Journalism in General

Expected outcomes

1. Knowledge of the journey of the news story

2. Ability to trace the journey of the news story from the time the events beak to the time
it is read in the newspaper

Any newspaper before it can come out to the printing press, there must be some news to be
written by the reporter and edited by the editor in chief. The news story is usually covered from
the events made by the reporter. It can also be possibly transmitted by the people who maybe
called as an eyewitness of the event. Some news paper rely from the press releases provided by
news agencies. From its source, the copy is transmitted to the editor. The responsibility of the
editor is to make instruction o all compositors on the kinds of headlines to be used . The role of
the copy reader on this matter is simply cannot be under estimated, he or she edits the copy
and writes the headlines guidelines . the copy is usually brought to the composing room,
whereby the linotype man sets the story.

The work of the compositors is to assemble the lines of types or slugs in a long metal tray
called galley. When the galley is full a few impression or proofs called galley proofs are taken
on a small proof press. The work of the proof readers is to check and mark all errors.

Another galley proof may then be pulled and sent to the writer or editor for further changes
the type is arranged into pages. The work of the compositor is to transfer the appropriate
number of lines to make up a page proof from the galley to hollow rectangular frame called
chase. The proof reader edits the page using proof reading symbols. A lock up man locks the
pages of type securely in the chase with wooden or metal blocks called furniture and with
metal wedges called quoins.

In letterpress printing, the impression is transferred from the flat chase to the paper. The type
of printing press used called the cylinder press. The printing form is held on a flat bed. The bed
itself moves forward under a turning impression cylinder to print a sheet of paper. The rotating
impression cylinder discharges the printed sheet and picks up a blank sheet. Individual sheets,
rather than continuous roll or web, pass through the press.

If many copies are to be made at a very fast rate, the rotary press is used. Printing is done by
leaving the cylinder of metal to the paper. The rotary press has one or more sets of two
cylinder. The plate cylinder holds the curved electrotyped or stereotyped plates while the
impression cylinder provides the press sure.

The paper passes between the two and may be in the form of cut sheets or in a web or roll.
With a continuous web passing between the constantly turning roller, can run very fast making
the press can run very fast making 30,000 or more impression an hour. The cylinders are
arranged so as to print on both sides of the paper as the web passes through the press.

A new method of printing called off-set printing has become popular. It has several advantages
over the cylinder and rotary presses especially in printing color. Offset printing is a process in
which the inked impression is first made on a rubber covered roller then transferred to the
paper
Suggested activities

1. Come up with an illustration using illustration board the processes of printing a news
story.

2. Clip some news stories produced by news agencies

 Elements that make news

Objectives:

1. Provide students with knowledge what news is

2. Familiarity with the factors essential to news
3. Ability to identify the different types of news stories according to scope of origin,
structure and other forms

News Defined

News is simply defined as an oral or written report of the past, present, or future event. It is
considered to be factual, truthful, accurate and unbiased and always providing big interest to
the readers or viewers. A report of recent events or previously unknown information. Most of
the things that happen in the world everyday cannot be their way in the page of the newspaper
air in a news cast.

Elements of the news

A news story, may provide an appeal to some readers and viewers but not all. What makes a
story a newsworthy are the elements. The following are the elements of the news

1. Conflict – tis may involve physical or mental conflict man versus man, man versus
animals, or man versus nature man versus himself. Audiences or readers are always
interested in disagreements, arguments, and rivalries. In any event which has conflict
being attached to it, the more many people whose eyes are prying of the event, because
of the interest. Stories that involve conflict are religion, sports, business, politics, human
rights violations, and even struggles of people against human rights violations.

2. Immediacy or timeliness- this elements emphasizes the newest angle of the story. The
more recent the event, the more interesting it is to the readers. It is something
happened recently or we just learned about the recent event. If this is so, it could make
newsworthy. The meaning of recently varies depending on medium.

3. Proximity or nearness – this may refer to geographical nearness as well as to nearness of

kinship or interest. To a Filipino reader, news about a Pandemic Covid-19 virus concerns
him more than the same news about Pandemic but Sars. The event is something happen
close to home or it involves people also.

4. Prominence - some people are more prominent than others by reason of wealth, social
position, or achievements. An ordinary mishaps can become news if they involve a
 prominent person like a President or a film star. It makes headlines around the world if
one of the passengers were famous rock musician.

5. Significance – whatever is significant to the life of an individual is interesting to him. This

is why newspapers sells like the proverbial hotcakes when news of the increase in the
price of oil.

6. Drama – it adds color to the story. The more picturesque the background and the more
dramatic the action are, the more appealing the story is to the readers. The readers
certainly love a good show. Anything that moves a reader to tears or to laughter is a
good news.

7. Oddity or unusualness – this refers to strange or unnatural events, objects, persons,

places. An odd story is interesting not because of its news value but because of human
interest side of it. It is what happened unusual? As the saying goes, “If a man bites a
dog, it’s a news! The extra ordinary and the unexpected appeal to our natural human
curiosity.

8. Controversy – are people in disagreement about this? It’s human nature to be

interested in stories that involve conflict, tension or public debate. People like to take
sides, and see whose position will prevail.

9. Animals – stories of animals, especially those with talents are good reading matter
because of their human interest value.

10. Number – sweepstake numbers, vital statistics, election results, scores in games,
casualties, fatalities, price goods, and ages of women make good news.

11. Emotion – all other elements of news mentioned above appeal to the emotion. But the
term emotion here includes the various human responses such as innate desire for food,
clothing, shelter, and universal interest in children, animals, and nature, and the natural
feeling of love sympathy and generosity of fear, hatred and jealousy.
 Types of news Story

As the reader goes on reading newspaper he noticed ways the news stories have been written.
This is so because there are different types of news, and each type is treated diffrently.

News stories may fall under any of the following types to:

1. Scope and origin

a.) Local news -report of events that take place within the immediate locality.

b.) National - news that takes place within the country.

c.) Foreign news – news that takes place outside the country.

d.) Dateline news – news preceded by the date and place of origin where it was written
of filed Philippines May 20, (AP)

2. Chronological sequence

a.) Advance or anticipated – news published before its occurrence, sometimes called
dope or prognostication. The reporter foretells events expected to occur at a
definite time in the future.
b.) Spot news – news that is gathered and reported on the spot. It deals with
unscheduled information demanding immediate publication. The reporter himself is
an eye witness to the event that took place.
c.) Coverage news – news written from a given beat. Both spot news and coverage
news are good example of first hand reporting.
d.) Follow up news - a sequel to a previous story. Having a new lead of its own, it is a
second, third, or subsequent chapter of a serial.

3. Structure of the news

a.) Straight news – news that consists of facts given straight without putting colors. Is
main objective is to inform. It uses summary lead and is written using the inverted
pyramid.
b.) News feature – it is based on facts, but it entertains more than it informs. It uses the
suspended interest structure like the narrative; it cannot meet the cut-off test. In
writing a news-feature, the writer his impression, may describe and narrate, but
without resorting to biased opinions i.e without editorializing. The reporter’s by-line
usually appears with his story.
(1) Single or one-incident story – the tory deals with an isolated event. A single fact
is featured in the lead and is explained further in the succeeding paragraphs. The
 story breaks logically at every paragraphs. Thus enabling the reporter to cut or
lengthen it as
Space dictates.
(2) Several feature, multiple angled, or composite story- several facts are included in
the lead elaborated one after the other in the body. The several feature story
aims to draw together two or more divergent aspect of related news items
separately; the writer writes them in one big story.

