Principles of

Teaching
What is Teaching

► a process of interacting
► Stands for pedagogy, training and
nurturing
► The process of engaging students in
activities that will enable them to
acquire the knowledge, skills, as well
as worthwhile values and attitudes.
► An aggregate of organized strategies
and activities aimed at inducing
learning
► Overall cluster of activities
associated with a teacher, and
including explaining, questioning,
demonstrating and motivating.
► A system of activities whereby all
teachers' instructional tasks enable
the students to learn.
► Is both science and art; SCIENCE as it
is based on psychological research
that identifies “cause and effect
relationship” between teaching and
learning;
► ART, as it shows how those
relationships are implemented in
successful and artistic teaching.
► Is the greatest of the arts because
the medium is the human mind and
spirit.
► Involves values, experiences,
insights, imagination and
appreciation- - - the “stuff” that
can not be easily observed and
measured (Greene)
► Involves the interplay among such
factors as the teacher, the
learner, the teaching content and
strategies.
THE TEACHER
► A key factor in any teaching – learning process.
► Constructs well designed plan to achieve the
objectives of the lesson.
► Prepares learning environment.
► Selects appropriate content/ strategies and
learning activities.
► Adjusts content/activities strategies/ learning
environment to the learners.
THE LEARNER
► is an embodied spirit.
► is a union of a sentient body and a rational soul.
► Most important element of teaching.
► The natural characteristics of learners are:
age, maturity, grade level, health, abilities,
family background, experiences and motivation
and his /her culture including values, attitudes
and traditions which influence the
teaching – learning process to a very large
extent.
THE CONTENT/ TEACHING STRATEGIES
► The choice of content/ subject matter to be taught
to achieve desired objectives of the lesson.

► The selection of appropriate instructional

materials/technology to facilitate learning.

► The use of appropriate/effective methods and

strategies of teaching to arrive at the desired
outcomes.
“ the ability to learn is
the most significant
activity of man”
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

► 1. Learning is an experience which occurs

inside the learner and is activated by the
learner.
- the process of learning is primarily controlled by
the learner and not by the teacher.
*People learn what they want to learn, they see what
they want to see,and hear what they want to hear.
*Very little learning takes place without personal
involvement and meaning on the part of the learner.
*It is wise to engage learners in an activity that is
connected to their life experiences.
2. Learning is the discovery of the personal
meaning and relevance of ideas.
- students more readily internalize and implement
concepts and ideas which are relevant to their needs
and problems.
* It is necessary that the teacher relates lesson to the
needs and problems of the learner.
3. Learning (behavioral change) is a consequence of
experience.
- People become responsible when they have
readily assumed responsibility, they become
independent when they have experienced
independent behavior, they become able when
they experience success, they begin to feel
important when they are important to somebody,
they feel liked when somebody likes them.
.
► If EXPERIENCE is the best teacher,
the teacher should make use of
► EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING strategy.
Experiential learning makes use of
direct as well as vicarious
experiences
4. Learning is a collaborative process
- cooperation fosters learning.
- two heads are better than one.
- interactive process appears to “scratch and
kick”
peoples’ curiosity, potential and creativity.
- teachers should make use of cooperative and
collaborative approaches because these will teach
students to live and learn interdependently.
5. Learning is an evolutionary
process
- behavioral changes require time and
patience.
- change takes time.
- Rome was not built in one day.
- things in life that are worthwhile take
time
6. Learning is sometimes a painful
process.

- - behavioral change often calls for giving up the old

and comfortable ways of believing, thinking and
valuing.

- it is necessary for the teachers to make students

realize that learning is a difficult task which is
accompanied by ample of sacrifices,inconveniences
and discomforts.
7. One of the richest resources for
learning is the learner himself.

- each of the student is a reservoir of

experiences, ideas, feelings and attitudes which
comprise a rich vein of material for problem solving
and learning.
- as a teacher, you must “midwife” the birth of
ideas among learners.
8. The process of learning is emotional
as well as intellectual

► Learning is maximized when the

feelings and thoughts of the
learners are working harmoniously.
► This is due to fact that man is the
“union of body and soul”. Man is a
feeling being and a thinking being.
9. The process of problem solving and
learning are highly unique and individual.
- each of the learner has his own unique styles of
learning and solving problems.
- some personal styles of learning and problem
solving are highly effective, others are not as
effective and still others are ineffective.
- give considerations to multiple intelligences and
learning styles of the learners to properly address
their needs for/of learning
 PRINCIPLES
UNDERLYING
EFFECTIVE
INSTRUCTION
1. PRINCIPLE OF CONTEXT
- learning depends largely on the setting particularly
including the use of materials in which the process
goes on with this scales of application:
a. text book only
b. textbook with supplementary materials
c. non – academic and current materials
(newspaper, clippings, articles, magazines)
d. multisensory aids
e. demonstration and demonstration by experts
e. field experiences, personal, social and
community understanding
2. PRINCIPLE OF FOCUS

- instruction must be organized about a focus or

direction, following these scales of application, and
where focus is established by:
a. page assignment in textbook
b. announced topic together with page or chapter
references.
c. broad concept or problem to be solved or a
skill to be acquired to carry on understanding.
3. PRINCIPLE OF SOCIALIZATION

