FINAL REVIEW

1. Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway for extraction of the energy (6)

available from carbohydrates, shared among prokaryotes & eukaryotes,
aerobes & anaerobes alike. By your understanding, discuss it &
classify the 10 enzymes into six categories as you learnt.
Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway for extraction of the energy available
from carbohydrates, shared among prokaryotes & eukaryotes, aerobes & (1)
anaerobes alike. In anaerobes, glycolysis is the only significant source of
energy from carbohydrate. In aerobic organisms, considerably more energy
can be harvested downstream from glycolysis in the C.A.C.
(7)
Glycolysis is an energy conversion – breaking down glucose to form ATP,
Splits 1 Glucose to 2 Pyruvate.
About 5% amount of energy stored in 2 ATP & NADH.
The pathway of glycolysis consists of 10 steps (2 phases: Energy investment
phase & Energy payoff phase), each catalyzed by a specific enzyme:
(2)
PHASE 1: THE ENERGY INVESTMENT PHASE (FIRST 5 STEPS)
(8)
1 Glucose is converted into 2 Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate.
In this phase, 2 ATP are used.
1/ α–D–Glucose is phosphorylated at the C6 by ATP via Hexokinase
(Transferase) to yield α–D–Glucose–6–phosphate. This is a regulatory step
(3)
which is negatively regulated by the presence of Glucose–6–phosphate.
2/ α–D–Glucose–6–phosphate is converted into D–Fructose–6–phosphate. (9)
by Phosphoglucoisomerase (Isomerase).
3/ D–Fructose–6–phosphate is phosphorylated at the C1 position by ATP via
Phosphofructokinase (Transferase) to yield D–Fructose–1,6–bisphosphate.
This is the committed step of glycolysis because of its large ΔG value.
4/ D–Fructose–1,6–bisphosphate is cleaved into Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
& D–Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate by Fructose bisphosphate Aldolase (4)
(Lyase)
(5)
5/ Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted into D–Glyceraldehyde–3– (10)
phosphate by Triose phosphate isomerase (Isomerase)
PHASE 2: THE ENERGY PAYOFF PHASE (NEXT 5 STEPS)
2 Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate is converted into Pyruvate or Lactate.
This state produces 4 ATP & 2 NADH. 8/ 3–Phosphoglycerate is converted into 2–Phosphoglycerate by
6/ D–Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate is phosphorylated at C1 position by Phosphoglycerate Mutase to yield another high–energy molecule.
Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate Dehydrogenase to yield the high–energy 9/ 2–Phosphoglycerate is converted to Phosphoenolpyruvate by Enolase. H2O,
molecule 1,3–Bisphosphoglycerate. Potassium & Magnesium are all released.
7/ ADP is phosphorylated at the expense of 1,3–Bisphosphoglycerate by 10/ ADP is phosphorylated, this time at the expense of Phosphoenolpyruvate by
Phosphoglycerate Kinase (Transferase) to yield ATP & 3–Phosphoglycerate. Pyruvate kinase to yield another ATP & Pyruvate. This step is regulated by
 energy in the cell. The higher the energy of the cell, the more inhibited EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Pyruvate kinase becomes. Indicators of high energy levels within the cell are Prepare sample: using alcohol 90o & 80o to extract carbohydrate
high concentrations of ATP, Acetyl–CoA, Alanine, & cAMP. STEP 1:
→ Because Glucose is split to yield 2 molecules of D–Glyceraldehyde Take 1–2g of pulverized raw material & put it into the 50mL beaker.
–3–phosphate, each step in the "payoff" phase occurs twice per Glucose. Next, add 10mL of alcohol 90o into the beaker.
10 enzymes of Glycolysis Class Put the beaker in hot water. Use glass stick to stir the solution well.
1. Hexokinase Transferase Filter by the cloth to get the solutions.
2. Phosphoglucose Isomerase Isomerase STEP 2:
3. Phosphofructokinase Transferase Repeat step 1 with 10mL of alcohol 80o.
4. Aldolase Lyase Alcohol is vaporized naturally or by providing slight heat to the beaker.
5. Triose phosphate isomerase Isomerase STEP 3:
6. Glyceraldehyde–3–phosphate dehydrogenase Oxidoreductase The sugar in sample can be dissolved in 50mL of water
7. Phosphoglycerate Kinase Transferase (using volumetric flask). If there is the sediment in sample, let it settle down.
8. Phosphoglycerate Mutase Isomerase Next, dilute the sugar sample 5000 times.
9. Enolase Lyase Finally, the sugar solution is taken to do color–forming reaction.
10. Pyruvate Kinase Transferase
DOING COLOR FORMING REACTION:
2. You have learnt methods to determine soluble protein, total soluble sugar, Label 11 tubes.
calcium content & enzymatic activity (Bromelain) in a sample. Choose one & The first 7 tubes are used to make a standard curve. Standard glucose 0.01%