4. Treatment
a. Fact story – this is a plain exposition setting forth a single situation or a series
of closely related facts that inform. It is written in the inverted pyramid style.
b. Action story – a narrative of actions involving not mere simple facts but also
dramatic events, description of persons and events, perhaps testimony of
witnesses as well as explanatory data.
c. Speech report – a news story usually written from aa public address, talks, and
speeches.
d. Quote story – speeches, statements and letters and to some extent, interviews
when reported, are regarded as quote stories. All are based on recorded
information, either written or spoken, and transcribed by the reporter in the
form of news.
e. Interview story – a news report written from an interview

5. Content
a.) Routine story – celebration, enrollment, graduation, election stories reported
year in and year out.
b.) Police reports - accidents, fire, earthquake, crime stories et.
c.) Science news
d.) Developmental news
e.) Sport stories

6. Minor forms
a.) News brief – a short item of news interest, written like a brief telegraphic
message, giving mainly the results of details.
b.) News bulletin – it is similar to the lead of a straight news story. Its aim is just
to give gist of the news.
c.) News featurette – this is a short news feature usually used as filler e.g.,
“quirks in the news.”
d.) Flash - a bulletin that conveys the first word of an event.
 Writing the lead

Every news story begins with an introduction called lead. This may be a single word, a phrase, a
clause a brief sentence, entire paragraph, or a series of paragraphs. The main function of the
lead, aside from introducing the news story, are to tell the story in capsule form and to answer
right away the questions the reader would naturally ask.

A good lead answer all the important questions of the reader, indicates the attendant
circumstances if they are all important and arouses the readers’ interest to continue reading
the story.

Kinds of lead
1. Conventional or summary - this kind of lead used in straight news answers right away all or
any of the 5 W’s and or the H. it may one of the following:

a. Who lead – Used when the person involved is more prominent than what he does or
what happened to him.

b. What lead – used when the event or what took place is more is more important than
the person involved in the story

c. Where lead – used when the place is unique and no prominent person is involved.

d. When lead – rarely used as the reader presumes the story to be timely. However, this
lead is useful when speaking of deadlines, holidays, and important dates.

e. Why lead – used when the reason is more prominent or unique than what happens.

f. How lead – used when the manner, m ode, means, or methods of achieving the story is
the unnatural way

2. Grammatical beginning lead

There are times when the lead is introduced by a kind of grammatical form which is usually
a phrase or a clause used to emphasize a feature. Here, the important W’s are found in the
main clause, not in the introductory or subordinate clause which is just a modifying
feature.

Some examples of these grammatical leads are:

a. Prepositional phrase lead – the phrase is introduced by the prepositional phrase lead –
the phrase is introduced by a preposition .
 b. Infinitive phrase lead- it begins with the sign of the infinitive “to” plus the main verb.
c. Participial phrase lead -it is introduced by the present or past participle form of the
verb.
d. Gerundial phrase lead – it is introduced by a gerund ( a verbal noun ending in ing
e. Clause lead – the lead begins with a clause which mqy either be independent or
subbordinate; or may either be a noun or an adjectival or adverbial clause .

3. Novelty lead –

some kinds of leads are best used in writing news features. They are written in such a
way that they attract attention or carry out a definite purpose. Among these kinds of
novelty leads are:

a. Astonisher lead – uses an interjection or an exclamatory sentence.

b. Contrast lead - describes two extremes or opposites for emphasis. The sharper the
contrast, the more effective the lead will be.
c. Epigram lead - opens the quoting a common expression, verse, or epigram, at least
familiar in the locality
d. Picture lead – describes a person, a place, or an event, at the same time creating a
mental picture of the subject matter in the mind of the reader .
e. Background lead similar to the picture lead except that it describes the setting which
may be more prominent than the character and the events.
f. Descriptive lead -used when comparatively few descriptive words can vividly formulate
an imagery.
g. Parody lead – Consists of a parody of a well known songs, poems, lines, et.
Example : water! Water everywhere, but no water to drink. This was the flood victims
found to their dismay.
h. Punch lead – a short, forceful word or expression. It is rarely used.
 Writing News story

News should be factual, accurate, and truthful, therefore, in writing news, a reporter
should study first the data he has gathered, arranged or number the facts according to
their importance, an eliminate all unnecessary details. Digging out lead facts and put
best W or W’s forward. The kind of lead a reporter use to depend upon the type of
news story he has to write.

Various types of news structure

There are different kinds of news structures. The most common among them are
diagrammed and explained as follows:

1. Straight News Story

a. The summary lead answer the most important W’s depending on which of the W’s is
most prominent among them.
b. The body consists the elaboration of the W’s and the H.

2. News-feature Story

News feature should not be confused with feature articles (feature) which are sometimes called
special features and printed in the features sections of the news papers or in magazines.

Human interest and news feature stories are classified as news since both are gathered and
written daily by reporters as their regular assignment. Furthermore, both emphasize the
element of timeliness or immediacy which distinguishes news from other types of reading,
although they differ in important respects from the straight news.
 Language Testing Approaches and Techniques

Learning Objectives

At the end of lessons, the students should be able to:

1. Explain the strengths and the weaknesses of language testing and approaches,
2. Realize the usefulness of the lessons in testing students,
3. Discuss various language test techniques

A. APPROACHES TO LANGUAGE TESTING

Language test can be categorized according to four main approaches to testing. They
are the essay-translation approaches the structuralist approach the integrative
approach and the communicative approach.

1. Essay-translation approach

(a) Characteristics and types of tests in essay-translation approach

1. This approach is commonly referred to as the pre-scientific stage of language

testing.
2. No special skill or expertise in testing is required
3. Tests usually consists of essay writing translation, and grammatical analysis,
4. Test have a heavy literary and cultural bias
5. Public examination resulting from the tests using this approach sometimes
have an oral component at the upper intermediate and advance level

(b) Strength of essay-translation Approach

1. This approach is easy to follow because teachers will simply use their
subjective judgement
2. The essay translation approach may be used for testing any level of
examinees
3. The model of tester can easily be modified based on the essentials of the
test.

B. Weaknesses of the essay -translation approach

1. Subjective judgement of teachers tends to be biased.

2. As mentioned, the tests have a heavy literary and cultural bias.
The Structuralist Approach

a. Characteristics and types of test of the Structuralist Approach

1. This approach views that language learning is chiefly concerned with a

systematic acquisition of set of habits.
2. The structuralist approach involves structural linguistics which stresses the
importance of constructive analysis and the need to identify and measure
the learners mastery of the separate elements of the target language such
as phonology, vocabulary, and grammar.
3. Testing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing is separate from
another as much as possible.
4. The psychometric approach to measurement with its emphasis on reliability
and objectivity forms an integral part of structuralist testing.

C. Strengths of structuralist approach

1. In testing students capability, this approach may objectively and surely be

used by the testers.
2. Many forms of test can be covered in the test in a short time.
3. Using this approach in testing will help students find their strengths and
weaknesses in every skill they study.
Weaknesses of structuralist approach

1. It tends to be a complicated job for teachers to prepare questionaires using

this approach.
2. This approach considers measuring non-integrated skills more than
integrated skills

The Integrative Approach

a. Characteristics and types of test of integrative approach :

1. This approach involves the testing of language in context and is thus

concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of
discourse.
2. Integrative test are concerned with a global view of proficiency.
3. Integrative testing involves functional language but not the use of functional
language.
4. The use of cloze test, dictation,, oral interview, translation and essay writing
are included in many integrative test.

b. Strengths of integrative approach

 1. The approach to meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse
will b very useful for students in testing.
2. This approach can view students proficiency with global view
3. A model cloze test used in this approach measures the reader’s ability to
decode interrupted or mutilated messages by making the most acceptable
substitutions from all the contextual clues available.
4. Dictation, another type using this approach , was regarded solely as a means
of measuring students skills of listening comprehension.