- instruction depends upon the social setting in which it

is done, with this scales of application and where
social patterns are characterized by:
a. submission
b. contribution
c. cooperation
4. Principle of individualization
- instruction must progress in terms of the learners
own purposes, aptitudes, abilities and experimental
procedures, following these scales of application and
where individualization may be done through:
a. differential performance in uniform task
b. homogeneous grouping
c. control plan
d. individual instruction
e. large units with optional related activities
f. individual undertakings, stemming from and
contributing to the joint undertaking of the group of
learners.
5. PRINCIPLE OF SEQUENCE
- instruction depends on effective ordering of a
series of learning task who moves from:
a. from meaningless → emergence of meaning
b. from immediate → remote
c. from concrete → symbolic
d. from crude → discriminating
and where sequence comes through:
a. logical succession of blocks of contents
(lesson/courses)
b. kniting learning/ lessons/ course together by
introduction, previews, pretests, reviews
6. PRINCIPLE OF EVALUATION

c. organized in terms of readiness

d. organized in terms of lines of emerging meanings

- learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating

appraisal of all its aspects, following these scales of
application:
a. evaluation or direct results only
b. evaluation related to objectives and processes
c. evaluation on total learning process and results
MANAGEMENT OF
INSTRUCTION
Instruction may be well-managed using any of these classifications of students:
a. HOMOGENEOUS - learners are classified/grouped in terms of similar elements
such as age, abilities, interests, physical characteristics etc.
b. HETEROGENEOUS – no definite bases for clustering or putting learners
together, could be on random sampling, alphabetized family names, time of
enrollment etc.
c. NON – GRADED – no fixed grade/level assignment of children. They come to
center of learning by small groups or individually depending on their pacing in the
accomplishment of tasks.
TEACHING MODEL - a term used by Bruce, Joyce to describe an over – all approach or
plan for instruction
Attributes of a teaching model:
a. a coherent theoretical framework
b. an orientation toward what student should learn.
c. specific teaching procedures and classroom structures.
DIFERENCE AMONG THE TERMS TECHNIQUE,
METHOD, STRATEGY, APPROACH AND
PRINCIPLES
PRINCIPLE

APPROACH

STRATEGY

METHOD

TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE – the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying out the procedures
of teaching.
- the teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the stages of a method.
METHOD – synonymous to procedure
- the procedure employed to accomplish lesson objectives.
- a series of related and progressive acts performed by a teacher and pupils
to achieve the desired objectives of the lesson.
- the established way or procedure of guiding the mental processes in
mastering the subject matter.
- refers to a procedure employed to accomplish the lesson objective.
- a well – planned step – by – step procedure that is directed towards a
desired learning outcomes.
STRATEGY – an over – all or general design on how the lesson will be executed or
delivered.
- a set of decisions on what learning activities to achieve an objective
- can be a substitute to methodology
APPROACH – a set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing
with the nature of teaching and learning.
- one’s viewpoint toward teaching.
- procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess
better understanding and effective learning.
PRINCIPLE – means a general or fundamental law, doctrine or
assumption.
- a primary source or origin.
- rule or code of conduct.
Purposes of methods
1. make learning more efficient
2. enable learner to think logically
3. facilitates smooth transition from one activity to another
4. serve as guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks and equipments.
5. approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid waste of time and
lapses.
6. make planning clear and precise, to prevent confusion, unnecessary delays and
time wastage.
7. help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the lesson.
8. add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher and students.
PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTING METHODS
1. Must be based on sound principles, laws and
theories of learning.
2. Must assist the learners to define their purposes
and motive.
3. Must originate from the learners’ past
experiences.
4. Must suit individual differences, needs, interests
and developmental maturity.
5. Must bring the learners to the world of diverse
learning experiences.
6. Must stimulate the learners to think critically,
analytically and creatively.
7. Must be challenging
8. Must be flexible.
9. Must be consistent with the
requirements
of objectives.
10. Must be appropriate with the content
participation.
12. Must consider to be undertaken to
ensure
gainful learning.
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING A METHOD
1. Learner’s ability – first and foremost
consideration based on the nature/characteristics,
age, maturity, abilities, etc.
2. Teacher’s ability – must be personally and
professionally qualified to teach
3. Objective – expected outcome of the lesson in
terms of knowledge/skills and attitudes.
4. Subject Matter – content to be taken so that the
desired outcome will be achieved.
5. Pre – requisite learning – students’ experiences
that can help facilitate acquisition of new
knowledge, skills
5. Pre – requisite learning – students’ experiences that can help
facilitate acquisition of new knowledge, skills and attitudes.
6. classroom set – up – must be inviting to students and
conducive to learning.
7. School facilities/equipments/technologies – the availability
of the needed equipments, technologies, tools for learning
found in the right places.
8. Time – allotment – specified target frame for chosen activities
properly distributed to the entire period.
9. Safety precautions – students should feel that they are safe
and out of danger in the school.
10. School climate – learner should feel the warmth of the
teachers and classmate.
SELECTION AND
ORGANIZATION
OF CONTENT
“THERE ARE DULL TEACHERS. DULL
TEXTBOOKS, DULL FILMS, BUT NO DULL
SUBJECTS”
Guiding Principles in the Selection and Organization of
Content
1. Observe the following qualities in the selection and organization of content:
a. Validity – teaching the content that we ought to teach according to the national
standards in the Basic Education Curriculum
- teaching the content in order to realize the goals and objectives of the
course as laid down in the basic education .
b. Significance – the content we teach should respond to the needs and interest of
the learners.
c. Balance – content includes not only facts but also concepts and values (The
three level approach in teaching – facts – cognitive, concepts – psychomotor,
values – affective domain)
c. Balance – content includes not only facts but also concepts and values (The three
level approach in teaching – facts – cognitive, concepts – psychomotor, values –
affective domain)
d. Self – sufficiency – Content should cover the essentials of the lesson and not “a mile
– wide and an inch – deep”
e. Interest – the teacher considers the interest of the learners, their developmental
stages, and cultural and ethnic background.
f. Utility – refers to the usefulness/application of the content to the life of the learner
after it has been learned by the learner.
g. Feasibility – the content can be covered I the amount of time available for
instruction.
2. At the base of the structure of cognitive subject matter content is facts.
3. Subject matter content is an integration of cognitive, skill and affective elements.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION
AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Learning is an active process – actively engage learner in learning activities to
achieve optimum learning of the learners.
What I see, I remember,
What I hear, I forget
What I do, I understand
75% retention rate – is achieved through learning by doing
90 % retention rate – learning by teaching others
2. The more senses that are involve in learning, the more and better the learning –
Humans are intensively visual animals. The eyes contain nearly 70% of the body’s
receptors and send millions of signals along the optic nerves to the visual
processing centers of the brain.
 sight – 75%
hearing – 13%
touch – 6%
taste – 3%
smell – 3%
3. A non – threatening atmosphere enhances learning.
4. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday life.
6. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information – teaching should reach the levels
of application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation to hone our students’ thinking
skills.
7. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than teaching isolated bits of
information.
8. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best method is the one that
works, the one that yields results.
Factors to consider in the choice of teaching
method:
a. Instructional objective
b. Nature of the subject matter
c. The learners
d. Teacher
e. School policies
 DIFFERENT
APPROACHES
AND METHODS
a thousand teachers, a
thousand methods
A comparison between direct and indirect
approaches
DIRECT APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH

1. Makes use of expository 1. Makes use of exploratory

strategies strategies
2. aimed at mastery of 2. Aimed at generating
knowledge and skills knowledge for
3. Teacher – oriented experience
4. Direct transmission of 3. Learner – centered
information from 4. Students search for
teacher information with
5. Teacher – controlled teacher’s supervision
6. Highly structured 5. Learner – controlled
7. Content – oriented 6. Flexibly organized
8. Learner is passive, 7. Experienced – oriented
Method of teaching in the
direct/expositive approach
1. DEDUCTIVE METHOD – starts with generalization, principle
or rule that is then applied to specific cases.
Features: 1. allows for clear understanding of generalizations,
rules, formulas etc.
2. allows further development of generalizations, rules,
formulas etc.
When to Use:
1. to test a rule
2. answer questions or problems with reference to certain rules or principles
3. to further develop generalization
Steps:
1. Statement of the Problem – teacher tells what the problem which must be
stimulating, realistic, relevant and within the learner’s ability.
2. Statement of the Generalization – recalling/stating generalizations or rules
which may help solve the problem
3. Inference – looking for the principle/rule/generalization that fits the
problem.
4. Verification – trying out the best generalization, rule or principle that
establish validity of the probem using references/materials.
2. Concept Teaching – is based on the assumption (Bruner 1984) that concept
formation begins at an early stage (9-12 months) where initial activities of object –
sorting and preference serve as bases for concept learning.
Bruner’s Identified 3 distinct modes of learning:
a. Learning by doing called enactive learning
b. Learning by doing mental images called ICONIC MODE
c. Learning through series of abstract symbols called SYMBOLIC MODE
MAY EITHER BE:
a. Concept Attainment – focuses on teaching pupils the concepts that the teacher
has selected for study and follows these steps:
1. introduce the concept by name
2. present examples
3. introduce non – examples
4. present a mixture of examples and non – examples and ask questions which are
the correct examples
5. ask pupils to define the concept
6. ask pupils to find another examples of the concept
b. Concept Formation Method – focuses on the process of concept
development/thinking skills development which follows the following steps:
1. teachers provide stimulus in the form of a question or a problem
2. pupils provide a number of answers and categorize them
3. pupils label the categorized responses

Steps in Concept Teaching Method

1. Define the objectives of the lesson to get students ready to learn.
2. Giving of examples and non – examples which help strengthen understanding.
3. Testing for the attainment of understanding
4. Analysis of students thinking and integration of learning through further
questioning and focused discussion.
Diagnostic testing reveals errors on misconception which calls for a re – teaching.
3. Direct Instruction / Showing Method – a teacher – centered strategy that uses
teacher explanation and modeling combined with student practice and feedback
to teach concept and skills. It is designed to teach skills, concepts, principles and
rules, with emphasis on active teaching and high levels of student involvement.
Features:
1. Widely applicable in different content areas
2. Establishes pattern of interaction between teacher and students
3. Assists students to learn procedural knowledge.
4. Promotes learning of declarative knowledge.
5. Focuses students’ attention on specific content/skill
6. Ensures mastery skills.
WHEN TO USE
- for teaching of concepts and skills.
Steps:
1. Introduction – reviewing prior learning with students, sharing learning goals
providing rationale for new content.
2. Presentation – explaining new concept or modeling the skill.
3. Guided practice with necessary feedback – providing students necessary
opportunities to practice new skill or categorize examples of new concept.
4. Independent Practice – students practicing the skill or concept learned for
retention and transfer.
4. LECTURE – DISCUSSION METHOD
- designed to help learner link new with prior learning and relate the different
parts of new learning to each other.
- designed to overcome the most important weaknesses of the lecture method by
strongly emphasizing learner involvement in the learning process.
A. Lecture – designed to help students learn organized bodies of knowledge.
- is a teacher – directed method designed to help learners understand relationship
in organized bodies of knowledge.
- as opposed to content – specific models that focus on individual concepts, this
model attempts to help students understand not only concepts but how they are
related.
- grounded in schema theory and David Ausubel’s concept of meaningful verbal
learning
Features:
a. Applicable in different subject areas
b. Ensures clear understanding of information
c. Allows students participation
WHEN TO USE:
a. For conveying/disseminating important information which may not be available to
students or which may be needed to be presented in a particular way.
b. For stimulating interest.
c. For guiding student reading
d. For explaining a difficult text
e. For aiding student to summarize and synthesize discussions
STEPS
1. Planning
a. identifying goals
b. diagnosing student background
c. structuring content
d. preparing advance organizers
2. Implementing
a. Introduction – describing the purpose of the lesson, sharing of objectives and
overview to help students see the organization of the lesson.
b. Presentation – defining and explaining major ideas.
c. Comprehension Monitoring – determining whether or not students understand
concepts and ideas.
d. Integration – exploring interconnections between important ideas.
5. Review and Closure – summarizing the lecture
B. DISCUSSION – is an orderly process of face to face group interaction in which
students/pupils exchange ideas about an issue for the purpose of answering a
question, enhancing their knowledge or understanding or making decision.
- It can be viewed as a bridge between direct instruction and student – centered
instruction.
5 Logical Conditions to Ensure that Exchange is called DISCUSSION
(Bridges, 1960)
1. People must talk to one another
2. People must listen to one another
3. People must respond to one another
4. People must be collectively share to put forward more than one point of view.
5. People must the intention of developing their knowledge, understanding or
judgment of the issue under discussion.
For discussion to be successful, participants need certain:

1. Moral Disposition – being willing to listen to reason

- being willing to abide by rules that facilitate exchange of
ideas
2. Intellectual Disposition – concern for clarity in the expression of
ideas.
- concern that an appropriate variety of perspective is
considered by the group.
When to Use as a Teaching Strategy:
1. It can be used in any subject at any level from kinder to post graduate study.
2. It can involve the whole class or it can be used with small groups.
3. When the teacher needs to facilitate any or all of the 4 types of learning
outcomes:
a. General subject mastery
b. Problem – solving ability
c. Moral development
d. Communication skills
4. When students need to be motivated to talk about the subject inside and outside
the classroom.
5. When teacher wants students to work together and share their ideas by talking
about them publicly (Cockburn and Ross, 1980).
 ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. Because it is an active learning process, 1. Without control over the discussion,
it is more likely to maintain students’ talkative students could easily dominate
interests. and influence the group to accept their
ideas.
2. Active involvement in learning 2. If not guided well, there will be
motivates students especially when they opportunities for students to stay from the
see that others value their contributions topic and waste time.
and respect their point of views.
3. More opportunities for practice and use 3. Some students may be reluctant to
of the language as well as expression of participate in the discussion for fear of
ideas and opinions among students being ridiculed for their ideas or
opinions.
Using Discussion in Conjunction with other Teaching Strategies:
a. Direct Instruction – as part of a direct instruction lesson, a discussion could be used
to explore an issue for a short time
(15 mins).
b. Group Work – interactions between students are an integral part
of small group learning, and this process can often be enhanced
by asking the students to follow a set of discussion rules.
such as jigsaw) can be enhanced by structured discussion
within the learning groups.
c. Problem Solving – when you are using problem solving as a
teaching strategy, discussions can be used to help students
understand the nature of the problem, to help them generate
possible solutions and as a forum for comparing the relative
merits of various solutions to the problem.
Demonstration – a tell and show method
Steps:
I. Preparation
a. motivation
b. identify objectives/ problems/procedure
II. Explanation of Concepts/Principles/Process/Theory etc.
III. Demonstration of Concept Process by the Teacher
- students observe and take down notes
IV. Discussion of Student Observation
- answering problems
V. Verification
- justification
- conclusion
II. Indirect/Guided/Exploratory or Experimental Strategies
- the indirect approach is a student – centered approach or less explicit teaching
method. It involves the building of independent learning and developing
self-concept. It develops students to become self – directed learners, critical
thinkers and problem solvers.
Features:
a. Learner – centered, learners exercise initiative in the process.
b. Process of learning is perceived to be as important as the outcome.
c. Learning is applied as it is acquired, not stored for future use.
d. The development of specific intellectual skills is better than merely covering
specified elements of subject matter.
When to Use:
a. When the teacher feels the need for students to develop self – reliance
and intellectual skills related to critical thinking and problem solving.
1. INQUIRY TEACHING
a. the process of answering questions and solving problems
based on facts and observation
b. strategy designed to teach students how to investigate
problems and questions with facts.
Features:
1. helps students find answers to their own questions in scientific
manner.
2. helps develop higher – order and critical thinking skills
3. promotes independent learning
When to Use:
1. when there are real life problems or questions that must be answered through
facts and observation
2. for topics requiring higher order thinking
Steps:
1. Presenting/Identifying the question or problem
Presenting or identifying a problem either by the teacher or by the students,
explaining or clarifying the problems by the students to ensure clear
understanding.
2. Forming hypothesis
Formulating intelligent guesses or tentative solutions and generalizations.
3. Data Gathering
Gathering necessary facts, information or evidences related to the problem
4. Data Analysis/Assessing Hypothesis
Closely studying/analyzing of the data gathered to prove or disprove the
hypotheses.
5. Generalizing – making generalization based on the careful analysis of the data
gathered.
Strategies for Inquiry Teaching
A. Interviews – may be used in all subjects
- interviews are used in gathering firsthand information from individuals who
have expertise on topic under study.
Steps:
1. Introduction – presenting a new or additional knowledge or information,
identifying interviews, and making plans including questions to ask, procedure for
recording, etc.
2. Development – conducting the interview as planned
3. Conclusion – summarizing data and report findings to solve problems.
4. Evaluation – Assessing the success of the interview conducted.
B. Field Trips – an out – of – the – classroom activity intended to present concepts in
the most realistic manner. It may be used across levels in any subject area.
B. Field Trips – an out – of – the – classroom activity intended to present concepts in
the most realistic manner. It may be used across levels in any subject area.