describe the principle, chemicals, experimental design & analysis for the result.
is diluted with different amounts of water to form sugar solutions with
Determine Total Soluble Carbohydrate by Quantitative Measurement Method different concentrations that range 0, 0.02, 0.04, 0.06, 0.08, 0.1 (mg/mL).
PRINCIPLE: The next 2 tubes 8–9, add 5mL of glucose (diluted 50 times).
The quantitative measurement is based on the specific color–forming The final 2 tubes 10–11, put 5mL of glucose (diluted 5000 times).
reaction by the carbohydrate & many other organic compounds in the Put all tubes in ice–water.
solution with the presence of sulfuric acid. Add slowly 10mL of Anthrone reagent into each tube by letting the
The accuracy of the reaction is based on: reagent flow along the surface inside the tube. Stir slowly by a glass stick.
The cleanness of equipment. Put all tubes in hot water for 7.5 min, then in cool water immediately.
The purification of the reagent, especially for sulfuric acid. Finally, determine using A630nm.
The temperature must be constant during the boiling time. DATA & ANALYSIS:
CHEMICALS When A630nm of the standard glucose tubes are determined, we can get ΔOD value
Alcohol 90o by doing subtraction between them. Thus, we get the graph of the change of
Alcohol 80o (80mL of alcohol + 20mL of water) absorbance (ΔOD) based on the standard carbohydrate concentration (μg/mL).
Anthrone reagent: dissolve 2g of Anthrone in 1L of concentrated sulfuric Data analysis:
that keep in the fridge. This reagent cannot be used after 2 days. From the graph, ΔOD of tubes 8 & 9 is very high & out of range.
Concentrated sulfuric. Using the graph with equation y = ax + b, we calculate the concentration of
Sulfuric solution 60%: 6 volumetric units of purified concentrated sulfuric carbohydrate in tubes 10 & 11 (g/mL)
+ 4 volumetric units of water. We calculate the percentage (%) of glucose in the material.
THE STANDARD CARBOHYDRATE SAMPLE
Glucose 0,01%: take 0.01g of dried glucose from the exicator,
then dissolve in 100ml of water: there is the presence of P2O5 in the exicator.
 3. The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completes AMINO ACIDS
the oxidative degradation of fatty acids, amino acids, & monosaccharides. Typically, amino group of an amino acid is removed in a deamination
Based on your understanding, clarify the above statement. reaction. The remaining carbon skeleton is broken down to various products
The C.A.C is a central metabolic pathway that completes the oxidative depending on which of the 20 amino acids is undergoing catabolism. In some
degradation of fatty acids, amino acids & monosaccharides. During aerobic cases, the remaining carbon skeleton is broken down to Acetyl–CoA or to
catabolism, these biomolecules are broken down to smaller molecules that Pyruvate, which is then converted to Acetyl–CoA. Alternatively, a C.A.C
ultimately contribute to a cell's energetic or molecular needs. intermediate such as α–Ketoglutarate may result. In all cases, the C.A.C plays
IN EARLY METABOLIC STEPS a large role in breaking down the amino acid skeleton to CO2.
From monosaccharides (6C sugar) → in glycolytic pathway with the activity For example, catabolism of Lysine yields CO2 & Acetyl–CoA, while
of the Pyruvate dehydrogenase → yield a 2–C fragment (Acetyl group) → Glutamate breaks down to α–Ketoglutarate, CO2 & Acetyl–CoA. Acetyl–
Acetyl group is linked to a large cofactor known as Coenzyme A (CoA). CoA initiates the C.A.C.
Next, during the C.A.C, Acetyl–CoA is oxidized to CO2 with the reduction
of the cofactors NAD+ & ubiquinone. MONOSACCHARIDES
FATTY ACIDS ARE SOURCE OF ACETYL COA In early metabolic steps, from monosaccharides (6C sugar) entering glycolytic
When cellular metabolic needs increase, free fatty acids enter the pathway with the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase, it yields a 2C
mitochondrion where degradative reaction called β oxidation takes place. fragment - an acetyl group. Acetyl group is linked to a large cofactor known as
In each round of β oxidation, a fatty acid is shortened by 2–C atoms & coenzyme A (or CoA).
releases a free Acetyl–CoA. Next, during the CAC that acetyl-CoA is oxidized to CO2 with the reduction
Acetyl–CoA initiates the C.A.C. of the cofactors NAD+ & ubiquinone.
4. You have learnt metabolic pathways of carbohydrate, protein, lipid &
nucleic acid, draw the relation among their metabolism.
DNA Carbohydrates
Transcription Glucose, Fructose,
Galactose
RNA Lactic Acid
Translation
Proteins Gluconeogenesis Glucose Glycogenesis
Pyruvic
Amino Acids –6– Glycogen
Acid Glycolysis Glycogenolysis
Phosphat
e
Tissue Nitroge Lipogenesis Fats &
protein n Acetyl-CoA Lipids
Pool Fatty acid,
NH3 Glycerol

