UNIT ONE

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY
Nature Of Psychology And Its Definition
In simple words psychology is a systematic and scientific study of mental processes, experiences
and behaviors - both overt and covert.
The word ‘psychology’ has its origin in two Greek words ‘psyche’ and ‘logos’. The word
‘psyche’ in Greek language refers to ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’ and the word ‘logos’ refers to ‘discourse’
or ‘study’. During earlier times it was considered as a discipline which deals with the study of
soul. In India the study of such questions was the main concern during Vedic and Upanishad
period. Various aspects of mental processes were analyzed. Subsequently the schools of Yoga,
Samkhya, Vedant, Nyaya, Buddhism, and Jainism provided detailed accounts of mind, mental
processes and methods to control mind. In modern period it started at Calcutta University in
1916 with establishment of the Department of Psychology. In the western world, the formal
beginning of psychology as an independent discipline goes back to 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt
established the first experimental laboratory at the University of Leipzig, in Germany. Since then
the growth of psychology has covered a long journey. Today it is one of the very popular
subjects among social sciences. It studies all the shades of experiences, mental processes and
behaviors. A comprehensive analysis of all these aspects provides a scientific understanding of
human nature. In the following sections we will try to understand all the components which
collectively define psychology.
A. Study of experience
Psychologists study a variety of human experiences which are mainly personal or private in
nature. They may range from experiences of dream, conscious experiences at different stages of
life and experiences when the consciousness is altered through meditation or use of psychedelic
drugs. The study of such experiences helps the psychologist to understand the personal world of
the individual.
B. Study of mental processes
Psychology as the study of mental processes tries to investigate the activities happening in the
brain which are primarily non physiological in nature. These mental processes include
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perception, learning, remembering and thinking. These are internal mental activities which are
not directly observed but inferred from the behavioral activities of the person. For example, we
can say that somebody is thinking if he or she displays certain activities related to finding
solution to a mathematical problem assigned to him or her.
C. Study of behavior
The range of behaviors studied in psychology is very broad. It includes simple reflexes (e.g. eye
blinking), common response patterns such as talking to friends, verbal reports about feelings and
internal states and complex behaviours such as handling computers, playing piano and
addressing a crowd. These behavioursare either observed directly through naked eyes or are
measured through instruments. They are generally exhibited verbally or nonverbally (e.g. facial
expression) when an individual reacts to a stimulus in a given situation. Thus in psychology the
main unit of investigation is the individual human being and his or her experiences, mental
processes and behaviors
Scope Of Psychology
The scope of psychology constantly extends to include a wide range of phenomena of scientific
interest. The interest of the investigators ranges from interest in astrology, graphology to
parapsychology.
The psychological studies range from investigations of individuals to studies of groups,
organizations and nations. Psychology studies all sorts of individuals, from mentally retarded to
genius, from mentally ill to people who are self actualizing. The spectrum of phenomena of
interest to psychologists include everything from egotism to altruism, from truancy, delinquency,
criminality, psychopath to spiritualism, from peace to violence, terrorism and war, from behavior
of plants to that of animals and human beings, and what not? It is not surprising that modern
psychology has been some times commented to be a psychotic octopus that stretches and catches
everything that comes across it by its innumerous ever lengthening limbs.

From the definition of psychology now it might be clear to you that psychology addresses a
variety of issues related to mental and behavioural functioning of an individual.
Such a study helps us to develop a basic understanding about human nature and facilitates us to
deal with a number of personal and social problems.

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The study of human beings starts with the functioning of biological systems especially the
nervous system. Under central nervous system psychology studies the functions of various parts
of brain which regulate our feelings, emotions and thinking. Within autonomic nervous system
the role of hormones and neurotransmitters in determining our behavior is important. In addition
psychology studies as to how a given socio-cultural environment interacts with innate biological,
intellectual and social attributes of the child and facilitates healthy development of the child
In your life you must have come across many persons who have reached highest level of
accomplishment. But such an accomplishment is not attained at once; it is the result of
continuous learning in which the individual acquires the necessary skills and competencies
through regular practice. Psychology helps us to understand the processes involved in reaching
this high level of accomplishment.
You will certainly agree that no two individuals are the same in terms of their physical attributes
such as height, weight, skin color or facial features as well as psychological attributes such as
intelligence, personality, temperament and interest. An understanding of these and other aspects
of individual differences facilitates the psychologist to select right person for the right job and to
provide guidance and counseling for various matters of personal as well as professional concern.
The understanding of individual differences also helps the psychologist to differentiate between
normative (customary, accepted) and abnormal (deviant, unusual) behaviors.
Thus psychology as a discipline has a vast scope. It not only studies human beings across the life
span but also tries to explore mental processes and potentials in order to facilitate achieving a
better quality of life.

Basic psychological processes

While studying behavior it is one of the most important tasks for psychologists to understand the
processes which collectively influence a particular behavior. These psychological processes are
A. Sensation:
It refers to our awareness about various stimuli which we encounter in different modalities such
as vision, hearing, touch and taste.
B. Attention:
During attention we selectively focus on a particular stimulus among many stimuli available to
us. For instance while listening to a lecture in the classroom we attend to the words pronounced
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by the teacher and, try to ignore the other stimuli present in the classroom, such as noise made by
the fan.
C. Perception:
In the case of perception we process information and make out the meaning of the stimuli
available to us. For example, we look at a pan and recognize it as an object used for writing.
D. Learning:
It helps us acquiring new knowledge and skills through experience and practice. The acquired
knowledge and skills further bring a relative change in our behavior and facilitate our adjustment
in varied settings. For example, we learn language, riding a bicycle and applying mathematical
skills to solve various problems.
E. Memory:
The information we process and learn is registered and stored in the memory system. Memory
also helps us to easily retrieve the stored information when it is required for use. For example,
writing the answers in the examination after studying for the paper.
F. Thinking:
In the case of thinking we use our stored knowledge to solve various tasks. We logically
establish the relationships among various objects in our mind and take rational decision for a
given problem. We also evaluate different events of the environment and accordingly form an
opinion.

Major sub fields of Psychology

Psychologists specialize in studying many different aspects of behavior. Generally

there are about nine subfields of psychology.