Steps:
1. Introduction – clarifying objectives of the activity, panning and assigning tasks
to be carried out and reviewing standards of behavior.
2. Development – field trip proper, checking on students’ activities,
accomplishments and behaviors.
3. Conclusion – summarizing data and report findings, stating main idea or other
conclusions, sending letter of thanks.
4. Evaluation – assessing the finished activity
2. INDUCTIVE METHOD
- a procedure through which one arrives at a fact, principle, rule or
generalization from some specific cases or examples.
Features:
1. Designed to help students develop higher order and critical thinking while learning
specific content at the same time.
2. Requires teacher’s questioning skill
3. Promotes high level of student involvement
4. Increase student motivation
When to Use
For formulating generalization, concept, rule, truth, principle, formula or
definition.
Steps:
1. Preparation – reviewing of old facts, setting of goals, stating of aims
Steps:
1. Preparation – reviewing of old facts, setting of goals, stating of aims
2. Presentation – presentation of cases and examples.
3. Comparison and Abstraction – deducing common elements among the cases or
samples presented.
4. Stating of Generalization, rule, definition, principle, or formula based on the
common elements deduced from cases presented.
5. Application – applying the generalization or rule learned to other problems within or
beyond the classroom setting.
3. PROBLEM SOLVING
- a purposeful activity aimed at removing
difficulty or perplexity through a process of
reasoning.
Features:
1. Allows for students’ active involvement resulting in
meaningful experiences
2. Develops independence and higher level thinking
skills.
3. Promotes open – mindedness and wise judgment.
When to Use:
- for lessons where learners find problems requiring
Steps:
1. Recognition and statement of the problem – with
teacher’s guidance and stimulus, the students define
or recognize a problem
2. Statement of Hypothesis – students make temporary
answer/solution to the question or problem
3. Critical Evaluation of Suggested solution – with the
teacher’s guidance, students test hypotheses or data
used in solving the problem, formulate conclusions
and summarize their findings.
4. Verification of accepted solutions – checking,
verifying and applying results to other problems.
4. PROJECT METHOD
a purposeful, natural, significant constructive activity needing both intellectual
and physical solutions.

Project may be:

a. Physical or material – such as repairing a radio
b. Learning project – like composing a poem or short story
c. Intellectual or problem project – such as identifying ornamental plants which
can be medicinal
Features:
1. Develops students’ thinking and manipulative skills.
2. Develops creativity and resourcefulness, initiative, industry and responsibility.
3. Allows students to express in their own way the concepts they
have learned.
4. Can enhance cooperation and sharing of ideas.
When to Use
1. For application of concepts
2. For discovering concepts
3. For developing creativity and thinking skills
4. For real life problems/situations
Steps
1. Purposing – determining the nature and goals of the project.
2. Planning – designing of strategies to be employed in carrying out the project.
3. Executing – carrying out of activities as planned
4. Evaluating – displaying and judging of finished products.
LABORATORY METHOD OR RESEARCH METHOD
- deal with first hand experiences regarding materials or facts obtained from
investigation or experimentation.
Types:
1. Experimental – aims to train students in problem solving with incidental
acquisition of information and motor skills, emphasis is on discovery, original
procedure, and solution of problems.
2. Observational Type – the aim is on the acquisition of facts. Activities would
include visits to museums, exhibits or galleries, watching documentaries, going on
filed trips.
Features:
1. To promote information acquisition through observation, experimental solutions
to problems guided by reflective thinking and acquisition of skill in manipulation.
2. Provides students opportunities to conduct or participate in original research.
3. Develops skill in using laboratory equipment and instruments.
4. Enhances higher order thinking skills.

Steps:
1. Orientation/Motivation – motivating and informing students
on the work to be done, why should it be done and giving p
precise and explicit directions.
2. Work Period – students are allowed to work on their own
either individually or in groups with the teacher supervising.
3. Culminating Activities – organizing, presenting and exhibiting
of the completed work.
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
- an inductive teaching strategy designed to help students reinforce their
understanding of concepts and practice hypothesis testing hypothesis based on
positive and negative examples presented to them.
Features:
1. Encourages students to think freely.
2. Trains students to develop hypothesis.
3. Trains students to formulate definition or generalization.
4. Promotes students participation
When to Use?
1. For making hypothesis
2. For formulating hypothesis/definition
3. For development of critical thinking through hypothesis testing.
Steps:
1. Presenting of Examples – positive and negative examples are presented and
hypotheses are generated.
2. Analysis of hypotheses – hypotheses are analyzed in light of the examples given.
3. Closure – examples are continuously analyzed to generate critical characteristics
and form a definition.
4. Application - additional examples are provided and analyzed in terms of definition
formed.
EMERGING MODELS OF TEACHING
A. PROBLEM – BASED INSTRUCTION
- the essence of problem – based instruction (PBI) consists of presenting
students with authentic and meaningful problem situation that can serve as
springboard for investigations and inquiry.
- This model is a highly effective approach for teaching higher – level thinking
processes, helping students process information already in their possession and
assisting students to construct their own knowledge about the social and physical
world around them. Contemporary approaches to problem based instruction rest
on cognitive psychology and constructivist perspectives about learning.
Features:

1. Deriving question on problem – PBI organizes instruction around

questions and problems both socially and personally meaningful
to students.
Features:
1. Deriving question on problem – PBI organizes instruction around questions and
problems both socially and personally meaningful to students.
- they address authentic real – life problems that evades simple answers and for which
competing solutions exist.
2. Interdisciplinary Focus – PBI lessons may be centered on a particular subject but
actual problem under investigation has been chosen because its solution requires
students to deliver into many subjects.
3. Authentic Investigation – necessitates that students pursue authentic investigation
that seek real solution to real problems.
4. Production of Artifacts and exhibits - PBI requires students to construct products in
the form of artifacts and exhibits that explain or represent their solutions.
- It could be a report, a video, a physical model or a computer program.
B. MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
- develop in 1983 by HOWARD GARDNER
- proposes 9 different intelligences to accord for a broader range of human
potential in children and adults:
a. linguistic intelligences – word smart
b. logical – mathematical intelligence – number/reasoning
smart)
c. Spatial Intelligence – picture smart
d. Bodily Kinesthetic – music smart
e. Interpersonal Intelligence – People smart
f. Intrapersonal Intelligence – self smart
g. Naturalistic intelligence – nature smart
h. Existentialist Intelligence/Spiritualist Intelligence
Features
1. Building of different centers in the classroom
2. Equal attention should be given to individuals who show gifts in other
intelligences aside from linguistics and logical – mathematical intelligences.
3. The MI theory proposed a major transformation in the way schools are run and
lessons are presented.
4. Suggests that teachers be trained to present lessons in a variety of ways using:
- music - multimedia
- cooperative learning - field trips
- art activities - inner reflection
- role playing - and many more
MITA – Multiple intelligence Teaching Approach (for PBL)
Features:
1. Both starts with question/problem to generate curiosity
2. Teacher functions as facilitator.
3. Learning outcomes are holistic, rather than narrowly based in one discipline.
4. Assessments are authentic, performance based.