Citric Fatty Acid

CO2 Urea Acid Spiral
Cycle Cycle

+ – ADP ADP ADP O2

CO2 2H 2e
Urea
Electron Transport Chain
ATP ATP ATP H2O
 5. Oxidative phosphorylation utilizes the chemical energy
of these reduced molecules from glycolysis & C.A.C to produce ATP.
How is your opinion & discuss it?
Oxidative phosphorylation is a process happening in mitochondrion by
which electrons from the reduced cofactors NADH & ubiquinol are funneled
in a stepwise manner to O2. Electrons flow much like electricity through the
concomitant formation of a proton gradient. In the end, the investment of
reduced cofactors results in the production of ATP.
Reduced electron carrier NADH & ubiquinol are produced during glycolysis,
C.A.C & fatty oxidation pathway. During the cellular process of respiration,
oxidative phosphorylation utilizes chemical energy of these reduced
molecules to produce ATP.

6. Pentose phosphate pathway is to provide reduced NADPH

for synthetic reactions & Ribose–5–phosphate for nucleic acid synthesis.
Discuss about oxidative & non–oxidative pathways.
PPP is an alternative metabolic pathway for glucose oxidation in which no ATP is
generated. Instead, its principal products are NADPH and Ribose-5-phosphate.
PPP occurs in the cytosol of a cell in 2 phases: oxidative and non-oxidative.
Oxidative reactions: from Glucose–6–phosphate to Ribose–5–phosphate.
NADPH is generated when Glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized to Ribulose-5-
phosphate, which is subsequently converted into Ribose-5-phosphate
(component of RNA and DNA, as well as of ATP, NADH, FAD & coenzyme A).
Glucose-6-phosphate + 2NADP+ + H2O Ribulose-5-phosphate + 2NADPH + 2H+ + CO2