 Clinical psychology, studies diagnosis, causes and treatment of mental

disorders.
 Counseling Psychology, assists individuals in deallin with many personal
problems that do not involve psychological disorders.

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  Developmental Psychology, studies how people change physically,
cognitively and socially over the entire life span.
 Educational Psychology, studies all aspects of the educational process.
 Experimental Psychology, studies all basic psychological process including
perception, learning and motivation.
 Cognitive psychology, investigates all aspects of cognition-memory,
thinking, reasoning, language, decision making and so on.
 organizational/ Psychology, study all aspects of behavior in work settings.
 Psychobiology and evolutionary psychology, investigates biological bases
of behavior and the role of evolution in human behavior.
 Social psychology, studies all aspects of social behavior and social
thoughts-how we think about and interact with others.

Different Approaches in Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of our thoughts, feelings and behaviors. An approach or
perspective in psychology is a particular view as to why, and how, it is we think, feel, and
behave as we do.
Behavioral
Behavioral Psychology is basically interested in how our behavior results from the stimuli both
in the environment and within ourselves.
Biological
The biological approach believes us to be as a consequence of our genetics and physiology. It is
the only approach in psychology that examines thoughts, feelings, and behaviors from a physical
point of view.
Evolutionary
Evolutionary psychology focus on how evolution has shaped the mind and behavior.
Developmental

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Developmental psychology, also known as Human Development, is the scientific study of
progressive psychological changes that occur in human beings as they age.
Psychodynamic
Sigmund Freud was the founder of the psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school of
thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Cultural Multicultural

Focus is on the role of social and cultural factors and especially on differences between cultural,
ethnic, gender, sexual preference and racial groups.

Cognitive
Focus on our information processes of perception, attention, language, memory, and thinking,
and how they influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviors.

Types Of Psychological Research

Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. A‘Scientific
Study’ strictly uses data that are biased and objective. The data collected are unbiased in that
they do not support one hypothesis over the other. Similarly the data collected are objective; any
other who repeats the observation since the manner in which the research is being done is
adhering to research principles can obtain the results obtained by one researcher.
Scientific investigation refers to an empirical investigation that is structured in
order to find solutions to certain questions that are practically relevant. Any scientific
investigation typically involves three steps:
(1) Identifying questions
(2) Formulating explanation and
(3) Carrying out research that would support/refute the explanations.

Methods of research can be classified into two types based on the focus of the research. The two
basic types of research in science are basic research and applied research.
Basic research primarily focuses on extension of theoretical understanding and reflects purely
the quest for knowledge.

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applied research focuses on finding solutions to problems that are specific and practical.
Research in Psychology involves both basic and applied type of research.
 Basic research in Psychology is carried out in laboratories with human or animal
participants.
 In applied research the psychologist may try to design specific intervention program
based on available scientific knowledge. The research in Psychology can be classified
into different types, namely Descriptive Method and Experimental Research. The basic
goal of descriptive research is to describe phenomena. They aid in generating hypothesis
regarding phenomena of interest that can be tested later using experimental methods.
Naturalistic Observation, Survey Research, and Case Study are the three popular
descriptive methods.

Research methods fall into two “design” categories in psychology. Research methods that are
experimental in design include the laboratory, field and quasi-experiment. Non-experimental
methods include the observational, survey, interview and case study methods.
Non-experimental

. Non-experimental methods include the observational, survey, interview and case study
methods.

Non-experimental methods can sometimes give you quantitative data but information is more
likely to be descriptive or qualitative in nature. The type of data produced by a particular method
affects the validity and reliability of the research results.

Observation

Perhaps the simplest form of research is (Naturalistic) Observation.

It means, observing behavior in their natural environment. It often involves counting behaviors,
such as number of aggressive acts, number of smiles, etc.
Surveys
Survey are basic research instrument. Surveys are being popularly employed to understand the
political opinions, product preferences, health care needs, and the like. It involves asking people
about their attitude, beliefs, plans, health, income, life satisfaction, concerns, etc. Anyone can be

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surveyed.
Case Study
Case studymethod involves in-depth interview to understand an individual better. Psychometric
tests may also be used to assess various attributes like personality, motivation in addition to such
in-depth interviews to understand the individual in greater depth. The case study, in other words,
is a detailed examination of an individual, group or an event.
Correlation means relationship, so the purpose of a correlational study is to determine if a
relationship exists, what direction the relationship is, and how strong it is. It can not make any
assumptions of cause and effect (no causation).In Correlational Studies, the relationship is
between two variables
Experimental Studies

Unlike correlational research methods or psychological tests, experiments can provide

information about cause-and-effect relationships between variables. In an experiment, a
researcher manipulates or changes a particular variable under controlled conditions while
observing resulting changes in another variable or variables.

Variable: A factor or element that can change in observable and measurable ways.

Independent Variable (IV) – the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter (input variable)

Dependent Variable (DV) – the outcome variable (results of the experiment)

The control group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to a group but do not
receive the treatment. The measures takes from the control group are then compared to those in
the experimental group to determine if the treatment had an effect.
The experimental group: made up of individuals who are randomly assigned to the group and
then receive the treatment. The scores of these participants are compared to those in the control
group to determine if the treatment had an effect

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 CHAPTER TWO

PSYCHOLOGOF LEARNING

2. Definition of learning

One of the most important, universal and distinctive characteristics of human

beings is their capacity to learn. Our habits, skills, knowledge, attitudes,
interests and characteristics are largely the result of learning. The capacity to
learn is progress throughout the life span until death. It is through the process
of learning that human behavior changes or undergoes modification. The
knowledge, understanding and skills obtained from the process of learning help
mankind to control and change their environment for their own benefit.
 Learning is commonly understood as the act, process, or experience of
gaining knowledge or skill. For a layperson it is knowledge or skill gained
through schooling or study. With reference to Psychology; it is the
behavioral modification especially through experience or conditioning
 The best definition of learning is that: Learning is a relatively permanent
change in behavior, and the frequency of its occurrence; this change is not
automatic and results from practice or experience
 Learning usually refers to improved performance, acquisition of skills, and
a positive change in behavior; however the change may also be negative in
nature.
 . Learning refers to any relatively permanent change in behavior brought
about through experience. That is through interaction with the
environment.
Learning is distinguished from behavioral changes arising from such processes
as maturation and illness, but does apply to motor skills, such as driving a car,
to intellectual skills, such as reading, and to attitudes and values, such as
prejudice. There is evidence that neurotic symptoms and patterns of mental
illness are also learned behaviors. Learning occurs throughout the life span in

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humans and animals, and learned behavior accounts for a large proportion of
all behavior in the higher animals, especially in humans.