Weaknesses of Integrative Approach

Even if many think that measuring integrated skills is better, sometimes there is
a need to consider the importance of measuring skills based on students need
such as writing only speaking only.

The communicative Approach

Characteristics and types of tests of communicative Approach.

1. Communicative tests are concerned primarily with how language is used in

communication.
2. Language use is often emphasized to the exclusion of language usage.
3. The attempt to measure different language skills in communicative tests is
based on a view of language referred to as divisibility hypothesis.
4. The test content should totally be relevant for a particular group of
examinees and the tasks set should relate to real life situation.
5. Communicative testing introduces the concept of qualitative modes of
assessment in preference to quantitative modes of assessment.

Strengths of communicative Approach

1. Communicative tests are able to measure all integrated skills of students.

2. The tests using this approach face students in real life so it will be very useful
for them.
3. Because a communicative test can measure all integrated skills, it can help
students in getting the score. Consider students who have a poor ability in
using spoken language but may score quite highly on test of reading.
4. Detailed statements of each performance level serve to increase the
reliability of scoring by enabling the examiner to make decsions according to
carefully drawn-up and well established criteria.
Weaknesses of communicative Approach

1. Unlike the structuralist approach, this approach does not emphasize learning
structural grammar, yet it may be difficult to achieve communicative
competence without a considerable mastery of the grammar of a language.
2. It is possible for cultural bias to affect the reliability of the test being
adminisitered.

B. TEST TECHNIQUES

1. Direct Versus Indirect Testing

There are two approaches to test construction: direct versus Indirect testing.
Testing is said to be direct when it requires the candidate to perform
precisely the skills the test wishes to measure. To know how well candidates
can write compositions, get them to write compositions. To know how well
they pronounce a language, get them to speak. The tasks, and the texts that
are used, should be as authentic as possible. The fact that students are
aware that they are in a test situation means that the tasks cannot be really
authentic. Nevertheless, every effort is made to make them as realistic as
possible.

2. Direct testing is easier to carry out when it is intended to measure the

productive skills of speaking and writing. The very acts of speaking and
writing provide information about the student’s ability with listening and
reading, however, it is necessary to get students not only to listen or read
but also to demonstrate that they have done this successfully.

Direct testing has a number of attractions. First, provided the abilities that
should be assessed is clear, it is relatively straightforward to create the
conditions which will secondly, at least in the case of the productive skills,
the assessment and interpretation of students’ performance are also quite
straightforward. Thirdly, since practice for the test involves practice of the
skills to foster, there is likely to be a helpful backwash effect.

Indirect testing attempts to measure the abilities that underlie the skills in
which the test is interested . it contains underlined items which the student
needs to identify as erroneous or inappropriate in formal standard English.
While the ability to respond to such items has been shown to be related
statistically to the ability to write compositions ( although the strength of the
relationship was not particularly great) the two abilities are far from being
identical.
 Suggestive activities:

Identify the 4 approaches to language testing. Give the characteristics,

strengths and weaknesses of each.

Reflection

What did you find the most useful if any, in the lesson and why?

TEST CONSTRUCTION FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING

A. Writing items requires a decision about the nature of the item or question to which we
ask students to respond, that is whether discreet or integrative, how we will score the
item, the skill we purport to test, and others.

B. WHAT ARE TEST ITEMS

A. A test item is a specific task test takers are asked to perform. Test items can assess
one or more points or objectives, and the actual item itself may take on a different
constellation depending on context. For Example, an item may test one point
(understanding of a given vocabulary word) or several points ( the ability to obtain
facts from a passage and then make inferences based on the facts). Likewise, a
given objective may be tested by a series of items. For example, there could be five
items all testing one grammatical point (e.g., tag questions) items of a similar kind
may also be grouped together to form subtest within given test.

THE SKILL TESTED AND THE INTELLECTUAL SKILLS NEEDED

The language skills that we test include the more receptive skills on a continuum
-listening and reading, and the more productive skills – speaking and writing. There are,
other language skills that cross-out these four skills, with assessment of vocabulary in
listening and reading- perhaps covering a broader range than assessment of vocabulary
in speaking and writing.

Non-verbal skills, may also be assessed such as gesturing, this can be both receptive
( interpreting someone’s else’s gestures) and productive ( making one’s own gestures).

There are test items which may require test takers to use different levels of intellectual
skills to produce a response. These will require the domains of learning as identified in
Bloom’s Revised Cognitive Taxonomy:
 . knowledge ( bringing to mind the appropriate material);

. Comprehension ( understanding the basic meaning of the material.

.application - ( applying the knowledge of the elements of language and

comprehension to they interrelate in the production of a correct oral or written
message

. analysis ( breaking down a message into its constituent parts in order to make explicit
the relationship between ideas, including tasks like recognizing the connotative
meanings of words and correctly processing a dictation, and making inferences);

Evaluation ( making quantitative and qualitative judgment about material.

. synthesis (arranging parts so as to produce a pattern not clearly there before, such as
in effectively organizing ideas in a written composition; and

It is important to remember that these levels increase to greater cognitive control as one
moves from knowledge to synthesis -that for example, effective operation at more advanced
levels such aas control of second language.

PHASES OF EVALUATION

Teacher as decision makers strive to make a close match between curriculum objectives,
instructional methods, and assessment techniques. The evaluation process carried out parallel
to instruction is a cyclical one that involves four phase.

1. Preparation phase – teacher decides what is to be evaluated, the type of evaluation to

be used ( diagnostic, formative, or summative ) the criteria upon which student learning
outcomes will be judged, and the most appropriate assessments will be conducted, and
students must be consulted and informed.

2. Assessment phase -teacher select appropriate tools and techniques, then collect and
collate information on student progress. Teachers must determine where, when, and
how assessment will be conducted, and students must be consulted and informed.

3. Evaluation phase – teachers interpret the assessment information and make

judgements about student progress. These judgements (or evaluation) provide
information upon which teachers base decisions about student learning and report
progress to students and parents guardians. Students are encouraged to monitor their
own learning by evaluating their achievement on regular basis
 4. Reflective phase – allows teachers to consider the extent to which the previous phases
in the evaluation process have been successful. Specifically teacher evaluate the utility,
equity and appropriateness of the assessment techniques used. Such reflection assists
teachers in making decisions concerning improvements or adaptions to subsequent
instruction and evaluation.

Multiple choice General term for any task

type where the appropriate
answer is picked from a list of
alternatives
Single response A multiple choice task where E.g tick the item with the
only one option is possible correct spelling
Multiple response A multiple choice task where e.g which of the following are
more than one is possible, causes of global warming?
options are almost nearly
relation and the excess
among choices is called
distractor
True/False The student is given a e.g. Does the journalist agree
statement and should with the interviewee?
indicate whether it is
correct or not

Ranking In this task, students are e.g. retrace the chronological

given a list of items which order in which these events
they are asked to rank (i.e by took place
dragging or assigning a
number ).
Matching A kind of multiple choice e.g (Reading task) connect
question in which the test which statements to the
taker is asked to combine paragraph they summarize
two or more items that
belong together
Hotspot On a drawing or a picture, e.g. Indicate on the picture
students are asked to select a where the dolphin’s vocal
specific area chord used to be
Open answer Any type of question in which e.g. (listening test
a test taker is asked to
produce written or spoken
sentences or texts.
Text numeric As an answer to a question, e.g. (listening test) fill in the
 students fill in words, short omitted dates
sentences or number
C- Cloze A close test which includes e.g. Fill in the correct words.
the first letter of each
deleted word.
Extended response Students can be asked to e.g. Explain your opinion
reply to an open question or about Johnson’s behavior.
to produce longer

POST-DISCUSSION ACTIVITIES

1. Write a simple test question, appropriate for Grade 9 students. Consider the mental
capacity and the different levels of the intellectual skills in Bloom’s taxonomy .

