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Chapter

Introductory Chapter: Textile

Manufacturing Processes
Faheem Uddin

1. Introduction

Textile fibers provided an integral component in modern society and physical

structure known for human comfort and sustainability. Man is a friend of fashion
in nature. The desire for better garment and apparel resulted in the development of
textile fiber production and textile manufacturing process.
Primarily the natural textile fibers meet the requirements for human con-
sumption in terms of the comfort and aesthetic trends. Cotton, wool, and silk
were the important natural fibers for human clothing articles, where cotton
for its outstanding properties and versatile utilization was known as the King
Cotton.
Cotton is an important natural fiber produced in Asian and American conti-
nent since the last around 5000 years in the countries including the USA, India,
China, Turkey, Pakistan, Brazil, etc. [1]. The advancement of fiber manufacturing
introduced several man-made fibers for conventional textile products; however,
cotton is to date a leading textile fiber in home textiles and clothing articles. The
chemistry of cotton fiber is the principal source of interesting and useful proper-
ties required in finished textile products [2]. Strength, softness, absorbency,
dyeing and printing properties, comfort, air permeability, etc. are the important
properties of cotton to remain an important textile fiber in the market. By 2018
cotton fiber was significant with a market share of 39.47% as raw material in
textile products.
Cotton fiber grown with increased environment-friendly properties is called
organic cotton. It is grown without using any synthetic chemicals or pesticides,
fertilizers, etc. Organic cotton is produced through crop with the processing stages
in an ecological environment. Turkey, the USA, and India are the main countries
producing organic cotton.
The other important natural fibers used in conventional textile products are
wool and silk. Wool fiber is known for its warmer properties and used mainly in
winter wear mainly. Wool-based textile items are projected to witness a CAGR of
3.7%, in terms of volume, from 2019 to 2025. Importantly, wool fiber is renewable
and recyclable, which supports its demand in this industry [3].
Silk fiber is known for its unmatchable softness and low linear density. Relative
to cotton and wool, natural silk is not produced in significant quantity. It is indi-
cated to have the highest revenue growth rate of 4.67% from 2019 to 2025.
A recent study of textile fiber market share by the IHS Markit has shown the
synthetic fibers consumed highest (mainly represented by polyester and nylon
fibers) followed by cotton, cellulosics, and wool fibers (Figure 1) [4]. China is the
major manufacturer of synthetic fibers. Excluding polyolefin fibers, China pro-
duces around 66% of synthetic fibers in 2015.

1
Textile Manufacturing Processes

Figure 1.
Natural and man-made fibers consumed in the global textile market (IHS Markit [4]).

The textile manufacturing processes are largely required by the fashion segment
in the global textile market. The large amount of textile products, demanded by
fashion, accounted for more than 65% of textile product market. Fashion market
is followed by technical textiles and household products. Grand View Research
indicated fashion, technical textiles, and household as the top three sectors by
application for the global textile market (Figure 2) [3].
Compound annual growth rate of 4.25% is expected over the years 2018–2025 in
the global textile market. This market was estimated at USD 925.3 billion in 2018.
The growth is significantly expected in the apparel sector. China and India will
remain the leading countries to experience this growth. Increasing urban popula-
tion with rising disposable income is the main source of higher growth in apparel
consumption.
The textile manufacturing processes in the global textile industry are producing
the textile yarn, fiber, fabric, and finished products including apparels. The global
textile industry associated with the apparel and non-apparel products is expected

Figure 2.
Important textile fiber product types in the market in terms of application (Grand View Research) [3].

2
Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87968

to exceed USD 1000 billion in the next couple of years [5]. The textile industry
market is mainly represented by countries China, the USA, India, and the European
Union. China is indicated as the country with leading textile manufacturing facility
representing around one-fourth of the global textile industry.
An important aspect that has received increasing concern in textiles is the
release of environmental hazard from fiber and fabric process industries. Most
of the processes performed in textile manufacturing release significant toxic and
hazard waste to river water, soil and air. Particularly fiber and yarn manufacturing,
chemical finishing, pre-treatment processes, dyeing, printing, coating, and drying
operations are releasing toxic gases, carcinogenic materials, harmful vapor and lint,
and effluent discharge. Consequently, standards and regulations are evolved to limit
or eliminate the environmental depreciation.