Types/ Forms of Learning: In Terms of the Content

Considering the content of what has been learnt, there are varieties of learning:
I. Verbal learning
ii. Motor learning
iii. Problem solving
Verbal Learning
Basically man is a verbal learner who learns about the environment through
experiences.
i.Verbal learning
 it involves the person’s own association, experiences and relations with
the phenomenon that has been learned.
ii. Motor Learning
 It involves the practical application of the learned phenomena.
 There are various tasks/ activities in which motor skills are of primary
importance as compared to the ones requiring verbally learned material;
e.g. learning the skills like playing football, tennis, cricket etc; or the
training of technicians whose motor skills need to be highly efficient.
 In learning motor skills two things are important; quickness of movements
and the results that are achieved through it.
iii. Problem Solving
 Problem solving tasks usually involves trial and error and primarily
include verbal processes.
 While doing the problem-solving task, individual learns many responses
that can be helpful for him in different situations

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. Modes of learning

In learning a new thing, we follow different ways. There are three main ways of
learning.
1. Learning by trial and error
 It is a random attempt to learn a new problem.
 Some of these attempts may result in success but others may not.
 The right response to a situation is arrived at by chance, by constant trial
and by making repeated errors.
 It is very common mode of learning in animals.
 Trial and error learning is slow, wasteful and unintelligent.
2. Learning by conditioning
 It is the simplest form of learning.
 It is a process in which a response or action due to some original stimulus
becomes transferred to another stimulus which occurs at the same time or
shortly after the original stimulus.
3. Learning by observation and insight
 It involves mental exploration and understanding of what is being learned.
 It requires the ability to find out relationships.
 The learner uses his past experiences and his ability to generate new
ideas.

Factors for effective learning

1. Motivation
 The stronger and clearer the motives in learning a course in health
sciences, the greater are the effort and interest shown by the learner in
learning the course.
 When the motives of learning are high, the learner becomes enthusiastic.

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2. Intelligence
 It enables us to understand things
 It enables us to see the relationships between things
 It enables us to reason and judge correctly and critically.

3. Maturation
 Neuro-muscular coordination is important for learning a given task.
Example- The child has to be physically mature before he is able to walk
or run.
4. Physical condition of the learner
The learner should be in a good health status.
Example- Sensory defects, malnutrition, toxic conditions of the body, loss of
sleep and fatigue hinder effective learning.
5. Good working conditions
Example: Fresh air, light, comfortable surrounding, moderate temperature,
absence of distractions like noise, aid in learning efficiently.
6. Mental health of the learner
Example- Worries, fears, feelings of loneliness and inferiority hinders learning.
Self-respect, self-reliance, and self-confidence are necessary for effective
learning.
7. Associating things
Example- All related facts and understandings from a previously learned
course should be brought to new learning. While learning a nursing procedure
a student nurse could see its connection with anatomy, chemistry, and
psychology.
8. Length of the working period
 Learning periods should neither be too short nor too long.
Long learning time sets fatigue and reduces effectiveness in learning.

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There are three major theories of learning. These are:
1. Behaviorist learning theory;
2. Cognitive learning theory;
3. Social cognitive learning theory;

4.5.2. Behaviorist learning theories

 Behaviorists view learning as the product of the association between
stimulus conditions (S) and the responses (R).
 It is sometimes referred as the S-R model of learning.
 The behaviorist closely observes responses and then manipulates the
environment to bring about the intended change.
 The behaviorist, to modify people’s attitudes and responses, recommends
either to alter the stimulus conditions in the environment or to change
what happens after a response occurs.
 For behaviorists, transfer of learning from one situation to the other is
largely a matter of practice (strengthening habits); and similarity between
two situations
 The two basic models of learning in behaviorism are classical conditioning
model and operant (instrumental) conditioning models.
 Both models of learning take place when a stimulus becomes associated
with another stimulus or with particular consequences. For example: a
baby learns to associate the sight of a feeding bottle with milk.
.1. Pavlov’s classical conditioning
This is the simple form of learning which was discovered in the Leningrad
(Russia) laboratory of Ivan Pavlov. He was Russian Physiologist who had been
awarded a noble prize for his work on the role of Saliva in digestion. And his
finding brought about a revolutionary change in the field of learning.
The theory of classical conditioning represents a process in which a neutral
stimulus by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of
natural stimulus.( stimulus is anything that can directly influence behavior or

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conscious experience. The theory states that the responses originally made to
unconditioned stimulus become associated with the conditioned stimulus.
In One of Pavlov’s experiments, Pavlov began by sounding a tuning bell and
recording a dog’s response. As expected there was no salivation. At this point,
the sounding of tuning bell was a neutral stimulus-stimulus not connected to a
response. Because it brought forth no salivation, then Pavlov fed the hungry dog,
the response was salivation.
In the experiment the food was an unconditioned stimulus (us) stimulus that
automatically produces an emotional or physiological response-because no prior
training or “conditioning” was needed to establish the natural connection
between food and salivation. The salivation was unconditioned response ( UR)
Pavlov did this experiment by contiguous pairing of the bell sound with food. At
the beginning of the experiment he sounded the bell and then quickly fed the
dog, after he repeated this several times, the dog began to salivate after hearing
the sound but before receiving the food. Now the sound had become a
conditioned stimulus (CS) – Stimulus that evokes emotional or physiological
response after conditioning. The response of salivation after bell sound is called
conditioned response, which is a learned response to a previously neutral
stimulus.