Non–oxidative reactions: formation of intermediates of glycolysis

Involves the isomerization & condensation of different sugar molecules: 3, 4,
5, 6, & 7C sugars. During the remaining reactions of the pathway: transketolase
and transaldolase catalyze the interconversions of trioses, pentoses, & hexoses.
The intermediates in this process are useful in other pathways.
 7. Gluconeogenesis is the pathway to form new glucose from simpler 8. When referring to the glycogen metabolism, three contents must be
molecules (noncarbohydrate precursors), happening mainly in liver (~90%) remembered as glycogenesis, glycogenolysis or regulation related to
& kidneys from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, amino acids & TCA cycle insulin, glucagon & epinephrine (adrenalin). Choose one & discuss it.
intermediates to make glucose when blood glucose level is low. Choose one
precursor & discuss how to result in glucose. Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is
synthesized depending on the demand for glucose & ATP (energy). If both are
Gluconeogenesis is the pathway to form new glucose from simpler non- present in relatively high amounts, then the excess of Insulin promotes the glucose
carbohydrate precursors, happening mainly in liver and kidney. conversion into glycogen for storage in liver & muscle cells. (It means that insulin
In human, the main Gluconeogenic precursors Lactate, Glycerol, Alanine & inhibits glycogenolysis by inhibiting Glycogen phosphorylase enzyme activity).
Glutamine. Lactate makes a ~40% contribution. In muscle cells, glycogen degradation provides an immediate source of
Lactate produced by active skeletal muscle & erythrocytes. Erythrocytes lack Glucose–6–phosphate for glycolysis, provides energy for muscle contraction.
mitochondria & can never oxidize glucose completely. In contracting skeletal In liver cells, the main purpose of the breakdown of glycogen is for the release
muscle, the rate at which Glycolysis produces Pyruvate exceeds the rate at of glucose into the bloodstream for uptake by other cells. Phosphate group
which the C.A.C oxidizes it. of Glucose–6–phosphate is removed by Glucose–6–phosphatase, which is
Under these conditions, moreover, the rate of formation of NADH by not present in myocytes, & the free glucose exits the cell via GLUT2
Glycolysis is greater than the rate of its oxidation by aerobic metabolism. facilitated diffusion channels in the hepatocyte cell membrane.
The accumulation of both NADH & Pyruvate is reversed by Lactate
dehydrogenase, which oxidizes NADH to NAD+ as it reduces Pyruvate to Glycogenesis involves 3 steps:
Lactate. Synthesis of glucose–1–phosphate
However, Lactate is a dead end in metabolism. It must be converted back into Synthesis of UDP–glucose
Pyruvate before it can be metabolized. Synthesis Glycogen from UDP–glucose
The only purpose of the reduction of Pyruvate to Lactate is to regenerate ATP cost
NAD+ so that Glycolysis can proceed in active skeletal muscle & erythrocytes. 2 ATPs are required to store each glucose as glycogen
The formation of Lactate buys time & shifts part of the metabolic burden from Glucose + ATP Glucose–6–phosphate + ADP
muscle to other organs. Glucose–6–phosphate Glucose–1–phosphate
Lactate & Pyruvate both are substances diffusing out of active skeletal muscle Glucose–1–phosphate + UTP UDP–glucose + 2Pi
into the blood & carried to the liver. Much more Lactate than Pyruvate is UDP–glucose + (glycogen)n UDP + (glycogen)n+1
transported out because the high NADH/NAD+ ratio in contracting skeletal UDP + ATP UTP + ADP
muscle favors the conversion of Pyruvate into Lactate.
Lactate transported back to the liver is oxidized to Pyruvate by the Cori cycle
using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, then converted into Glucose by
gluconeogenic pathway. Glucose then enters blood stream & taken up by
skeletal muscle.
Gluconeogenesis equation:
2 Lactate + 4ATP + 2GTP glucose + 4ADP + 2GDP + 6Pi
Thus, liver furnishes Glucose to contracting skeletal muscle, which derives
ATP from the glycolytic conversion of Glucose into Lactate. Contracting
skeletal muscle supplies Lactate to the liver to synthesize Glucose.
 9. Fatty acids are an important energy source as their yield over 10. Call the names of below fatty acids & calculate the energy yield
twice as energy as an equal mass of carbohydrate or protein. followed by equation of β oxidation.
The two main pathways of fatty acid metabolism are β oxidation & fatty acid
synthesis. β oxidation results in the formation of reduced cofactors
& acetyl–CoA molecules, which can be further catabolized to release
free energy. Discuss a round of β oxidation & focus on the changing of
each reaction, the energy yield, name of enzymes.
Palmitic acid
A ROUND OF β OXIDATION: There are 16C in this fatty acid (n=16), so the round number of it is:
Summary Table (n/2)–1 = 7 (rounds).
Product& Energy One round of β oxidation produces 17 ATP.
Step Enzyme Reaction In the 1st round, 2 ATP were used for activation step.
yield
The final product of complete β oxidation is an additional acetyl–CoA,
Catalyzes the oxidation of equivalent to 12 ATP.
the acyl group to form a → Total energy yield is: 7 x 17 + 12 – 2 = 129 ATP.
Acetyl–CoA double bond between C2 & C3.
1 QH2
Dehydrogenase 2 electrons transferred to
FAD prosthetic group,
then to ubiquinone.
Enoyl–CoA Adds a molecule of H2O Linoleic acid (Linoleoyl–CoA)
2 QH2 There are 18C in this fatty acid (n=18), so the round number of it is:
Hydratase across the double bond.
(n/2)–1 = 8 (rounds).
3–hydroxyacyl Catalyzes the oxidation of One round of β oxidation produces 17 ATP.
3 –CoA– the hydroxyacyl group, QH2 Double bonds at odd–numbered position cost 2 ATP, at even–numbered
Dehydrogenase NAD+ is the cofactor. position cost 3 ATP.
Catalyzes the release of QH2 = 2 ATPs In the 1st round, 2 ATP were used for activation step.
Ketoacyl–CoA acetyl–CoA from +
NADH + H = 3 ATPs The final product of complete β oxidation is an additional acetyl–CoA,
4 equivalent to 12 ATP.
Thiolase Ketoacyl–CoA. Acetyl CoA = 12 ATPs
(Thiolysis) Total = 17 ATPs → Total energy yield is: 8 x 17 + 12 – 2 – 2– 3 = 141 ATP.