2. Textile manufacturing process

Today the textile industry encompasses a significant number and variety of

processes that are adding value in fiber. These processes may range over the yarn
making through the garment stitching, fabric embossing, and composite produc-
tion. However, considering the textile fiber as the basic building unit of any textile
product, the textile manufacturing may clearly be identified as the conventional
and technical textiles.
The conventional textile manufacturing process has a long history of converting
the natural fiber into useful products including fabric, home textiles, and apparel
and more recently into a technical textile through the utilization of special finishing
effects (Figure 3).
The synthetic and semisynthetic fiber manufacturing is diversified with the uti-
lization of monomer, chemical agent, precursor, catalyst, and a variety of auxiliary
chemicals resulting in the formation of fiber or yarn. However, such man-made

Figure 3.
Textile manufacturing process from fiber to fabric.

3
Textile Manufacturing Processes

fibers are perceived as a separate specialized subject and beyond the scope of this
book. Therefore, the man-made fiber manufacturing is not discussed.
The innovation in textile manufacturing introduced variety in raw materials and
manufacturing processes. Therefore, process control to ensure product quality is
desired. Monitoring and controlling of process parameters may introduce reduction
in waste, costs, and environmental impact [6].
All the processing stages in textile manufacturing from fiber production to
finished fabric are experiencing enhancement in process control and evaluation. It
includes textile fiber production and processing through blow room, carding, draw-
ing, and combing; and fabric production including knitted, woven, nonwoven, and
subsequent coloration and finishing and apparel manufacturing.
The global textile industry, in yarn and fabric production, has strong presence
and experiencing growth. In 2016, the yarn and fabric market was valued at USD
748.1 billion, where the fabric product was more in consumption and contributed
83.7% and the yarn product was at 16.3%. The market consumption is forecasted for
growth at CAGR of 5.1% between 2016 and 2021, reaching to a market value of USD
961.0 billion in 2021 [7].
Apparel production is another important area in textile manufacturing around
the textile industry chain. Probably the apparel is what an individual wear for the
purpose of body coverage, beautification, or comfort. Apparel and garment terms
are used interchangeably. However, the two terms may be differentiated as apparel
is an outerwear clothing and garment is any piece of clothing.
The study of apparel manufacturing market includes all the clothing articles
except leather, footwear, knitted product, and technical, household, and made-up
items. The worldwide apparel manufacturing market was valued at USD 785.0 bil-
lion in 2016 and estimated to reach the level of USD 992 billion in 2021. The market
enhancement is forecasted to move from 2016 to 2021 at CAGR of 4.8%.

3. Types of textile manufacturing process

3.1 Yarn manufacturing

Traditionally, yarn manufacturing comprises a series of processes involved in

converting the fiber into yarn. It was rooted in natural fibers obtained from natural
plant or animal sources. Natural fibers are produced with natural impurities that
were removed from the yarn in subsequent pretreatment processes.
Possibly, cotton is the fiber that has rooted the yarn manufacturing from fiber
bale opening, followed by the series of continuous operations of blending, mix-
ing, cleaning, carding, drawing, roving, and spinning. Yarn manufacturing using
cotton fibers through a sequence of processing stages may be shown by process flow
diagram (Figure 4) [8]. All these operations are mechanical and do not require
chemical application.
Each processing stage in yarn manufacturing utilized the machine of specialized
nature and provided quality effects in yarn production.
The advancement in fiber processing and machine technology for yarn manu-
facturing is continuous. The manual picking of cotton fiber is now replaced with
machine picking. However, conventional systems of blending, carding, drawing,
roving, and spinning are indicated important in the future [9].
Yarn diameter, hairiness, linear density, permeability, strength properties, etc.
depend upon the end-use requirement of fabric to be produced for woven or knitted
end products (e.g., apparel or industrial fabrics), sewing thread, or cordage.