Terminology of Classical Conditioning

 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that can elicit the responses
without any learning.( The response to unconditioned stimulus is inborn).
Example: meat powder.
 Unconditioned Response (UCR): It is an unlearned, inborn reaction to
the unconditioned stimulus
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The metronome (neutral stimulus) was
originally unable to elicit the response of salivation. But it acquired the
ability to elicit the response because it was paired with the unconditioned
stimulus.
 Conditioned Response (CR): A response that is similar or identical to the
unconditioned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned
stimulus.
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 Principles of Classical Conditioning
1. Acquisition-The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the
conditioned response—for example, the dog learning to salivate at the
sound of the bell. Several factors can affect the speed of conditioning
during the acquisition phase. The most important factors are the order
and timing of the stimuli. Conditioning occurs most quickly when the
conditioned stimulus (the bell) precedes the unconditioned stimulus (the
food) by about half a second. Conditioning takes longer and the response
is weaker when there is a long delay between the presentation of the
conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. If the conditioned
stimulus follows the unconditioned stimulus—for example, if the dog
receives the food before the bell is rung—conditioning seldom occurs.
2. Extinction- refers to the weakening of the conditioned response (CR)in
the absence of unconditioned stimulus(US). Extinction simply means
the process of unlearning a learned response because of the removal of
the original source of learning i.e.Us.
3. Generalization- a process in which a conditioned response to a stimulus
is generalized to similar category of the stimuli.(Jones,Kemenes,
( Benjamin,2001).
Example: Let us assume that the test on which the student was criticized
was a biology test, when the student began to prepare for a chemistry
test,she also become very nervous, because the two subjects are related
in science.
4. Discrimination – refers to when the organism responds to certain
stimuli but not others.(Murphy,baker,&Fouqet 2001).the ability to
respond to one tone but not others that are similar by making sure that
us (food) always followed only by one tone.
5. Spontaneous Recovery, The return of an extinguished response
following a rest period, when an animal is returned in the original
Circumstances.

6. Higher-order conditioning
One conditioned stimulus can act as a natural stimulus when paired
with a neutral stimulus. Such frequent pairing would get the organism
respond to the neutral stimulus as it would to the conditioned stimulus.
This is calledhigher-order conditioning. It is a form of conditioning that
occurs when an already conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral
stimulus over a number of trials till such time the neutral stimulus
evokes the same response as that of the conditioned stimulus.

The classical conditioning explains how we learn responses like fear for
darkness and how one gets back to drinking at the sight of alcohol after
a period of abstinence.
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2. 3. Theory of operant conditioning (F. skinner 1904-1990) (Instrumental
learning)
Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of
behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. The
operant conditioning’s main architect was B.F. skinner, whose views built on the
connectionist view of E.L.Thorndike. Skinner’s operant conditioning: operant
conditioning, in which the consequences of behavior lead to change in the
probability that the behavior will occur, is at the heart of B.F. Skinner’s(1938)
behaviorism.(Behaviorism- the view that behavior should be explained by
observable experience.)According to skinner, many behaviors can be learned
through this approach, which is different from Pavlovian conditioning ( S-type
conditioning) which is concerned with the stimuli. Skinner attaches greater
importance to operant behavior which is primarily concerned with response
rather than stimuli. As a result it is known as R-type conditioning. Thus skinner
changed the usual S-R formula in to on R-S formula
Note: Operant conditioning-Learning from the consequence of our
behavior.
Principles of Operant conditioning (Learning from the consequence of
behaviors)
Several operations are involved in the process of operant conditioning. Some of
the operant operations include the following.

. Reinforcement- refers to the process by which a stimulus or an event

strengthen or increases the probability of an event that it follows. For example, if
you praise a students’ correct responses immediately and the student increase
correct responses. Thus, praise can be identified as a behavior change procedure
that functions as a rein forcer. (Refer to psychology: John W. santrock , 7 th ed.)
pp. 383-384).
Why does an event act as a rein forcer for an individual? The reason is not clear,
however, some psychologists suggest that events serve as rein forcers because
rein forcers satisfy needs, reduce tension or stimulate a part of the brain.
Whether the consequences of any action are reinforcing probably depend on the
individual’s perception of events and the meaning it holds for him/ her/.
Reinforcement is not synonymous with reward, because reward refers to
broad statements, in which no specific behavior is identified, whereas
reinforcement refers to quite specific behaviors, because reinforcement becomes
effective when applied to specific behaviors.
For example: 1. Parents bought a child an ice cream as a reward for “being
good” 9 general statement)
2. A student receives a teacher’s praise for the solution to a
problem or the correct answer to a question. (Specific statement)
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There are two types of reinforcements:
A. Positive reinforcement
B. Negative reinforcement
A. Positive reinforcement- refers to events that are presented after a response
has been
Performed and that increase the behavior or activity they follow.
Note: positive reinforcement - Any consequence of behavior that leads to an
increase in the probability of its occurrence.
For example, A student submit his assignment in time will get extra two
marks. Notice that positive reinforcement can occur even when the behavior
being reinforced is not something desirable from other point of view.
For example, give a smile/ laugh/ for a child, who insults you.
Positive reinforcement can be classified as either primary or secondary
reinforcement:
1. Primary reinforcement- The use of rein forcer that is innately satisfying.
For example, Food, water, warmth and security, sexual satisfaction..
2. Secondary reinforcement- The use of rein forcers that are learned or
conditioned or simply they acquire their positive value through experience or
learning. Include: facial expression, Getting pat on the back, Proximity, Words
(praise) & eye contact and Privileges (appointment to leadership role)

B. Negative reinforcement-which are stimulus events removed after a response

has been performed and whose removal (withdrawal) increase the behavior or
activity they follow.
For example, If you are talking on the phone and you close the door to reduce
the noise blasting from the nearby Garage. That is the stimulus (Noise) is
removed contingent up on a response (closing the door).
Another example: If your mother nagged you to clean out your class, and
kept nagging until you clean it daily, your response (cleaning out the class)
removed the unpleasant stimulus (nagging).
Both positive and Negative reinforcement functionally increase behavior as
explained above. Negative reinforcement should not be confused with
punishment, however, which decreases behavior.
Note: Negative reinforcement-The frequency of a behavior increases
because it is followed by the removal of an aversive,(unpleasant) stimulus.
.
VIII. Schedules of reinforcement: means ‘timetables” that determine when a
behavior will reinforced. Skinner identified two major types of reinforcement
schedules.
1. Continuous reinforcement schedule
2. Intermittent (Partial) reinforcement schedule.
Continuous reinforcement- is used when people are learning a new behavior;
they will learn it faster, it they are reinforced for every correct responses once the