2. Design a test in English subject as a result of your own plan. Review once again the
notes.

3. What are the different phases of evaluation? Expound in your words.

4. Expound in the in your own words the steps in planning and designing a test.

QUANTITIATIVE ANALYSIS

A. CRITERIA OF A GOOD TEST

In creating a valid and reliable language test for general or specific purposes, a
quantitative and qualitative test analyses are the utmost importance. A complete
formal analysis requires a thorough psychometric knowledge, whereas informal
analyses are less rigid and can be undertaken with relative ease.

Key concepts which are central to good tests.

1. Relevance – the extent to which it is necessary that students are able to perform X.
2. Representativity – the extent to which task X represents a real situation.
3. Authenticity – the extent to which the situation and the interaction are meaningful
and representative in the world of individual user.
4. Balance – the extent to each relevant topic/ability receives an equal amount of
attention.
5. Validity – the extent to which the test effectively measures what it is intended to
measure.
Sub-classification of validity

a. Concurrent Validity – a test is said to have concurrent validity if the scores it

gives correlate highly with a recognized external criterion which measures the
same area of knowledge or ability.
b. Construct Validity – a test is said to have construct validity if scores can be shown
to reflect a theory about the nature of a construct or its relation to other
constructs. It could be predicted, for example, that two valid tests of listening
comprehension would rank learners in the same way, but each would have a
weaker relationship with scores on a test of grammatical competence.
c. Content Validity
A test is said to have content validity if the items or tasks of which it is made up
constitute a representative sample of items or tasks for the area of knowledge
or ability to be tested.
d. Convergent validity – a test is said to have convergent validity when there is high
correlation between scores achieved in it and those achieved in a different test
measuring the same construct.
e. Criterion-related validity – a test is said to criterion-related validity if a
relationship can be demonstrated between test scores and some external
criterion which is believed to be measure of the same ability. Information on
criterion-relatedness is also used in determining how well a test predicts future
behavior.
f. Discriminant validity – a test is said to have discriminant validity if the correlation
it has with tests of different trait is lower than correlation with tests of the same
trait,.
g. Reliability – refers to the consistency and stability with which a test measures
performance.

A number of variables influence test reliability:

1. Specificity – Questions should not be open to different interpretations.

2. Differentiation - the test discriminates between good and poor students
3. Difficulty- the test has an adequate level of difficulty.
4. Length – the test contains enough items. In multiple choice at least 40 test
items are required.
5. Time -students should sufficient time to perform a test
6. Item construction – a well constructed question is better than a poor one

TESTING THE PERCEPTIVE SKILLS

A. The four language skills of Speaking, listening, writing, and reading are seen as inter
related skills that occur simultaneously in oral or written communication. Tests for
each skill may involve not only one but two or more skills, however, this module, and
the next will attempt to present distinct classifications of assessments involved in
each type in terms of tasks and test formats.
1. Sound discrimination -for beginners of language learning it is important that they able
to distinguish the sounds of the language clearly to help them understand the
message they hear. In English for example, there are several sounds that are
phonetically similar but phonemically different. Words that are the same except for
one sound may cause confusion to the listener who cannot discriminate these
different sounds.

Republic of the Philippines

APAYAO STATE COLLEGE
 Conner, Campus

Summary

Accomplishment of the Apayao collegian the official student publication of the Apayao State
College
Period : January 2020 - May 2020

PERSON INVOLVED POSITION STATUS OF DUTIES/TASK SUPPORTIN REMARKS

POSITION S G
DOCUMENTS
Margie Bayaua Editor-in- student Supervised Written Completed
chief the editorial articles
staff of the
school paper

Edited all
submitted
articles
preparatory to
submission of
the same to
the adviser
Marinel Basiuang News student Wrote news Written Completed
writer articles on articles
assignment
from the
editor-in-chief
Kheld Peru Photo Student Captured Photos used Completed
Journalist photos of all in the
the events of newsletter
the Apayao
State College
Krystal Kittong Adviser COS Supervised All published Completed
teacher the articles
preparation of found in the
the school school paper
paper
operation
ranged from
editing, up to
the giving of
constructive
 criticism
Allen M. Mayodong Adviser Permanent Overseen that Written Completed
the school articles
paper is well found in the
edited and all Apayao
definite Collegian
policies were
carried out
Michael Talimbatog Lay-out student Wrote The Completed
artist captions of newsletter
pictures itself
utilized by the
paper in
cooperation
with the
editor-in-chief
The target
quantity of the
newsletter
when printed
out was not
achieved and
remained
incomplete
due to the
supply of
electric
current which
the printing
machine
cannot
accommodate
.

Prepared by: Noted by:

ALLEN M. MAYODONG MADELYNE T. MASLANG

School Paper Adviser Director for Student
Services

Krystal Kittong
School Paper Adviser
 Republic of the Philippines
APAYAO STATE COLLEGE
Conner, Campus
Apayao Province

STUDENT PUBLICATION PLAN

Program/activ Strategies/activities Description Quantity Expecte Time Persons objectives

ities d budget frame to be
to spend involved
Release the encourage campus newsletter 700 October Advisers, Communic
students writers to submit type hundred 2020 campus ating with
written output articles to the publication copies writers stakeholder
through editor-in-chief s both
newsletter students
publication and
community
selection and Invite students to August Advisers, Tap the
organizing of participate in the 2020 Editor- talent of
new sets of writing screening in-chief prospective
campus writers writers , for
more
training
and
experience
Conduct online Utilize any of the Social 20 September Advisers, Create a
campus social media as media students Editor quick
journalism platform for interaction -in-chief, independe
training for training Resourc nt learning
prospective e at the pace
writers persons students
time

Purchase Indicate in Bond paper 5 reams Total August Advisers, Core list of office
and the short 8.5 X budget P -Octobe Editor-in-chief, supplies
procuremen Procurement 13 75,000.0 r 2020 ASC strategizes the
t of office management substance2 0 administration management
supplies plan all the 0 and the
supplies operation of the
needed for office/unit
publication
Long 8.5 X 5 reams August Advisers,
 13 to Editor-in-chief,
substance October ASC
20 2020 administration
Computer 8 boxes August Advisers,
Ink HP 60 2020 Editor-in-chief,
(black and ASC
White) administration
Computer 8 October Advisers,
Ink HP 60 2020 Editor-in-chief,
ASC
administration
CD 3 boxes August Advisers,
rewritable 2020 Editor-in-chief,
Photos ASSC
storage administration

I Wifi August Advisers,

Modem 2020 Editor-in-chief
Memory 1 piece August Advisers,
Card Photo 64 GBs 2020 Editor-in-chief,
storage for ASC
DSLR administration
camera
Purchase 1 Indicate in Intel core 1 unit P August Advisers, ASC
unit laptop the PPMP i7-10510u 45,000.0 2020 Administration
processor 0

8GB DDr4
Integrate Join social Mobile June Adviser, Editor- Adopt online
campus networks blogging/ or 2020 in-chief, ICT journalism for
publication and blogging publishing personnel greater degree
into digital using map on website of creativity and
journalism and mobile technology
devices