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Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87968

Figure 4.
Processing stages in cotton yarn manufacturing [8].

Several interesting works on the production of yarn are available that provide
details of the material processing and technological control. Introductory spinning
technology is described by Lawrence [10]. It covers the rudiments of staple-yarn
technology, the manufacturing process, the raw materials, and the production
processes for short-staple, worsted, semi-worsted, woolen spinning, doubling,
and specialty yarn. Some of the useful advanced topics discussed are staple-yarn
technology, including new development in fiber preparation technology, carding
technology, roller drafting, ring spinning, open-end rotor spinning, and air-jet
spinning.
Peter described the yarn production technology in combination with the eco-
nomics [11]. The study is useful for yarn manufacturing and its development in
the textile industry. Important topics covered include review of yarn production,
filament yarn production, carding and prior processes for short-staple fibers, sliver
preparation, short-staple spinning, long-staple spinning, post-spinning processes,
quality control, and economics of staple-yarn production.

3.2 Fabric manufacturing

Textile fabric is at least a two-dimensional structure produced by fiber/yarn

interlacing. The interlaced fibrous structure mainly used is woven, nonwoven, and
knitted. Traditionally, the weaving technology was the principal source for fabric
production.
The important types of woven fabric produced are the basic weaves, such as
plain or tabby, twill, and satin, and the fancy weaves, including pile, jacquard,
dobby, and gauze.
Knitted fabric is the second major type of fabric used following the woven. It
has a characteristic of accommodating the body contour and provided the ease
of movement. It is particularly a comfortable form of fabric structure for sports,

5
Textile Manufacturing Processes

casual wear, and undergarment. Knitted fabrics include weft types and the warp
types, raschel, and tricot.
Net, lace, and braid are other useful interlaced fabric structures. Nonwoven
fabrics are rapidly increasing in market consumption. These fabrics are finding
interesting uses in industrial and home applications. Nonwoven fabrics include
materials produced by felting and bonding.
Laminating processes are also increasing in importance, and fairly recent devel-
opments include needle weaving and the sewing-knitting process.

3.3 Garment manufacturing

Garment is known as a piece of clothing. Garment design and manufacturing is

the combination of art and technology.
Garment manufacturing has seen several advancements in design develop-
ment, computer-aided manufacturing (CAD), and automation. However, the older
version of garment manufacturing process is still the main theme today—that is,
the cutting and joining of at least two pieces of fabric. The sewing machine has the
function of joining woven or cut-knitted fabrics. Garments are mostly produced by
sewing the pieces of fabric using a sewing machine. These machines are still based
on the primary format used.
Today the important topics in the current garment manufacturing industry
range over product development, production planning, and material selection. The
selection of garment design, including computer-aided design, spreading, cutting,
and sewing; joining techniques; and seamless garment construction are beneficial
in meeting the consumer needs. The development in finishing, quality control, and
care-labeling of garment are meeting the point-of-sale requirements.

3.4 Technical textile

Technical textile is an established domain of interdisciplinary application of

textile products. Most of the major industrial sectors are benefiting the function of
fiber material.

Figure 5.
Emergence of technical textile products from 1990 and its growth with knitted and woven textiles [12].

6
Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87968

Any technical textile is a fibrous structure or a textile product that is produced

for technical performance rather than fashion or aesthetic requirements.
Currently, technical textiles occupy strong market consumption. It is signifi-
cantly an important sector for industrial development in industrialized and devel-
oping countries.
There are 12 types of technical textile with example product application which
may be outlined as under:

• Meditech—sanitary diapers, bandages, sutures, mosquito nets, heart valves,

ligaments, etc.

• AgroTech—crop protection net, bird protection, water tank, etc.

• BuildTech—ropes, tarpaulin, concrete reinforcement, window blind, wall cov-

ering, etc.