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new behavior is mastered, People maintain it best if they are reinforced
intermittently rather than every time
Intermittent reinforcemen

There are two basic types of intermittent reinforcement schedules. That is:
Interval schedule and Ratio schedule
1. Interval schedule: refers to the reinforcement given based up on the amount
of time that passes between reinforces.
2. Ratio Schedule: reinforcement given based on the number of responses
learners give between reinforces.
Interval and ratio schedules may be either fixed (predictable) or
various(unpredictable)
Accordingly, there are four possible partial reinforcement schedules as indicated
by above diagram.
1.1. Fixed interval schedule- when reinforcement depends on a fixed time.
For example: reinforcing at every 20 minutes.
Characteristics:
 Response rate increase as time for reinforcement approaches and drops
after reinforcement
 Little persistent and rapid drop in response rate
Examples: A person being paid by hour.
Regular meals taken in the day

1.2. Variable Interval Schedule- when reinforcement given often a variable

interval of time.
Characteristics:
 Slow & steady rate of responding
 Very little pause after reinforcement
 Greater persistent & slow decline in response rate.
Examples: – fishing
- Dialing a phone
2.1. Fixed ratio Schedule- when reinforcement depends on definite number of
responses for example: reinforce every 10th response.
Characteristics
 Little persistence and rapid drop in response rate when expected
number of responses are given and no reinforce appears.
 It is effective for motivating a great amount of work
E.g. A boy must solve 5 problems to get candy.
A man is paid after completing a given amount of work.
2.2. Variable ratio Schedule- when the number of responses needed for
reinforcement vary from one reinforcement to the next.
Characteristics
 Very high response rate & little pause after reinforcement

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  Greater resistance for extinction
 If reinforcement stops, response rate stays high and gradually drops off.
 Generally it tends to produce high & stable behavior rate.
E.g. Gambling
VII. Punishment:
Punishment: Punishment refers to unpleasant stimulus that decreases the
probability of the occurrence of a preceding behavior. It weakens the response and
makes it less likely to recur. Skinner believed that just as reinforcement (positive
and negative) can be used to strengthen a response and makes it less likely to
happen again. However, he suggested that punishment is not a suitable technique
for controlling behavior.
Studies with rats showed that punishment appeared only to diminish lever-
pressing behavior for a short time, but did not weaken it in the long term.

Example- Bringing up old grievances or complaining about misbehavior at every

opportunity is not acceptable. It may convey to the recipient the idea that physical
aggression is desirable
Ways of effective punishment
1. Immediacy; punishment must administer immediately.
2. Consistency: punishment must be administers consistently after an action.
3. Intensity: it must not be over all harsh.
4. Punishment must be given with explanation and justification.
Both negative and positive reinforcement increase the lively hood of behavior
repeated again.
Both negative and positive punishment decreases the likely hood of behavior not
repeated again
2. Cognitive learning theories
All human intellectual activities and potentials, i.e. thinking, communicating,
problem solving, and learning require mental processes and knowledge. It is
more than just stimulus-response association or reward and punishment. In
the 1970's much of psychology returned to the study of the mind. Cognitive
psychology had a similar interest. It studied memory, information processing,
decision-making, etc.
Cognitive Approach to Learning
The approach that focuses upon the thought processes underlying learning. The
approach gives importance to cognition for understanding and explaining
learning. Cognition is defined as "the mental processes” or the “faculty of
knowing”. Cognitive learning approach has roots in the cognitive perspective.
Cognition means “knowledge” or “the process of knowing”. Cognitive approach
emphasizes: Thoughts, Feelings, Thinking, Values, and Expectations etc. This
theory gives same importance to both the internal states of the person as well as
the environmental events. Internal events are referred as “Mediators” or
“mediational processes”__ (that come in between stimulus and response).
Mediators are ‘conceptual’ but they are defined physiologically rather than
conceptually.
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 3. Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)
Social learning theory also known as observational learning, imitation or modeling
the prime proponent of this theory of learning is Albert Bandera. He believes that
the traditional behavioral views of learning while accurate but incomplete. They
give only partial Explanation of learning and over looked important aspects of
the situation, particularly the important social influences on learning.
There are two main modes of observational learning:
1. Observational learning through vicarious reinforcement- This happens
when we see others being rewarded or punished for particular actions and
then modify our behaviors as if we had received the consequences ourselves.
Through modeling we learn not only how to perform a behavior but also what
will happen to us in a specific situations do perform it.
2. Observational learning through imitating the behavior of the model-even
though the model receives no reinforcement or punishments while the
observer is watching, we try to have as we imagine the model would.

Elements of observational learning:

Bandura noted that there are four elements to be considered in observational
learning:
1. Paying attention: Before students can imitate a model’s action, they must
attend to what the model is doing or saying.
Example: A Teacher may say, “Listen closely; this will be on your test tomorrow”.
2. Retention: The learner must be able to retain all of this information in
memory until it is time to use it. If the person forgets important details, he or
she will not be able to successfully imitate the behavior.
Example: A teacher show how to write a script “A”, then student would imitate
teachers model by trying to write “A’s” themselves.
3. Production- the learner must have the physical skills and coordination
needed for reproduction of the behavior (a sense of self efficacy). In this
phase they try to match their behavior to the models. In this phase, learner
needs to practice several times, and can reproduce the letter looks like
teacher’s.
For example: The young girl must have enough strength and dexterity(agility) to
mix the ingredients, pour the batter, and so on, in order to bake a cake on
her own.
4. The motivational phase to imitate the model- That is, learners are
more likely to imitate a behavior if they expect it to lead to some type of
reward or reinforcement. If learners expect that imitating the behavior will
not lead to reward or might lead to punishment, they are less likely to
imitate the behavior.