Prepared by: Recommending Approval

Approved by:

ALLEN M.MAYODONG MADELYNE T. MASLANG

Adviser Director for Student services
About the Apayao Collegian

The “Apayao Collegian” is the only recognized official school publication of the Apayao State
college. Produced media of news, editorial, feature and campus entertainment. Its content
provides its stakeholders like students, faculty the college personnel, and the community broad
range of information be it cultural, student affairs, political affair, social, academic, sports,
lifestyle news, local entertainment and any other related to public affair. The publication office
is tasked for coverage and come-out with in-depth explanatory news reports, engage in the
transmission of information which aim to let its stakeholders be well-informed and understand
what is happening both in the Apayao State College campus and community. Said school paper
designed public forum for the editorial board to inform, educate the campus and community
readers for the discussion of issues of concerns. Freedom of Expression is exercised with
responsibility, advisers may and should mentor and discuss content during the writing process.
It upholds its legal definition taken from R.A. 7079 Section 3 states that Student Publication is
an issue of any printed material that is independently published by, and which meets the
needs and interest of the studentry.
About the history of the school paper

The “Apayao collegian was a simple mimeographed type flysheet publication created in 1995
founded when the first provincial meet held at the Apayao State College which was then
Apayao Institute of Science and technology. Three faculty were tasked to conceptualize the
paper namely: Allen M. Mayodong, late Rosemarie D. Pidlaoan Ph.D and Mrs. Marjorie Aswigue
during the administration of Dr. Lorenzo J. Tadios Ph.D. the school paper came out as the
successor of “The Flame” the school paper was instrumental then in documenting the daily
athletic events of the first provincial athletic meet held in the municipality of Conner, Apayao
Province.

Editorial Set up

The Apayao Collegian editorial bard is composed of the Editorial news and Editorial operation.
Editorial News member are groups of students, faculty responsible with the content of the
school paper that is, reflected on what the writers gather, write and edit. The Editorial system
are collectively responsible for the production of school paper, taking charge with lay-outing,
computer editing and proof-reading.

The process of publishing out, the Apayao Collegian starts with writers’ gathering data or items
in the campus and of community, that is based with the assigned “beats”. As writers get
through writing articles, all articles must have to be submitted to the desk editor but most likely
to the
Editor-in-chief, who in turn choose which ones will be published on the paper, what will be
included in each section of the school paper. Campus news stories are edited by news editors;
then the stories will be edited for computer inputting. The proofreaders see to it that there is
correctness to be done, like grammar and spelling prior for finalization. After the proofreading
all articles should be submitted to school paper advisers see to it that no libelous articles can
come out to the paper. In the case when the school paper preferred to be printed in printing
press, a dummy is made serving as guide for final school paper to be produced.

It is important that all gathered articles be submitted on or before deadlines set. Student
writers or contributors can submit as many articles as they wish to be, but it is the prerogative
of the editor-in-chief to choose which of the written and edited articles shall be included
among the articles possible to come out in the school paper issues. All articles are subject to
be edited that will conform under the guide of the Apayao Collegian style book. The Editorial
Board which composed of student writers and advisers meet for story conference, plan for the
banner story and come up with titles for all the news articles for every issue.
Editorial operation - once the articles are already finalized it will be readied for typesetting,
proofreading and lay-outing. Lay-out artists are responsible to make dummy in the case when
the school paper is planned to bring to the printing press. In as much that not all submitted
articles are really stand of the Apayao collegian, any opinion or commentary piece can be
considered editorial, it will only be published provided it is well-written and or fact-based
viewpoint. Any writer on this matter can primarily take shape of commentary on the news
coming out on the paper, the Apayao Collegian is trying also to publish some reflections of the
campus writers on cultural trends personal and or narrative essay.

In terms of freedom of the Press

The freedom of speech, exercised by the Apayao Collegian has its legal bases R.A 7079 Section
2 stating that it is the policy of the State to uphold and protect the freedom of the press even at
the campus level and promote development and growth of campus journalism as means of
strengthening ethical values, encouraging critical and creative thinking, and developing moral
character and personal discipline of the Filipino youth.

The Apayao Collegian will serve the best interest of students, faculty and College administration
of the Apayao State College, keeping itself free from any distracting purpose like commercial,
political and or any dictatorial groups as defined by the media in general.

Any decisions which affect the publication on all levels generated by the Editorial Board,
advisers are allowed to give only advice whether legal, and or opinion for the improvement of
the publication but it is always the Editorial Board decisions shall prevail.

The Editorial Board has the authority to prevent publishing any material which violated any of
the editorial policies.

The Apayao Collegian has the right to resist all attempts at censorship particularly pre-
publication censorship which repressed students’ and or anybody’s rights for freedom of
expression.

All the student media recognized by the Apayao Collegian with referenced in the editorial
policy of the school publication are made to be student public forum.

Apayao Collegian students and faculty writers are protected by and bound to the principles of
journalism laws such protections have also limitation afforded by the Philippine constitution,
campus writers should understand various laws and court decisions of those principles stated
related to code and ethics in writing.

The Apayao Collegian does not permit to publish any material deemed by the Editorial board
unprotected, materials considered obscene, libelous, disruptive of the Apayao State College
processes, copyrights violation, malicious, private invasion and other materially disruptive of
individuals morality.

The Role of the Adviser

1. The adviser can be selected by student writers among the faculty member and is in
charge of the campus writers just in a convention classroom atmosphere.
2. Coach the student writers with his or her knowledge of journalistic learning, allowing
the campus writers to be responsible of the content being decided, and to ensure that
the Apayao Collegian becomes print media for open forum.
3. Guide and mentor the student writers in accordance with the approved editorial policy
and be of help to the educational processes related to the production of school paper;
4. May act cautiously on legal matters, like for example a consultant and mentor of laws
covering censorship and suggest veto of the content to be published except for
constitutional valid reasons
5. An advisor is not censor, nor who determine the content of the Apayao Collegian. But
he or she gives instructions following the Code of ethics established by Philippines
Constitution, Philippine Writers guild, and the School Editorial Board policy.

Apayao Collegian stands of its Editorial

1. All editorial contents which are to be published shall be bylined as “ who writes the
content”.
2. All content materials which are to be published may be submitted to the editorial
board for study of the content. Only the editorial board can determine whether the
content will be publish or not.
3. The Apayao Collegian is prohibiting to publish any written article deemed to be
material of the author using the school paper for inappropriate personal gain.
4. Any issue deemed to be critical, the Apayao Collegian strives to endeavor to get and
present on all side of comments, to make the news balance.
5. The editorial board which consist of students writers, advisers, determine the content of
the Apayao Collegian unsigned editorials. The views beings stressed in the editorial
page, are views of the majority of the editorial board. Signed columns and or reviews
are opinions expressed only the author.

The Editorial Board

1. The editorial board will composed of all student staff editors guided by two advisers
2. the Apayao Collegian editorial board decides on all matters pertain directly the Apayao
Collegian media and the interest of their interests.
3. Every member should passed the screening in writing given yearly for prospective
student writers.
 4. All student writers member of the editorial board are expected to understand their
duties and responsibilities and know all the consequences should they fail to fulfill their
duties.
5. The Editor-in-chief and any of the student writers may seek outside legal advise from
any lawyer regarding the content however, whatever decisions and responsibility
shall remain with the Apayao Collegian Editorial board.
6. Only the Editor in Chief entitled of the full scholarship from the Apayao State College
administration.