When Planning a Lesson (MI), Ask the Right Question

1. Linguistic: How can I use the spoken/written word?
2. Mathematical – How can I bring in numbers, calculations, logic, classifications,
critical thinking?
3. Spatial – How can I use visual aids, visualization, colon, art, metaphor, or visual
organizers?
4. Musical – How can I bring in music, environmental sounds or set key points in a
rhythm or melody?
5. Bodily Kinesthetic – How can I involve the whole body or
hands on experiences?
6. Interpersonal – How can I engage in peer or cross age sharing,
cooperative learning or large group simulation?
7. Intrapersonal – How can I evoke personal feelings or memories or give students
choices?
8. Naturalistic – How can I develop love for nature?
C. CONSTRUCTIVISM (Piaget and
Vygotsky)
- A perspective of teaching and learning in which a learner constructs meaning
from experiences and interaction with others.
- The teacher’s role is to provide meaningful relevant experiences for students
from which students construct their own meaning (facilitation).
- A view of learning suggesting that learners develop their own understanding of
the topics they study instead of heaving it delivered to them by others (most
commonly teachers) in an already organized form.
- Places the learner in the center of the learning process where they play an
active role in the process of constructing their own understanding.
D. METACOGNITIVE STRATEGY
- strategies used for recognizing one’s cognitive processes and ways of thinking
about how information is being processed.
- Metacognition is the awareness of and control of one’s own mental processes.
- Nickerson (1988) characterized the role of metacogniton in higher order and
critical thinking in this way. “The fact that an individual has some knowledge that
would be useful in a given situation does not guarantee that it will be accessed and
applied in that situation.”
To increase the likelihood that learners will apply their thinking appropriately,
they need to be aware of the thinking they’re doing.
(For example, when reading, the students need to learn to evaluate their own
decoding and comprehension, plan a sequence of actions and regulate their reading
behavior changing conditions.
4 TYPES OF COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Strategy Definition Example
1. REHEARSAL Committing materials to Repeating a new phone
memory by repeating them. number.
2. ELABORATION Adding detail to new Using mnemonic
information and creating techniques and adding
associations. details such as relating
new phone number to
one’s security number
3. ORGANIZATION Recognizing or picking out main Outlining or highlighting
ideas from large bodies of
information.
4. Thinking about thinking and Deciding that the best
METACOGNITION monitoring cognitive processing strategy for
comprehending a body
of new text is to create
an outline of main ideas.
E. COLLABORATION
- characterized by students working with one another either
in pairs or groups)
Steps:
1. Orient students to the problem
2. Organize students for study.
3. Assist independent and group investigation.
4. Develop and present artifacts and exhibits.
5. Analyze and evaluate the problem – solving process.
F. EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
- a final theoretical perspective that provides intellectual support from
cooperative learning comes from theorists and researchers who are interested in
how individuals learn from experience.
- Experience accounts for much of what people learn.
- Is based upon 3 assumptions:
a. that you learn best when you are personally involved
in the learning experience.
b. that knowledge has to be discovered by yourself if it
makes a difference in your behavior.
c. commitment to learning is highest when you are free
to set your own learning goals and actively pursue
them within a given framework.
G. Cooperative learning
- this model presents the sharpest contrast to direct instruction.
- can be used to teach rather complex academic materials and can help teachers
accomplish important social learning and human relation goals.
- stems from both social learning theory and cognitive – constructivist perspective
of learning.
- classroom environment is characterized by a cooperative task and incentive
structures and by small group activity.
- cooperative goal structures exist when students can obtain their goal only when
other students with whom they are linked can obtain their characteristics of
cooperative learning lessons:
a. students work cooperatively in teams to master academic
materials.
 b. teams are made up of high, average and low achievers
(coping learners).
c. whenever possible, teams include a racial, cultural and
sexual mix of students.
d. reward system are group oriented rather than individually
oriented.
Steps:
1. Go over objectives, present goals and establish learning set.
2. Present information to students with demo or text.
3. Organize students into learning teams.
4. Assist team works and study and group effort
5. Test over learning materials or groups present results of their work.
6. Provide recognition to both individual and group efforts and achievements.
Important Distinctive Features:
1. Students are not just required to do something as a team, they are required to
learn something as a team.
2. Because the team’s success depends on each student’s learning, it is necessary
for students to tutor one another rather than simply share ideas and information
with one another.
3. In some versions of cooperative learning where marks or grades are allocated to
students, there is opportunity for each member of each team to succeed, because
success is based on improvement on past performance rather than on absolute
scores.
Variations:
1. Students Teams Achievement Division (STAD - Slavin)
- simplest and most straight forward among the cooperative
learning approaches.
- referred to as student team learning
Steps:
1. Teacher presents new academic information to students each week
using verbal presentation or text.
2. Students in a class are divided into four or five member
heterogeneous learning teams.
3. Members in the team help each other learn by using a variety of
cooperative study methods, quizzing and scoring procedures.
2. Jigsaw (Aronson, Slavin)
- students are assigned to 5 or 6 members heterogeneous study team.
- academic materials are presented to the students in text form.
- each student has the responsibility to learn a portion of the
material.
- members from different teams with the same topic (called the
expert group) meet to study and help each other learn their topic.
- then students return to home team and teach each other members
what they have learned.
3. Group Investigation (Thelan Sharan)
- the most complex of the cooperative learning approaches and t
the most difficult to implement.
- in contrast to STAD and Jigsaw, students are involved in planning both the topics
for study and how to proceed with their investigation.
- teachers who use the GI divide their classes into 5 or 6
members heterogeneous group.
- students select topics for study, pursue in depth investigation
of chosen sub – topic then prepare and present a report to the
whole class.
Steps of the GI Approach:
a. Topic selection
b. Cooperative planning
c. Implementation
d. Analysis and synthesis
e. Presentation of final product
f. Evaluation
4. Structural Approach (Kagen 1983)
- has much in common with other approaches, the structural approach emphasizes
the use of a particular structures designed to influence students interaction
patterns.
- call for students to work independently in small groups and are characterized by
cooperative rather than individual rewards.
- some structures have the goal of increasing student acquisition of academic
content (think – pair – share numbered heads together).
- others are designed to teach social and group skills (active listening and time
tokens).
5. Teams Games Tournaments (TGT) (De Vries and Slavin)
- similar to STAD in that the teacher presents information to students and have
them help one another learn. The difference lies in the quizzes being replaced with
tournaments and students
 compete to gain points for their home team.TGT is suited to the same subject
matter and objectives as STAD.
6. Dyadic Cooperative Learning
- simplest form of cooperative learning and in many cases most efficient form of
group work.
- students interrupt in pairs after reading a section of the material. They come to
agreement to the important points and over all meaning of each section.
Afterwards, students quiz each other. Lastly, teacher gives the whole class a test.
OVERVIEW OF SELECTED STRUCTURES IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING

STRUCTURE BRIEF DESCRIPTION ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL

FUNCTION

A. TEAM BUILDING
1. Round robin Each student in turn shares Expressing ideas or opinions,
something with his or her team creation of stories. Getting
mates. acquainted with team
mates.
B. CLASS BUILDING
1. Corners Each student moves to a corner of Seeing other alternative
the room representing a teacher – hypothesis, values, problem
determined alternative. Students solving approaches.
discuss within corners, then listen to
and paraphrase ideas from the other
corner.
C. COMMUNICATION BUILDING

2. Match Mine Students attempt to match the Vocabulary development,

arrangement of object on a grid of communication skills, role
another student using oral taking ability
 D. MASTERY

1. Numbered The teacher asks a question, students Review, checking for

Heads Together consult to make everyone knows the knowledge,
answer, then one student is called upon to comprehension,
answer tutoring
2. Color coded Students memorized facts using a flash Memorizing facts,
Co – op - cards card game. The game is structured so that helping, praising
there is a maximum probability of success
at each step moving from short term to
long term memory. Scoring is based on
improvement.
3. Praise Check Students work in pairs of four. Within pairs Practicing skills,
students alternate – one solves a problem helping, praising
while the other coaches. After every two
problems, the pair checks to see if they
have the same answers as the other pair.

E. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT

1. THREE - Step Students interview each other in pairs, Sharing personal

Interview first one way, then the other. Students information such as
each share with the group information they hypotheses, reactions
learned in the interview. to a poem, conclusions
2. Think – Students think to themselves on a topic Generating and revising
Pair Share provided by the teacher; they pair up hypotheses, inductive
with another student to discuss it; they reasoning, deductive
then share their thoughts with the class. reasoning, application.
Participation, involvement.

3. Team Students write simultaneously on a piece Analysis of concepts into

Word - of chart paper, drawing main concepts, components, understanding
Webbing supporting elements, and bridges multiple relations among
representing the relation of ideas in a ideas, differentiating
concept. concepts, Role-taking.

F. MULTIFUNCTIONAL

1. Each student in turn writes one answer as Assessing prior knowledge,

Roundtable a paper and a pencil are passed around practicing skills, recalling
the group. With simultaneous Roundtable information, creating
more than one pencil and paper are used cooperative art. Team
at once. building, participation of
all.
2. Inside – Students stand in pairs in two concentric Checking for
Outside circles. The inside circle face out, the understanding, review,
Circle outside circle faces in. students use processing, helping.
flashcard or respond to teacher questions Tutoring, sharing, meeting
as they rotate to each new partner. classmates.
3. Partners Students work in pairs to create or Mastery and presentation
master content. They consult with of new material, concept,
partners from other teams. They then development.
share their products or understanding Presentation and
with the other partner in their team. communication skills.

4. Jigsaw Each student on the team becomes an Acquisition and

“expert” on one topic by working with presentation of new
members from the other teams assigned material, review, informed
the corresponding expert topic. Upon debate. Interdependence,
returning to their teams, each one in status equalization
turn teaches the group, and the students
are all assessed on all aspects of the
topic.

5. Co – op – Co Students work in groups to produce a Learning and sharing

– op particular group product to share with complex material, often
the whole class. Each student makes a with multiple sources,
particular contribution to the group. evaluation, application,
analysis, synthesis
H. Content – based language instruction
- as defined by Brintos, Snow and Wesche, content – based language instruction is
the integration of content learning with language teaching aims.
- it refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter, with the form
and sequence of language presentation dictated by content material.

Features:
1. The main instruction goal in this approach is to prepare the students for the
academic task they will encounter in school.
2. Students are provided with study skills and a familiarity with scholarly discourse
which they can transfer to other academic endeavors.
3. focuses not only on learning, but using the language as a medium to learn
mathematics, science, social science or other academic subjects.
4. Subject matter may consist of topics or themes selected for students interest or
need.
5. BLI uses the content, learning objectives and activities from the
school curriculum as the vehicle for teaching language skills.