• MobileTech—car airbags, aircraft seats, boat, seat belt, etc.

• ProTech—protective gloves, knife and bulletproof vest, flame-retardant and

chemical-resistant clothing, etc.

• InduTech—conveyor belts, cordage, filtration media, etc.

• HomeTech—sofa and furniture fabric, floor covering, mattresses, pillow, etc.

• ClothTech—sun shade, parachute fabric, sewing threads, interlinings, etc.

• SportTech—sports shoe, swimsuit, sports nets, sleeping bags, sail cloths, etc.

• PackTech—tea bags, wrapping fabrics, jute sacks, etc.

• OekoTech or EcoTech (textiles in environment protection)—erosion protection,

air cleaning, prevention of water pollution, waste treatment/recycling, etc.

• Geotech—nets for seashore and geo structures, mats, grids, composites, etc.

The emergence of technical textile products was realized in the 1990s, in addi-
tion to the conventional woven and knitted textile articles. However, since then
technical textiles showed phenomenal growth (Figure 5) [12].
More recently, the global technical textile market has shown significant growth
in consumption, and it is estimated to continue in the future. Technical textile
market was estimated at USD 165.51 billion in 2017 and is projected to reach USD
203.7 billion by 2022. The CAGR of from 2917 to 2022 is indicated 5.89%.

4. Value addition in textile manufacturing

4.1 Pretreatment process

Any of fiber substrate including fiber/yarn, fabric, garment, technical textile,

etc. may require a series of chemical processing to reduce the undesired content
from the fiber. The selection of any pretreatment process, its composition, and
methodology depends upon the end-use requirement of the textile product.

7
Textile Manufacturing Processes

A pretreatment process is generally required to introduce two important value

additions in textile substrate including:

I. Removing the undesired content from the fiber mass including dust, coloring
matters, undesired oils, lint, trash, etc.

II. Imparting the required level of fiber property for subsequent processing of
textile substrate. The required fiber property may include fabric whiteness,
absorbency, softness, strength, weight, width, etc.

The pretreatment processes performed in conventional textile industry are siz-

ing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerization, washing, and heat setting. One or
more of any of these processes are required for the textile substrate depending upon
the end use of the textile.
Traditionally, the pretreatment process is performed on cotton, cellulose fibers,
wool, and the blend of these fibers with synthetics and semisynthetics. Natural
fibers including cotton and wool have natural impurities, and the purpose of
pretreatment is primarily to remove undesired natural fiber content.

4.2 Coloration process

Dyeing, printing, and coating are the coloration processes to produce beautiful
motif and color effect on textile. Printing and coating are limited to surface color-
ation and may be applied to most of the fiber types, natural fabrics, and synthetics.
Approximately 10,000 different dyes and pigments are used industrially around the
world [13].
Dyeing is the coloring effect throughout the cross section of fiber, and this effect
can be produced on any form of textile substrate including fiber/yarn, fabric, gar-
ment, and clothing articles. However, any dyestuff is suitable for a particular type
of fiber for dyeing.
Dyeing of textile substrate is performed using any of the dyestuff including
reactive, direct, sulfur, vat, pigment, acid, and disperse, depending upon the dye-
fiber system compatibility. The dyeing method used can be continuous, semicon-
tinuous, and batching. Continuous dyeing technique is performed for large-scale
production in the industry.
Fixation of dyestuff in fabric or garment should be significantly fast during the
service life to provide resistance and durability against washing, heat, chemicals,
soaping, rubbing, sunlight, etc.
Washing of the dyed fabric and the discharge of dye effluent may release
10–50% of dyestuff to the environment [13], and that is the environmental
concern associated with the dyeing process. Globally, the inefficient dyeing and
finishing process may result in the release of 200,000 tons of used dyestuff to the
environment.