In brief, 1 round of β oxidation yields 3 products:

Ubiquinol cofactor
NADH cofactor
Acetyl–CoA.
During oxidative phosphorylation:
Each ubiquinol cofactor is used to produce 2 ATP.
Each NADH cofactor is used to produce 3 ATP.
During the C.A.C, the Acetyl–CoA is used to produce 12 ATP.
In all, 1 round of β oxidation produces 17 ATP. Since 2 ATP were used
for the activation step (for the 1st round), the net yield is 15 ATP.
 11. About nitrogen metabolism, choose one & discuss We must always be aware that chemicals used in the lab are potentially toxic,
a. Essential & nonessential amino acids irritating, or flammable.
b. Show out points where nitrogen metabolism links to glycolysis & C.A.C Materials: fragile glass (disposable pipets), sharp objects (needles) &
c. Urea cycle for NH3 deamination d. Mechanism to cause Gout disease potentially infectious biological materials (blood, bacteria…).
UREA CYCLE FOR NH3 DEAMINATION Proper disposal of all waste chemicals, sharp objects & infectious agents is
Urea is the major end product of nitrogen metabolism in humans & mammals. not only to maintain safe laboratory working condition, but also to protect the
The urea cycle describes the conversion reactions of ammonia into urea for general public & your local environment.
excretion. (Ammonia – product of oxidative deamination reactions, is toxic in The electrical equipment including hot plates, stirring motors, & high–
even small amounts & must be removed from the body). voltage power supplier present the special hazard.
Location of urea cycle: in the liver, in series of reactions distributed between THE HAZARDOUS FACTORS
mitochondrial matrix & cytosol; then urea is transported to the kidneys where HAZARDOUS MATERIALS:
it is excreted. Both liquid & dry chemicals can be flammable, poisonous, carcinogenic,
Overall urea formation reaction is: etc. Pay attention to special instructions, such as working with a substance
NH3 + CO2 + Aspartate + 3ATP + 2H2O → Urea + Fumarate + 2ADP + 2Pi + AMP + PPi only in a fume hood.
Dispose of hazardous materials as instructed. Never put anything down the
Step Reactant Product Enzyme Location
sink without checking with an instructor.
1 2ATP + Carbamoyl phosphate Carbamoyl Phosphate Clean up spills & broken glass: do not handle with bare hands: use a broom

Mitochondria
𝐇𝐂𝐎− +
𝟑 + 𝐍𝐇𝟒 + 2ADP + Pi Synthase I & dustpan. Throw away all broken glass, disposable glass pipets, coverslips
& other sharp/easily breakable glass in a container for glass disposal only.
2 Carbamoyl phosphate Ornithine Notify the instructor immediately of all incidents.
Citrulline + Pi
+ Ornithine Transcarbamoylase
HAZARDOUS EQUIPMENT
3 Citrulline Argininosuccinate Argininosuccinate If appropriate, turn off equipment that isn't being used.
+ aspartate + ATP + AMP + PPi Synthetase Do not use a Bunsen burner, unless instructed to do so.