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 CHAPTER THREE

MEMORY

Definition of Memory

Memory is the processes by which people and other organisms encode, store, and retrieve

information. Encoding refers to the initial perception and registration of information. Storage is

the retention of encoded information over time. Retrieval refers to the processes involved in

using stored information. Whenever people successfully recall a prior experience, they must have

encoded, stored, and retrieved information about the experience. Conversely, memory failure -

for example, forgetting an important fact - reflects a breakdown in one of these stages of

memory.

Activities
1. How does the brain store memory?
2. Why do people remember some bits of information but not others?
3. Can people improve their memories?
4. What is the capacity of memory?
3.1 The Structures of Memory

i. Sensory Memory

ii. Short - term Memory

iii. Long - term Memory

• These three are not separate, mutually exclusive, entities found in separate brain centers;

• They differ in terms of the functions they perform and their capacity for retaining information

for a specific period of time i.e., for how long can they keep the information stored

• These are abstract divisions on the basis of their primary characteristics.

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There are a number of theories of memory, but the most common is the information processing

explanation. This approach relies on the computer as a model for human memory, like the

computer the human mind takes in information, performs the operation on it to change its from

and content, stores and locates it, and generate responses to it. Thus, processing involves the

encoding, storage, and retrieval components. The whole system is guided by control processes

that determine how and when information will flow through the system.

3.2 Sensory Register (Sensory Memory) (SR/M)

 Storage of memory lasting for a while; this is the initial momentary stage.

 Sensory memory refers to the initial, momentary recording of information in our sensory

systems. When sensations strike our eyes, they linger briefly in the visual system. This

kind of sensory memory is called iconic memory and refers to the usually brief visual

persistence of information as it is being interpreted by the visual system. Echoic memory

is the name applied to the same phenomenon in the auditory domain: the brief mental

echo that persists after information has been heard. Similar systems are assumed to exist

for other sensory systems (touch, taste, and smell).

 The person’s sensory system records information as a raw and non-meaningful stimulus:

e.g., a fly that sat on your nose in the park this morning, the sound of the car that passed

by you, or the feel of the dry leaf that landed on your head when you were waiting for the

bus.

 Sensory memory systems typically function outside of awareness and store information

for only a very short time. Iconic memory seems to last less than a second. Echoic

memory probably lasts a bit longer; estimates range up to three or four seconds. Usually

the incoming sensory information replaces the old information. For example, when we
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 move our eyes, new visual input masks or erase the first image. The information in

sensory memory vanishes unless it captures our attention and enters the working

memory.

Types of Sensory Memories

i. Iconic Memory

ii. Echoic Memory

Iconic Memory

The information gathered by our visual sense is reflected by the iconic memory; memory in the

visual domain

Echoic Memory: The information coming from our auditory sense is dealt with by the echoic

memory; i.e., Memory for sounds:

Generally, Sensory memory is short lived. Ranging from just about one second to a few seconds,

its duration depends upon the intensity of the stimulus too. Iconic memory may fade in less than

a second, whereas the echoic memory may last for 3-4 seconds. The stimuli that have a high

intensity may stay for a bit longer. Sensory memory is like a temporary image that may vanish

forever, and may be replaced by another if it is not shifted to another processing system or

memory storehouse. The representation of the world around us captured by sensory memory is

relatively complete, full and detailed.

3.3. Short - Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory

Psychologists originally used the term short-term memory to refer to the ability to hold

information in mind over a brief period of time. As conceptions of short-term memory: expanded

to include more than just the brief storage of information, psychologists created new

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terminology. The term working memory is now commonly used to refer to a broader system that

both stores information briefly and allows manipulation and use of the stored information. This

system is higher in functioning than sensory memory, as it stores information in terms of

meaning and not just simple sensory stimulation.

 Sensory information is meaningless and therefore discarded.

 If it is sent to the short- term memory then a meaning is added to it.

 Since now it is meaningful it will be retained, though for not very long.

 Short-term memory retains information for 15 to 25 seconds, unless it is moved into the

long- term memory.

How is sensory memory transformed into short-term memory?

 The exact process is not yet clearly known

 There are two main theories in this regard:

a) The transformation takes place when the sensory stimulus is converted into words.

b) The transformation takes place after the sensory information is converted into graphic

representations or images.

To keep information activated in STM for longer than 20 seconds, most people rehearse the

information mentally. There are two types of rehearsal. These are:

 Maintenance rehearsal

 Elaborative rehearsal

Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating the information in your mind. It is useful for

retaining something you plan to use and forget, like a phone number.

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Elaborative rehearsal involves associating the information a person is trying to remember with

something a person already knows, with information from long term memory.

E.g. if you meet someone at a certain place whose name is the same as your brother’s, you don’t

have to repeat the name to keep it in memory, you just have to make association. This kind of

rehearsal not only retains information in working memory but helps move information from

STM to long-term memory.

The limited capacity of STM can also be somewhat circumvented by the control process of

chunking - a process of grouping individual bits of information, not the side of each bit, is the

limitation for STM. You can retain more information if you can group individual bits of

information.

3.4 Long-Term Memory

This system stores information on a permanent or relatively permanent basis; the information

thus stored may or may not be retrieved easily. The term long-term memory is somewhat broad

meaning phrase because it can refer to facts learned a few minutes ago, personal memories many

decades old, or skills learned with practice. Generally, however, long-term memory describes a

system in the brain that can store vast amounts of information on a relatively enduring basis.

When you play cricket, remember what you had for dinner last night, recall your first birthday

party, and remember how to play a board game, or to sing along to a favorite song; for all this

you draw on information and skills stored in long-term memory.

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The Components of Long-term Memory

1. Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory)

It refers to knowledge that can be consciously brought to the mind and “declared”. It is conscious

memory for facts and events. Explicit memory may be: semantic or episodic memory.

a. Semantic Memory: is memory for meaning. It refers to general world knowledge or fact such

as the knowledge that NaCl is the chemical formula for table salt. In other word, it is a mental

dictionary or encyclopedia of items in the mind irrespective of there time and place. Those

memories are stored as prepositions, images, and schema.

b. Episodic Memory: memory of information tied to a particular place and time, especially

information about the events of your own life, is called episodic. It keeps track of the order of

things, so it is also a good place to store jokes, gossip, or plats form films. It is connected with a

particular time or date and typically includes much more personal or autobiographical element

than semantic memory. E.g. remembering what one did in his/her 18th birthday celebration.