4.3 Special finishing process

Special finishing effects are required in textile fibers. The functional attributes
of textile fibers are limited. Textile products are required to exhibit a variety of
performance effects for end use. Crease recovery, flame retardant, water repellent,
antibacteria, antistatic, moth proofing, softening, and hand-builder are the special
finishing effects that can be produced in textile.
Conventionally, special finishing is performed following the coloration of tex-
tile; however, innovation has shown the possibility of performing special finishing

8
Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87968

Figure 6.
Functional finish market growth (USD million) in the USA for 2014–2025 by product type (Grand View
Research, USA [18]).

prior the coloration and special finishing in combination with the coloration pro-
cess. The subject of investigating the alternating finishing and coloration processing
sequences may offer the enhanced finish effects or coloration effects [14–17].
The global textile functional finishing is experiencing continuous growth, and
the trend is forecasted to survive in the future. The market size was estimated at
114.2 million tons in 2015, and in terms of monetary value, it is expected to grow at
a CAGR of 6.1% from 2016 to 2025 [18].
The USA is the major textile market for the consumption of special finishes.
Grand View Research, USA, published future growth figures for special finishes
that indicated almost all the important types of special finishes to rise in consump-
tion till 2025 (Figure 6).
Over 50% supply of the special finishing agents is indicated to be through five
major chemical companies including Dow Chemical Company; Bayer AG; BASF SE;
Sumitomo Chemicals Co., Ltd.; and Huntsman International LLC. Asian countries
including India, China, Bangladesh, and Vietnam are expected to see a flourishing
market with the support of public policies.
Stronger environmental regulations, emission, and pollution control in the
application, processing, and service life performance are the challenges in the use of
special finishes [19].

5. Environment and textile manufacturing

All the environmental spheres, such as air, water and soil, are seriously affected
by the textile manufacturing processes from fiber production to final fabric finish-
ing. Consequently, a number of initiatives are introduced in textile industry by
the public and private partnership to enhance the environment-friendly nature of
textile processing.
Chemical used in fiber manufacturing and processing of textiles, effluent
discharge from the textile dyeing, printing, and finishing, dust, short fibers, and
lint released from the yarn manufacturing, volatiles and toxic gases released, etc.,
are the undesired effects to environment and human lives.
An estimation of the undesired effects to environment associated with the
major processing units of textile industry can be presented based on the amount of
consumption of chemicals, water and energy used. More the chemicals, water and

9
Textile Manufacturing Processes

S. no Process Water (% Energy (% Chemicals (%

consumption) consumption) consumption)
1 Yarn production 2 8 22

2 Fabric production 10 8 12

3 Wet processing (dyeing/ 86 79 65

printing/finishing)
4 Garment production 2 5 1

5 Total 100 100 100

Table 1.
Water, energy and chemicals consumption in main processing sections of textile industry.

energy consumed in a textile process, higher is the possibility of undesired effects

to our planet and living species breathing and breeding in the environment. Table 1
shows an estimated percentage consumption of water, energy and chemicals in
main textile processing sections.
Living species are directly or indirectly affected by the inhalation of toxic gases,
consumption of contaminated water and food items, and the skin contact of toxic
vapors and gases. The increasing realization of hazards associated with the textile
manufacturing by the industrialized region in particular has resulted in the follow-
ing important phenomena in textile sector:

1. conventional textile processing industries are clustered in developing

countries;

2. technical textiles or textile processing with reduced environmental hazards

grown in developed region; and

3. environmental standards, produced through the public and private participa-

tion, are increasing in practice in textile industries across the world to enhance
the environment-friendly processes and products.