Cytosol
Argininosuccinate Keep liquids & chemicals, especially flammable materials, well away from
4 Argininosuccinate Arg + fumarate any heat source or electrical equipment.
Lyase
If any electrical equipment is malfunctioning, making strange noises,
5 Arg + H2O Ornithine + urea Arginase 1 (ARG 1)
sparking, smoking, or smells "funny", do not attempt to shut it off /unplug it.
REGULATION OF UREA CYCLE: Get an instructor immediately. It is imperative that the instructor knows of
Enzymes involved in urea cycle are synthesized at higher level when proteins any equipment problems.
are utilized for energy production (starvation or availability of fat & THE CONCENTRATION UNITS COMMONLY USED
carbohydrate–free diet) Molarity (M): concentration based on the number of moles of solute perliter
The Carbamoyl Phosphate Synthase is allosterically activated by of solution, concentration ranges are milimolar (mM, 1x10–3M), micromolar
N – Acetylglutamate. (μM, 1x10–6) or nanomolar (nM, 1x10–9M)
Percent by weight (%wt/wt): concentration based on the number of grams
of solute per 100g of solution.
Percent by volume (%wt/vol): concentration based on the number of grams
12. Why do doers have to pay attention to the safety concern in the of solute per 100 mL of solution.
BiochemLab? List out the hazardous factors. List out all the concentration Weight per volume (wt/vol): concentration based on the number of grams,
units that are commonly used in the Biochemistry Lab. milligrams, or micrograms of solute per unit volume; for example: mg/mL,
Reasons why we must pay attention to the safety concern: g/L, mg/100 mL, etc.
 13. Role of vitamins, metal ions in biosystem. 15. What do you know about the photosynthesis? Role of the
Vitamins: organic compounds and vital nutrients that human requires in photosynthesis in the living world.
limited amounts. Roles of vitamins: Photosynthesis provides essentially all free energy in biological systems by
Assist specific enzymes to catalyze many biochemical reactions in the body converting solar energy into chemical energy.
Facilitate the action of enzyme in metabolism pathways (carbohydrate, Carbohydrates are formed from light-driven reactions that collectively
protein, lipid...) appear deceptively simple:
Important to nerve system, digestive system and immune system CO2 + H2O + light CnH2nOn + O2
Needed for making new DNA, new cells (especially red blood cells) & iron Photosynthesis occurs in specialized organelles called chloroplasts:
absorption Photosynthesis consists of 2 sets of reactions: the light and dark reactions.
If a vitamin is absent from the diet or not properly absorbed by the body, The light-driven reactions are the primary events of photosynthesis; these
some deficiency diseases may develop. occur in the thylakoid membrane.
Metal ions: types of compounds that have an electric charge. The dark reactions occur in the stroma.
Some metal ions are needed for an optimal health: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, The light reactions of photosynthesis generate high-energy electrons that
Mn2+, Zn2+, ... Roles of metal ions: are used to form NADPH.
Common cofactors–perform important roles in many enzymatic reactions On their way to NADPH, these high-energy electrons flow through a
that fuel the body’s metabolism. membrane-bound “electron transport” pathway, generating a proton motive
Modify electron flow in a substrate or enzyme, thus effectively potential (Δp) from which ATP is made.
controlling an enzyme-catalyzed reaction.
Bind/orient a substrate with respect to functional groups in the active site,
provide a site for redox activity if the metal has several valence states.
Transport O2 to organs in the body (for example: ion Fe2+ binds to
hemoglobin and myoglobin to help)

14. Applications of enzyme in different aspects.

Food processing
Enzymes play an important role in industry, especially in food processing.
They help to produce or improve the quantity of different foods. Enzymes are
non-toxic & naturally present in ingredients used to make foods.
Here are some enzymes that are used to break down the structure of fruit so that
manufacturers can extract more juice or to convert starch in alcohol
production:
α-amylase: convert starch into dextrins in producing corn syrup
ẞ-amylase: split glucoses into maltose in beer production
Glucoamylase:
- convert dextrins into glucose in the production of corn syrup
- convert residual dextrins to fermentable sugar in brewing
Chymosin: curdles milk by breaking down kappa-casein in cheese making
Lactase:
- additive for dairy products for individuals lacking lactase
- break down lactose in whey products for manufacturing polylactide