Distribution and Circulation

1. The Apayao Collegian will be distributed free of charge to all students of the Apayao
State College as set in time schedule of distribution approved by advisers and Editor-in-
Chief after the printing;
2. Copies of the Apayao Collegian will also be displayed in the periodical section of the
Apayao State College;
3. Social media will also be utilized to promote published content;
4. Information taken from Facebook and other social media platform will be verified;

Student writers staffing policy

1. Every bonafide student of the Apayao State College is illegible to become member of the
Editorial board of the Apayao collegian as long as the student passed the screening
writing test;
2. Any student member of the Apayao Collegian Editorial board opt to resign needs to write
a letter of resignation addressed to the Editor-in-Chief

Student policy for selection

1. Editor-in-Chief is chosen by faculty adviser and not be graduating by the time he/she
applied for the paper
2. New staffers are selected based on the result of the screening test;
3. Discrimination due to age, race, sex and tribe affiliation is prohibited

Staffer Dismissal

1. All student writers member of the Apayao Collegian Editorial board work as group of
writers for the Apayao State college each student writer is expected to fulfill the
assigned tasks, complete all the coverages, writing and submission of stories photos on
or before set deadlines any student writer including Editor-in chief may be dismissed
from his/her position for the following violations committed:
 a. Failure to fulfill the duties as student writer;
b. Plagiarism;
c. Falsification of personal and or public documents;
d. Assault/ harass the Editor-in-chief advisers, fellow writers;
e. Submission of publishable materials owned by the Apayao Collegian outside the
media staff without approval by the Editorial board .
f. Major offense will result in an immediate dismissal from duties include but not
limited to the following plagiarism, vandalism theft, falsification of personal and
public documents.
g. Minor offense will be given a written warning for the first time, second time will be
termination
h. All warnings shall be written in memo type and signed by any of the advisers;
i. An Editor will be stripped of hos or her position if suspended;
j. The academic nature of the Apayao Collegian being member of the Philippine writers
guild, suggests removal of staff members when any of the established media policies
which have linkages with the Apayao state college policies are violated by a student
writer.
k. Dismissal procedures are reviewed and approved by the Editorial Board.
l. A student writer who has been dismissed may appeal before the office of the
Director of student Affair office.

FUNDING OF STUDENT PUBLICATION

Stated under R.A 7079 funding for student publication may include the savings of the respective
school’s appropriations, student subscriptions, donations, and other source of funds. The
Apayao Collegian student publication is funded from the sourced fund of the college savings
generated by the fiduciary duties.

English language policy

Learning is central in knowledge-based societies, politics and economies. A lot of nations are
pushing this idea to ensure that reforms in education system focus more strongly on learning
itself rather than simply changing structures and educational organization. What does the word
“focus” mean in the context of academic meaning? Why is it significant? Is knowledge base on
learning desirable enough and strong to education policies makers to advance educational
system thus bringing wi
Rationale for closer focus on learning and on change.

The inevitability of lifelong learning in knowledge-oriented societies implies that school systems
should have different objectives and characteristics than if education were considered to have
been completed when a student leaves initial education. Yet in practice, there remains a
tendency for school education to be assessed in terms of the achievements and target that
systems have set themselves, rather tha their broader success in laying the foundation for
lifelong learning.

In the knowledge economy, memorization of facts and procedures is not enough for success.
Educated workers need a conceptual understanding of the complex concepts, and the ability to
work with them creatively to generate new ideas, new theories, new products, and new
knowledge they need to be able critically to evaluate what they read, be able to express
themselves clearly both verbally and in writing, and understand scientific and mathematical
thinking. They need to learn integrated and usable knowledge, rather than the sets of
decontextualized d-facts. They need to be able to take responsi bility for their own continuing,
life-long learning.

Designs for learning

Educational designs help planners of educational facilities know what is possible through
showcasing international example . the new designs fitting one or more of the criteria, the
facilities construction design or use is judged to be noteworthy and to contribute to educational
quality .

Educational reform and innovation

Educational reform and the concept of innovation are clearly related to the search after new
approaches to learning. If the school is to change so that its approach to learning is significantly
different from what went before it will often need innovation.

Innovation and knowledge Management

Many studies have argued for more flexible, often forms of learning and of school organization
but while it is not difficult to identify numerous promising examples, it is not so easy to find
evidence sustained and widespread change. A variety of the factors inhibiting fundamental
change to traditional practices has been analyzed. In general, schools have weak networking
and knowledge-sharing among teachers. Spending on educational research and development is
very low in contrast to other sectors of activity characterized by the intensive creation and use
of knowledge and the application of the research and development is quite limited.

LANGUAGE POLICY AND LANGUAGE USE IN THE PHILIPPINES

Language policy plays a vital role in language practice and use in Philippine educational system.
The language policy has been regarded to influence the efficacy of the teaching and learning
process in the school setting in the country. With the rapid flow of globalization and
internationalism so with the services of education in educative process. The aim of producing
human resources is to equip to the demands of the knowledge-based economy and has to
realigned government policies globally to put education at the center of its development
programs. From the rise of English language as the so called universal Language and language
recognized in the globalized world calls for a more inclusive and locally -oriented mother
tongued based multilingual education (MTB-MLE) .

The quick flow and increasing internationalization of services engaged in the education sector
with issues that delineate government policy orientation in response to the needs of the
knowledge economy. From central issues to access and the increasing democratization of
education of education through the upsurge of information and communication technology
(ICT), to equity issues that define rights to education for all, education policies globally has set
the tune to responding to the cultural and local needs of a society while ensuring at the same
time, that its population are receptive to the demands of modern times. The role of language
policy as affecting education has been discussed in literature . mother-tongue based
multilingual education discussed broadly the dynamics of language, access and influence, and
will look at the Philippines as a country case study of explicit and implicit declarations in
language policy and use as affecting the education sector and access to the labor market.

Language Access and Influence

The role of language policy in democratic plurality is contentious given the functions exhibited
by languages and power in nations, states, with post modernists framing language as the core
of political existence. Stepped in power and defining people’s role in the world. The role of
language in agency and power is marked, with agency defined as capacity to act and with
language as an integral part of agency. Realignment in language policies can also refer to
changing political powers where language education plays an important role in controlling
access to economic resources, political institutions, and power. It contends that the education
programs given to such groups limit their employment prospects rather than advancing it
where their education advocates for self sufficiency and channels them into minimum wage
jobs that offer little opportunity for increasing language or job skills. Nationalistic tendencies in
language policy display similar concerns in terms of access where a dominant and preferred
language is used as criterion for influence and control.

Institutional narratives also play an important role when oftentimes, such govern the crucial
purpose of legitimizing specific policies, as exhibited for instance in Singapore, a member state
of the Association of south East Asian Nations (ASEAN) , whose lack of natural resources has
naturally compelled the state to develop and depend on its human capital for socio-economic
advancement. Given the ethnic background and diversity found in Singapore, the State has
insinuated a bilingual proficiency where English, as supposed medium for modernity, is widely
used as medium for instruction in school while at the same time, not discounting the role of
ethnic languages identified by its population. In similar note, neighboring Malaysia is identified,
with as much ethnic diversity, as prioritizing the Malay language reflected in national policies
such as the National Economic Policy and subsequent education language policy revisions
( reverting of the teaching of mathematics and sciences to Malay from English.

Legal Bases, experimental Studies on Language Instruction

Institutional memories and a passion for documentary analysis are fundamental in tracing the
journey of curricular reform . The Bureau Department of Elementary Education and the Bureau
of Secondary Education were cooperative in making this journey true to form events.

The document divides the history of the Philippines education into five periods.