2. Implicit Memory (Non – declarative Memory): it cannot be brought to the mind

consciously but is expressed in behavior. At the beginning they require consciousness or “think

out”, but gradually these conscious efforts become unconscious and effortless. One of the most

important kinds of implicit memory is procedural memory.

a. Procedural Memory: this is the memory of how to do things. The memory center for skills

and habits e.g., playing cricket, driving a car etc. It refers to the skills that humans possess. Tying

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shoelaces, riding a bicycle, swimming, and hitting a football are examples of procedural

memory. Procedural memory is often contrasted with episodic and semantic memory.

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 CHAPTER FOUR
PERSONALITY
Definition of personality
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and
individual differences. The study of personality psychology emphasized on:
 to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or her major
psychological processes
 the study of individual differences, how people differ from each other
 examining human nature and how all people are similar to one other
The word "personality" originates from the Greek word “persona”, which means
“mask”. In the theatre of the ancient Latin, masks were used as to represent or
typify a character. For psychologists, Personality can be defined as a dynamic
and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely
influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various
situations. It is the sum totals of all the ways of acting, thinking, and feeling
that are typical for that person and make that person different from all other
person.
Three main factors that contribute to differences in personality
1. The physiological factors. These include:
The physique of the individual (his size, strength, looks); Physical appearances
and deficiencies and how other people react to these characteristics; Endocrine
glands production of hormones; Example: excess insulin secretion may make
the individual fatigued or anxious. Hypothyroidism may cause sluggishness,
inertia or dullness, slowness or stupidity. Hyperthyroidism may cause nervous
tension, excitement and over activity.
2. The environmental or social factors
Reactions of other people and reactions to other people; Example:
relationships in the home and the family, the influence of school

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3. Mental or psychological factors include
Motives, interests, activities, will and character, intellectual capacities,
reasoning, attention, perception and imagination.
Some Characteristics of Personality
 It is unique and specific to the person
 It includes everything about the person (i.e., the cognitive, affective,
psychomotor, conscious, unconscious, etc.)
 It is dynamic in nature, and there is coherence and consistency in
personality
 It is the product of heredity and environment
 It is an integrated organization of all psychological structures and
processes
 It can be measured qualitatively as well as quantitatively
 It is subjective to disorganization and disintegration
.2 SOME PERSONALITY THEORIES
There are a number of theories that describe and explain the processes and
structures of personality. Each personality theory is different from one another
on a number of issues and among them the following are the major ones:
 Is personality innate or learned? Is personality due more to heredity and
biological factors or more to learning and environmental experiences?
 Is personality conscious or unconscious?
 Is personality influenced by internal or external factors? That is, the way
personality is expressed in any given situation due more to an inner
disposition or to the situation itself.
A. Psychodynamic Perspectives
These perspectives include the traditional Freud’s Psychoanalytic and the Neo –
Freudian theories of personality.
A1. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) one of the most influential thinkers of the 20 th
century, was born in Austria, Vienna and died in London at the age of 83. He

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was a medical doctor who specializes in neurology. He developed his idea about
psychoanalytic theory from his work with psychiatric patients. Psychoanalysis
is a specific method of investigating unconscious mental processes and is a
form of psychotherapy. The term refers, as well, to the systematic structure of
psychoanalytic theory, which is based on the relation of conscious and
unconscious psychological processes.
Freud is interested to understand at dynamics or interaction of forces lying
within the mind. As a result, he tried to uncover what the inner life is all
about. He developed comprehensive theory of personality. Some even
appreciated Freud “… as Christopher Columbus is the external explorer, Freud
is the internal explorer”.
Assumption of Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
I. Determinants of Personality
a) Psychic determinism: much of our behavior is not freely chosen; rather it
is determined by the nature & strength of intra – psychic forces called Id,
Ego, & Super ego.
b) Unconscious motivation: these intra – psychic forces are largely
operating unconsciously. The basic & true motives of our actions are
largely unknown to us.
c) Early childhood experiences determine later personality: the intra -
psychic forces are largely affected by childhood experiences. One’s
personality is almost complete the moment one reached the age of six or
seven years. What ever one does as an adult is the reflection of one’s
experience at early years of life.
II. Structures of Personality
The human mind is made up of three intra - psychic forces (1d, Ego, & Super
ego), which are in continual interaction with one another.
Id: It refers to the instinctual, biological urges of human beings. For example
hunger, thirst, sex, aggression, comfort, etc are id urge. Id represents our
animalistic nature, seeks immediate gratification and is guided by pleasure

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principle. It employees the primary process thinking, it form mental images (in
the form of fantasy, daydreams) of what is to reduce tension which Freud calls
it wish fulfillment. But actually, tensions cannot be reduced by the id; rather
the ego needs to satisfy the aroused desire.
Ego (Latin word means “I” or “self”): refers to the executive part of our
personality. Individual actions are performed by the ego. Ego gratifies the id’s
demand in a socially acceptable way & derives its psychic energy from Id. It
operates on the reality principle. It employs advanced level of thinking, which
Freud termed it as Secondary process thinking, i.e., reason, logic, and the
distinctions among different objects peoples & situations. Ego mediates
between the Id’s demand to reduce tension and the forces that restrict the Id’s
satisfaction (i.e. the reality and the super ego)
Super ego: refers to the internal representative of the traditional reality
(morals, values, and culture of the society). It represents the dos and don’ts of
the society. It is the moral arm of society and guided by moral principle. Again
the super ego drives its psychic energy from the id. It also decides any action
taken by the ego to satisfy the id demands as right or wrong.
Super ego has two parts:
 Conscience: it controls the evil, bad and wrong activities done by the ego
to satisfy the demands of the id.
 Ego ideal: it is concerned with what is right & good activities done by the
ego (i.e. every activity approved by the society).
Super ego has three functions:
 to inhibit the id impulse
 to persuade the ego to do the job of super ego
 to strive for perfection
NB: when the person (ego) attempts to satisfy its biological desires (Id) there is
an internal observer (super ego) that watches & evaluates the person’s actions
as good (by the ego ideal) or bad (by the conscience).

