
B ruler A Kush
C storyteller B Ghana
D ancestor C Mali
D Ethiopia

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CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 259

 9. Under whose reign did the Songhai Empire reach the height Critical Thinking
of its power?
Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
A Muhammad Ture
B Sunni Ali 14. Which of the following statements is the best reason why
Africans who live in the rain forest do not keep cattle or
C Mansa Mūsā
other farm animals?
D Sundiata Keita
A The rain forest is home to the tsetse fly.
B There is not enough dependable rainfall.
10. What was the name of the mixed African-Arabian culture
that emerged along East Africa’s coast? C The land is better suited to growing crops.
A Bantu D The rain forest is home to predators, which prey on cattle
and other farm animals.
B Swahili
C Kilwa
Base your answer to question 15 on the time line below and your
D Gao knowledge of world history.

Section 3 (pp. 250–255) African Kingdoms

Songhai A.D. 1000–1600
11. What served as the most basic building blocks for African
1000 B.C. Axum A.D. 100–1400 A.D. 1600
society?
A Matrilineal societies
Kush 1000 B.C.–A.D. 150 Mali A.D. 1250–1450
B Farming villages Ghana A.D. 400–1200
C Trade centers
D Lineage groups
15. Which African kingdom would most likely have come into
12. Which class of people, who believed they could foretell contact with Kush?
events, were employed by many African rulers? A Songhai
A Ancestors B Mali
B Diviners C Axum
C Drummers D Ghana
D Oracles
16. Why did the value of gold fall under Mansa Muˉsaˉ?
13. What was “the great popular art of the African people”? A He kept gold in short supply.
A Bronze sculpture B He put too much gold into circulation.
B Wood carving C He increased the value of salt.
C Dance D He built too many palaces and libraries.
D Call and response

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260 CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations

 Assessment
Use the following map and your knowledge of world history to Document-Based Questions
answer questions 17 and 18.
Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short answer
questions that follow the document. Base your answers on the
Early West African Trade document and on your knowledge of Chapter 7.
N
ATLANTIC
Fès Mediterranean Sea
OCEAN
W E
The exchange of goods in Ghana was done by a method of silent
Marrakech Tripoli
Cairo
S
trade. Read the following account of this trade by a tenth-century
S A H A R A Arabian traveler.
Taghaza Makkah
(Mecca)
Timbuktu (Tombouctou)

Re
d
Kumbi Saleh “Great people of the Sudan [the Arab name for West

Se
a
Jenné Sennar Africa] lived [in Ghana]. They had traced a boundary which no
Kano Ghana, c. A.D. 1050 one who sets out to them ever crosses. When the merchants
Mali, A.D. 1300s reach this boundary, they place their wares and cloth on the
Benin Benin, c. A.D. 1500 ground and then depart, and so the people of the Sudan
Songhai, A.D. 1500s come bearing gold which they leave beside the merchandise
0 600 kilometers Trade route and then depart. The owners of the merchandise then return,
0 600 miles Gold source
and if they were satisfied with what they had found, they
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area Salt source
projection take it. If not, they go away again, and the people of the
Sudan return and add to the price until the bargain is
concluded.”
17. Which kingdom would have competed with Benin for trade?
A Ghana
B Songhai 19. Why would a silent trade be an effective way to exchange
C Mali goods?
D None of the kingdoms competed for trade. 20. Do you think a silent trade method would be useful today?
Defend your opinion.
18. Why were Sunni Ali’s conquests of Timbuktu and Jenné
especially important? Extended Response
A They were vital port cities. 21. Through trade, many civilizations came into contact with
B They ensured that his son would rule after him. each other. What civilizations outside of Africa did African
C They gave his empire control of the trade in salt and kingdoms and states contact? How did these civilizations
gold. influence each other?

D They gave his empire control of the trade in ivory and

iron ore.

(ISTORY /.,).%
For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes—
Chapter 7 at glencoe.com.

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CHAPTER 7 Early African Civilizations 261