1. Period of orientation and organization with Spanish and American regimes -Act No. 74
established a Department of Public Instruction;
2. Period of the Commonwealth – the Filipinization of the educational system;
3. Period of Japanese regime- the department of education and culture was renamed
Department of education, Health and Public welfare;
4. Period of the republic – Executive Order No. 94 renamed the department of Public
Instruction to department of Education Secretary Manuel V. Gallego was the first
Secretary of education;
5. Period of reorganization mandated the President decree No. 1 issued on September 24,
1972 .

History records the important laws affecting education in 1901.

- Act No. 74 enacted on January 21 1901 establishing a Department of Public

Instruction in the Philippine islands.
- Act No. 180 enacted on July 24, 1901 providing for the organization of the Interior,
commerce, and Policies of finance and Justice and of Public Instruction.

Five decades later on June 20, 1953, Republic Act No. 896 was enacted declaring the
policy on elementary Education charged with the duty of formulating General
Education Policies and directing the Educational Interests of the Nation. The journey
on language issues and debates on the use of the vernacular, Pilipino or Filipino,
starts

1924 -1925 Monroe survey

Paul Monroe and his associates conducted a survey of Philippines education from
1924 to 1925 which highlighted the struggle of the country “to create a modern
educational system.” The difficulties were many but no other difficulty has been so
great as that of overcoming the foreign language handicap. The Monroe survey
characterized this handicap as a serious obstacle to success in teaching.

1935 Constitution
 The constitutional mandate under the commonwealth the elementary curriculum
was made to include the teaching of the National Language obligatory. It was first
offered as a subject in SY 1939 -1940 in the public schools. With full autonomy given
to the commonwealth government, there a need to make Filipino pupils and
students aware of learning a common native tongue.

Education Act of 1940

Another development was the shortening of the elementary curriculum from seven
to six years in order to admit more children of school age the Educational Act of
1940, then called the education “Magna Carta” of the Philippines provided for the
system of public elementary education and its matter of financing among other
things, the Act provided, subject to certain conditions, for compulsory attendance in
the primary grades, the nationalization of the support of the elementary grades,
except elementary grades in chartered cities.

1957 Swanson survey

A survey of the public schools of the Philippines, generally known as the Swanson
Report, was conducted by a group of American Professors under the leadership of
Professor J. Chester Swanson aided by Filipino officials of the Bureau of Public
schools.

The findings and recommendation of the Swanson report included the teaching of a
language which pointed to a great advantage of children in Tagalog-speaking regions
who learn only one new language in Grade I and II over children in non-Tagalog
speaking provinces who have to learn new languages, English and Tagalog. The
difficulty in the second case is enhanced by the absence of instructional materials in
the vernacular.

1974 Bilingual Education Policy

The Bureau of Education in the Philippines mandated the use of English and Pilipino
(changed to Filipino in the 1987 Constitution) as media of instruction in Philippine
primary
Secondary schools according to a set timetable. The purpose of the policy was for
the
Philippines to become bilingual nation, competent in both Pilipino and English. The
BEP
Was intended to advance learning in all subjects; propagate Filipino as a language of
literacy,
As well as source of identity and national unity; and promote English as the language
Science and Technology of regional commerce and of international communication.
 By the bilingual educational policy Filipino is the medium of instruction in schools
for all
Subjects except natural science and mathematics for which English is used. There is,
However reported move to replace English with Filipino for teaching the two
subjects, whereby English will be relegated to a foreign language in in the curriculum. The
possible adoption of this scheme has intensified the controversy over Filipino, notonly as
medium of instruction, but also the national language.

TECHNIQUE IN TEACHING LITERATURE

Discussed in a large variety of ways. Different poems or different kinds of poem must be
discussed or analalyzed in different ways. In analyzing poetry, the readers must always know
the basic two-fold approach of all activities of reading poetry: readers must understand both
the literal sense of the poem and the symbolic or suggested meaning of the poem . many
possibilities occur in analyzing the poems. These possibilities mean that poem is free to be
discussed or analyzed from any ways and point of views. One way, the reader may focus on
elements of poetry such sound devices, figurative languages, themes, and values. Another way,
the reader may approach the poetry by using particular literary approach, feminist literary
approach, Marxist literary approach and any other literary approaches. So in analyzing poetry,
the readers can do anything that is possible in poetry. Before the readers conducting an
analysis of poetry, the readers may read for many times in order to get what the readers want
to know.

TEACHING POETRY AND ITS THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

In teaching English poetry as foreign language are needed particular methods to increase the
student’s achievement an comprehension in English skills-based subject and English content
based subject. There are some methods can be applied in teaching English poetry. One of the
methods in teaching English poetry is cooperative learning specifically group discussion. Within
cooperative learning, students benefit from sharing ideas rather than working alone. Students
help one another so that all can reach some measure of success. Cooperative learning is a set
of instructional methods in which students are encouraged or required to work together on
academic tasks, to help one another learn. The essential feature of cooperative learning is that
success of one students helps other students to be successful. In this case, all the students have
chance to express opinion or idea in group. Students work together to learn and are responsible
for their team mates learning as well as their own. So, the students in group have equal
opportunities. Group discussion is one technique of cooperative learning that used by teachers
in particular subjects. this method is proposed by Slavin. The main point in setting up a
discussion group is to make sure that each group member participates. In the group discussion
Slavin stated that to monitor the participating of member in group, a group must have a leader.
The leader in group has function to insure that everyone participates and that the group stays
on task. To monitor the participating of group member, there are many alternatives ways to
monitor students participating such as every member of group have to write an opinion or an
idea before the group starts discussion, each member of group has different role.

CONDUCTING SMALL GROUP DISCUSSION IN POETRY CLASS

Small group discussion is an effective technique of poetry class in comprehending poem

because a group discussion consist only four to five students. In implementing cooperative
learning techniques, teachers should explain the process and its purpose to their students. The
cooperative learning process includes the discussion and sharing of ideas with students as
active participants. Students should understand exactly what is expected of them during group
activities and they need to have thorough understanding of topic at hand. Otherwise, their
misconceptions can inhibit learning. The teacher assigns students to groups which are formed
prior to giving out assignments. Observations can help teachers know when and how to adjust
group membership and group activities.

To arrange an effective discussion, the small group discussion session will be divided into three
parts:

a. Pre discussion activity in which the teacher gives information about techniques and
steps of the discussion and the topic to discuss.

b. Whilst discussion activities – in which students do the small group discussion, report
their own discussion, and present the result of their discussion to other groups or
general discussion.

c. Post discussion activities – the teacher gives comment corrections, clarification on

poems discussed.
d.
Before conducting small group discussion, the teacher should:

1. Organize the group and divide the students into small groups in which one group
consists of 4-5 students.
2. Explain the role of each member of group
3. Set time, the task and activity of discussion,
4. Explain the procedure of discussion in groups
5. Discuss the findings in large group/class

Pre-discussion activities
Pre -reading activities were employed to give information about the techniques, procedures,
and steps of discussion and the poetry to discuss in groups. In this activity, the teacher gives an
example of poetry to discussion in groups and some questions, the teacher gives related
written questions to all the groups, such as: does the poem have rhyme? Find and explain some
figurative languages of the poem! What is the tone? What is theme? What is the message? The
duration of this activity is 5 minutes.

Whilst discussion activities

In whilst reading activities, the students read and do the small group discussion about a’ red.
Red, rose poem by Robert burns, answering the question that was given by the teacher, report
their own discussion on the piece of paper that was provided by the teacher, and present the
result of their discussion in their own group first and to other groups in panel discussion, while
other member of groups may debate, clarify give opinion, and criticize.