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III. Psychosexual Stages of Personality Development
Freud focuses on sex rather than other motives because in his time the culture
in which he was living was very conservative where most people were expected
to repress their sexual desires as a result of which there were psychic cases,
such as hysteria. As a result, he thought sex must be the strongest motive of
all.
Freud believed that we go through five stages of personality development and
that at each stage of development we experience pleasure in one part of the
body (erogenous zone) more than in others. Freud thought that our adult
personality is determined by the way we resolves conflicts between those early
sources of pleasure - the mouth, the anus, and then the genital, and the
demands of reality. Early parent child relationship is crucial in the
development of later adult personality.
1. Oral Stage (birth - 18 months of age): the infants’ pleasure centers on
the mouth and mouth cavities. Activities like chewing, sucking, and biting
are chief sources of pleasure that reduce tension in the infant.
2. Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years of age): the child’s greatest pleasure
involves the anus or the eliminative function associated with it. In Freud’s
view, the exercises of anal muscles reduce tension.
3. Phallic Stage (3 - 6 years of age): The name phallic comes from the Latin
word “phallus” which means penis. In Freud’s view the phallic stage has a
special importance in personality development. During this stage, the
genitals become the primary source of pleasure. According to Freud, at this
time the child merely feels on intense love for the opposite sex parent. These
sexual attractions bring about the intense unconscious conflict that Freud
calls the Oedipus complex for boys and Electra complex for girls.
4. Latency Stage (6 – 11 years of age): the child represses all interest in
sexuality and develops social and intellectual skills. This activity channels

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 much of the child’s energy in to emotionally safe areas and aids the child in
forgetting the highly stressful conflicts of the phallic stage.
5. Genital Stage (11 years and above): The genital stage is the time of
sexual reawakening; the source of sexual pleasure now becomes some one
outside of the family. Freud believed that unresolved conflicts with parents
reemerge during adolescence, but once resolved, the individual becomes
capable of developing a mature love relationship and functioning
independently as an adult.
Freud believed that the individual may become fixated at any of these stages of
development, if the underlying conflict is not resolved. This fixation occurs
when the individual remain locked in an earlier developmental stage because
needs are under or over gratification.
IV. Anxiety and defense mechanisms
How does the ego then try to reconcile, moderate the opposing goals of the id
and the superego? When the ego loses its energy to resolve the divergent
demands of the id, anxiety is signaled. Anxiety is a feeling of apprehension or
tension that hinders our daily functioning.
Anxiety arises when: Ego realizes that expression of an id impulse will lead to
some kind of harm to the personality and The superego is making an
impossible demand to the satisfaction of the biological needs. Anxiety as an
alarm signal tells ego that something must be done to resolve the conflict and
to protect the personality from danger.
The ego, therefore, uses defense mechanism, a mental strategy to block the
harmful forces while at the same time reducing anxiety.
It protects the individual from overwhelming anxiety, punishment of the
superego and other unpleasant experiences. There are varieties of defense
mechanisms. The most common defense mechanisms are described below.
1. Compensation
When the individual tries to overcome a failure or deficiency in one area
through achieving recognition in another area, the adjustment is called

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compensation. This enables the individual to enhance his self-esteem.
Example- Demosthenes was a stutter, but he overcame his problem and
became the greatest orator in Greece
2. Rationalization
The individual who has been frustrated or who cannot solve the problem
successfully feels discomforted and restless. To lessen his feelings of anxiety,
he gives reasons other than true reasons. Example- A student who cannot do
well academically, often satisfies himself by saying “It is not rewarding to work
hard in this college”
3. Projection
When a person attributes his shortcomings, moral defects to others as a means
of lessening a sense of guilt or inadequacy it is called projection. Projection is
deflection of the attention of others from our own shortcomings. Example- A
student nurse who has cheated in an examination may satisfy herself by
saying that others also have cheated. A medical student who is criticized for
poor work on the wards by his/her professor may retaliate by finding many
weaknesses in his/ her profession.
4. Displacement
It is a specific form of projection. Example- The ward sister has scolded a
student nurse for showing carelessness on duty. The student nurse instead of
showing her anger towards the ward sister, the student nurse may show
aggressive feelings on a patient.
5. Identification
It is an adjustment mechanism, which enables a person to achieve satisfaction
from the success of other people, groups or organization. Example- Boys
identify themselves with their fathers, and girls with their mothers. Students
identify themselves with their favorite teachers. A businessman who has not
yet achieved success in business may identify himself with a well-known
businessman. If we assume the attitudes or behavior characteristics of another

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person with whom we identify, again and again the danger is that we may
thereby, lose our own identity.
6. Substitution
It is an adjustment mechanism in which original goals or others substitute
desires. The original goals are difficult to achieve and an attempt at achieving
them may end in failure. The individual tries to lessen the effects of failure by
selecting a new goal or a new situation, which is easier to attain. Example- A
student who has not been accepted for admission by a medical school may
satisfy herself/himself by becoming a nurse. A student who cannot go to the
medical college for lack of money takes evening courses in x- ray technology.
7. Sublimation
It is a form of substitution in which our unacceptable desires or activities are
redirected into social desirable channels. We cannot give direct expression to
our sexual or aggressive impulses due to many social restrictions, laws and
regulations. These impulses have to be repressed and the energy associated
with them may produce maladjustment. Example- An unmarried woman
interested in children may give expression to her repressed maternal need by
engaging herself in orphanage work or in any child welfare institution.
Unsatisfied sexual needs may be redirected in useful artistic and literary
works.
8. Negativism
Some individuals react to frustrating situation by becoming negative. They
refuse to attack the problem. They become uncooperative and do the opposite
of what should be done. Example- patients, who have developed negativism,
will not cooperate in the treatment planned for them. Children who are treated
unfairly and discriminately are likely to develop disobedience, tepertantrum.

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