Water and chemicals are throughout the processing chain of textiles. Fiber
manufacturing and processing, sizing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, merceriza-
tion, dyeing, printing, finishing etc., are known for water, chemical, and energy
intensive nature. An increasing world population and the rising number of people
to afford enhanced quantity of garments are elevating the production and pro-
cessing of kilogram of fibers. Therefore, today, an individual is consuming more
quantity of clothing, and there is an increasing population for higher consumption
demand of clothing.
There may be than 1900 chemicals used in the production of clothing; where the
European Union classified 165 the EU chemicals as hazardous to environment. An
estimation made in 2015 for the assessment of environment hazard created by the
global textile and clothing industry indicated the consumption of 79 billion of cubic
meter of water. Large amount of this water is discharged into river and land without
significant treatment in less developed countries. Toxic gaseous emission from
textile processing is estimated to 1715 million tons of CO2, and material waste is 92
million. If the processes continue in similar situation till 2030, the indicated water,
gas and waste hazard will increase by at least 50% [20].
There are 107 eco-labels for textiles presently used [21]. In several developing
countries, the textile processing industries are following the practice of ecolabels,

10
Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87968

and the voluntarily eco-standards to demonstrate the environment- friendly process

and product. An important example is Oeko-Tex Series of Standards that may be
briefly described as follows [22]:

I. STANDARD 100 by OEKO-TEX: It may be described as an independent

testing and certification system for raw, semi-finished, and finished textile
products through all the processing stages. This standard is particularly use-
ful for legal regulations, for example on banned azo colorants, and harmful
chemicals.
OEKO-TEX 100 Standard helps the processor and producer of textile
product to demonstrate the compliance for legal regulations including
those limiting the banned azo colorants, formaldehyde, pentachlorophenol,
cadmium, nickel, etc., and the voluntarily prevention of harmful chemicals
that are not legally regulated.

II. SUSTAINABLE TEXTILE PRODUCTION (STeP) by OEKO-TEX® is a

certification system for brands, retail companies and manufacturers in
the textile chain to inform the public that they performed sustainable
manufacturing processes. Therefore, STeP certification is applicable to all
the sections of textile processing sector including fiber production, yarn
manufacturing, fabric manufacturing, and garment production.
Any processing unit certified with STeP Standard means it follows the
environment- friendly processes, ensure health and safety practices, and
implement socially sound working environment for all the staff and place.

III. ECO PASSPORT by OEKO-TEX® is another standard. It provided the test-

ing and certification system for chemicals, colorants and auxiliaries used
in the processing of textile fiber. A three-stage verification is exercised on
chemicals applied in textile processing to demonstrate compliance to safety,
sustainability and statutory regulation.

IV. DETOX TO ZERO by OEKO-TEX® is the standard to evaluate the chemi-

cal management system in the textile chain coupled with the waste water
and sludge quality disposed to environment by a textile unit. This standard
requires the verification through an independent source.
Detox to Zero Status Report of a textile unit for chemical management
and waste water and sludge control is based on providing the parameters
including management system and organization structure, compliance to
the legal requirements for storage and handling of chemicals, environmen-
tal protection, health and safety of employees, and production process.

6. Conclusion

Textile fibers provided an integral component in modern society and physical

structure known for human comfort and sustainability. Man is an ancient friend of
fashion. The quest for better garment and apparel led to the development of textile
fiber production and textile manufacturing process.
A textile manufacturing process involves the production or conversion of textile
fiber through a defined process in a product. The resultant textile product can be a
finished product ready for consumer market, or it may be an intermediate product
to be used as an input (raw material) substance to produce another textile product.

11
Textile Manufacturing Processes

In general the conventional post-fiber formation processes may mainly be clas-

sified as physical and chemical textile manufacturing processes. A physical textile
manufacturing process is required to convert the textile fiber into yarn; nonwoven,
woven, knitted, technical textile; special finishing effects; etc. The chemical textile
manufacturing processes include sizing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, merceriza-
tion, dyeing, printing, special chemical finishing, etc.
The chapters in this book are to share the development work in yarn manufac-
turing, fabric manufacturing, garment, and technical textiles. It is a collection of
research and academic works in areas of textile manufacturing by the authors with
expert background in the topic. The content may serve as a useful learning through
the research work and the literature review as the subject tutorial.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest in writing this chapter.

Author details

Faheem Uddin
Dadabhoy Institute of Higher Education, Karachi, Pakistan

*Address all correspondence to: dfudfuca@yahoo.ca

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

12
Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.87968

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Textile Manufacturing Processes

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