During whilst discussion activities, the teacher should observe the groups discussion to make
sure that all members of group participate in their own discussions. The time of small group
discussion is 15 minutes and panel discussion is 30minutes.

Post discussion activities

The post discussion activities the teacher collects the works of group discussion and giving the
reward (score) to each group and members of group who participate in discussions, the teacher
may give some corrections if any, and the teacher may give several oral questions to members
of group randomly.

Those activities above can be conducted in several meetings with some different poems to be
discussed in groups. To check the students comprehension about the poem that have
discussed, the teacher may give homework to analyze a poem and give a written test/quiz
individually.

Advantage of Cooperative learning groups

Implementing cooperative learning groups has many advantages and disadvantages . the
advantages of implementing cooperative learning groups are: it improves students
achievement, self-esteem and social development. In cooperative learning groups, students
may help others students to improve their achievement. It also teaches students to work
together as team, and each members of group are responsible one another. These methods
also emphasizes on interaction between students in socializing and sharing their knowledge,
information, and opinion to the others.

Students may have greater motivation to learn, more positive attitudes towards instruction and
greater acceptance of students differences. It shows that cooperative learning groups may
motivate students to learn and students have more interest to know more about the
instruction. Other positive effects, students also learn how to accept different opinion of other
students and how to appreciate or respect different opinion. This method gives opportunity
for students in order to do the best individually or in groups.

Reading and analyzing poem: A Process of Comprehension

A. Reading poem

Understanding poem is an activity involving reading and process of comprehension.

Reading poem can be the first process of knowing the information of particular poem.
The activity of reading poem also involved some aspects of reading process. The more
important thins of comprehending the poem are what the contents of poem. Poetry is
like other literary works; prose and drama, it also has its own structures, purposes,
languages and general characteristics.

Commonly poetry written in verse in which consists of lines and stanza. At least poetry
also contains of sounds devices such as rhyme, rhythm, repetition, meter, and
onomatopoeia and speech of language such as simile, metaphor, hyperbole, and
personification. All of the elements of parts of poetry can be used to find information or
ideas in comprehending and appreciating it. Readers need to understand the phrase
clauses, figurative languages and sentences that are used in poems. While, the
interpretation and creative thinking skills, the students give interpretation of the
poems, and give comments, opinion, or ideas about the poems find the theme and
tone, relate the poems to matters beyond the poems and give comments, opinions, or
ideas about the poem or authors intention.
Another process of reading poems is use particular approach or technique to know any
information of poems textually or contextually. The reader may be drawn to imagery or
rhythm, notice the language or concentrate on sounds, or the readers generally find by
themselves intrigued by handling of the line endings. The readers may approach the
poem by contributing factor in all elements and aspect of a poem .

The readers can start to analyze poetry or poem from poetic devices, types, sound
devices, structural devices, and all aspects of poetry that can be analyzed.

Reading poetry differs from reading a newspaper, or a memo and a boo. Reading poetry
is a process of finding particular information, ideas, experiences, message, values and
themes for pleasure or serious analysis .poems also lead the readers feel intensely, to
experiences deeply, and often to extend our understanding of experiences of the
readers.

In comprehending a text of poetry, the students should know how to read

comprehensively the poem according to the level of comprehension process. Reading is
as a thinking has four dimension of reading such as word recognition skills, literal
comprehension skills, interpretation skills, and critical/ thinking skills. The word
recognition skills of reading poem can be a processs of knowing the meaning of words,
determining the word-choice (diction) classifying the denotative and connotative
words.

Approaches to Teaching literary and Cultural Studies

Why teach literary and cultural studies?

It is perhaps appropriate to begin by identifying some general aims of teaching literary

and Cultural studies as part of the undergraduate modern languages curriculum. We
may be Teaching several things at once.

1. Ways of reading a written or visual text

2. Ways of writing about written or visual text
3. Deeper appreciation of a text
4. The cultural context for language acquisition
5. A critical awareness of other worlds namely the symbolic worlds of other
communities
As well as the ideological worlds which shape or are brought into play by the
literary or
Visual text. In this way, text might be viewed as window onto another world,
rather than a mirror which reflects back the student’s own concern and immediate
points identification
6. Acquisition of vocabulary and structures in the target language
From your point of view, it is necessary to be clear about the aims and objectives
that you are trying to achieve in the classroom and what you are required to
assess. This is perhaps more difficult to quantify in literary and cultural studies
teaching of the emphasis on personal interpretation. Nevertheless, the ability to
perform a critical that students know in detail what they are required to do. How
and when they are required to doit. And what is being assessed.

Before you begin teaching, some preparatory steps are needed

1. Familiarize yourself with the Mission, Vision and Goals and objectives of your
school
2. Consult experienced teacher or colleagues whenever possible,
3. Ask for peer coaching or mentoring (preferably in the same subject area) to
review your progress
4. Find out as much as possible about your student group, find out the course
they are on whether they have relevant experience , any relevant information
on their background
5. Read the relevant documentation relating to the rest of the course
 6. Draw up a lesson plan which includes extra curricular activities in case you
need them.

Where do we begin to teach reading and critical interpretation?

An initial way of thinking about texts is for students to relate them to their own experience
although the problem with this approach is that they can become trapped by their own
concerns and preconceptions. Consequently, they do not encountering and developing respect
for other world-views, rather than simply reinforcing her or his own. In order to foster this
encounter with difference, students might encouraged to focus on textual elements which
diverge from their own expectation and experience.

You can use the questions below to guide students as they read and re-read the text
Argument What is the novel, poem, film about? For example,
how would you describe it objectively to a friend?
Voice Who is speaking? How do you know their identity
with the narrator? If not? Why not? Is identification
important?
Setting What is the significance of the chosen setting?
Language How is the target language used? Why is it used in
these ways?
Relation to the real Does the text claim to represent the world? If so,
how? If not, what does it claim to do?
Genre What kind of a film, poem or book is it? How do you
know? Does that knowledge affect how you read the
text?
Intertextual issues What is the text’s relationship to other texts in a
 given language community?
Ideological world view What values are expressed? How does this world
view correspond to or differ from your values and
views about the world? Does this ideological
correspondence or difference affect your reading
practices?

TESTING LITERATURE

Rationale of literature Testing

Literature is a humanities subject, but is part of most language programs of schools. It was the
focus
Of the curricula of Bachelor of Secondary Education major in English. Expanded Dimension to
literature in ESL/EFL: an Integrated Approach, stressed the great influence of literature to
language learning. Literature can help students master the vocabulary and grammar of the
language as well as the four language skills. It can help promote reading comprehension by
presenting special challenges to readers that demand their learning to put into practice specific
reading strategies. Moreover, it provides the subject matter, the context, and inspiration for
numerous written and oral activities so that a single literary work becomes the central focus of
a classroom.

Types of literature tests

In general, literature test may be classified s testing literary background or testing reading
selections. Testing literary background may include tests on historical background or literary
devices. Since tests of this type do not entail active use of language skills, test on reading
selections may categorized according to the type of questions asked in a literature class.
According to the taxonomy of cognitive questions, are classified according to complexity as
follows: literal comprehension, reorganization, inferential comprehension , evaluation and
appreciation. Tests in literature may also be grouped in the same categories.

Format of Literature Tests

The format of literature test s addresses specific language skills. It may be oral or written . oral
literature tests challenge the speaking and listening skills of the students while the written test
demand skills in reading and writing. Both tests can be used in testing literal comprehension
but essay tests can evaluate better the other categories of literature testing .