Teaching Methods and Strategies in CBLI

a. Cooperative Learning
b. Task – Based or Experiential Learning
c. Whole – Language Approach
I. INTEGRATIVE MODEL (Tab)
- grounded in cognitive views of learning.
- an inductive strategy designed to help students
1. develop a deep understanding of organized bodies of
knowledge topics that combine facts, concepts,
generalizations and the relationships among them.
2. develop critical thinking skills at the same time.
- closely related to the inductive model.
- planning lessons using integrative model includes identifying clear goals and then
preparing displays of data to help learners reach the goals
- the data displays are commonly matrices, but can include graphs, maps and
charts in pictorial forms.
Steps:
1. describe, compare and search for patterns – teacher directs students attention to
the topics for study.
2. Explains similarities and differences – the point where students are immersed in
critical thinking.
3. Hypothesize outcomes for different conditions.
4. Generalize to form broad relationships – lesson is summarized and comes to course
as students derive one or more generalizations that summarize the content.
j. Group cooperative learning /
experiential investigation
- a model which enables students to inquire into a social problem and observe
themselves as inquirers while the teacher serves as counselor – consultant and
friendly critic.

K. INDEPENDENT LEARNING
providing a high level of cognitive and affective development, independent
learning is a kind of instructional process where students proposes a study project,
investigation, research, or production of something which she or he will carry out
almost independently. The teacher’s role is to stimulate student participation,
advise and counsel on possible projects, grant approval if appropriate, supervise
students and evaluate completed project.
L. synactics
- a teaching model designed to increase students’
creativity through formulating analogies or metaphors. It is
built on assumptions that creativity, even though an
essentially emotional process can be learned and creativity
can be fostered through group activity.
Instructional activities continuum from passive to active
learning

Lecture
- Demonstration
- Questioning
- Discussion
- Guided Practice
- Independent Practice
- Grouping
- Role Playing
- Simulation
- Reflective Inquiry/
Thinking
 LESSON
PLANNING
LESSON PLAN
- is a day to day, step by step approach to learning. It sets forth the proposal
program or the instructional activities for the day.
Types:
a. BRIEF – an outline of teacher’s activities and is usually done by master teachers
b. SEMI – DETAILED – all activities and teacher’s questions are listed and usually done
by neophyte teachers.
c. DETAILED – all activities, teacher’s questions and students’ expected answers are
reflected and usually done by pre – service teachers.
Components of the lesson plan
I. OBJECTIVES
- Cognitive
- Psychomotor
- Affective
II. SUBJECT MATTER
- Topics/Concepts
- Values Integrated
- References
- Materials
III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. Preparatory Activities
1. Drill – activity that will enable the students to automatize
response to pre – requisite skill of the new lesson.
2. Review – activity that will refresh or renew previously
taught material.
3. Introduction – an activity that will set the purpose of the
day’s lesson.
4. Motivation – all activities that arouse the interest of the
learners.
2 types:
a. Intrinsic Motivation – sustaining self – interest to
learn.
- maintains self – curiosity and involvement in
the work by using surprise, doubt, novel as
well as familiar things.
b. Extrinsic Motivation – interest that is ignited by an
outward force like awards – monetary or
material things, scholarships, inspiration
from love ones.
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation of the Lesson – real life situation or within the
experience of the learners are incorporated.
- teacher uses different activities as a vehicle to translate
the knowledge, values and skills into learning that could
be applied in their lives outside the school.
2. Discussion / Analysis – asking a series of affective or
cognitive questions about the lesson presented.
3. Abstraction / Generalization – the summary of the lesson.
- organizing significant information about the lesson
presented.
- completing graphic organizers like concept map, Venn
Diagram, fish bone, table, matrices and etc.
 C. Closure / Application – relates the lesson to other situations in the forms of:
- dramatization, simulation and play
- story telling
- oral reading
- construction and drawing
- written composition
- singing or reciting a poem
- test
- creative works
- solving problems
IV. Evaluation – determines whether the objectives are met and
achieved
- questioning
- summarizing
 - comparing present and previous learning
- assigning work – project, research
- administering short quiz
- portfolios
- rubrics
- journals
V. Assignment
1. An activity done outside the classroom/at home to:
- reinforce or enrich the day’s lesson
- set the materials that students have to bring to school to
implement the next lesson.
2. The activity should help attain the day’s lesson objective. It should be
interesting and differentiated (with provision for remedial, reinforcement and
enrichment activities.)
DIFFERENCE AMONG AIMS, GOALS AND
OBJECTIVES
AIMS – are the most general objectives of the Philippine Education System. They are
broad and value – laden statements expressing philosophical and ethical
considerations that:
a. answer the needs and demands of the society especially
children and youth.
b. are formulated by experts as policy – making bodies, panels
and commissions.
c. are societal in nature or in a national level concern.
Example: Prepare students for a democratic citizenship.
GOALS – descriptions of the general objectives of school’s curricula/courses that are
expected to:
a. accomplish and organize learning experiences stressed on a
system – wide basis.
 b. represent the entire school program prepared by
a professional associations or any local
educational agencies.
Example: Development of reading skills.
Understanding mathematical concepts.
Appreciation of art works.
OBJECTIVES – are the descriptions of what eventually take place in
the classroom.
a. They should be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, time bound)
b. These are used as a standard way of judging what has been
achieved or not achieved.
c. Their chief functions is to guide the teachers in making
decisions on what to cover, what to emphasize, what
content to select, and what learning experience, activity,
strategy or method best suit a certain learning plan.
 d. Have 2 essential components namely behavior and content but for
assessment purposes, the objective should be written with the following elements:
A – audience or the performer
B – behavior or the action verb specifying the learning
outcome
C – content of the subject matter
C – criterion or the degree of performance considered
sufficient to demonstrate mastery
Example: The student (audience) should distinguish (behavior) all (criterion)
objectives indicating learning outcomes (content) from a set of objectives having
both learning outcomes and learning activities (condition).
2 types of Objectives:
1. Terminal – an important learning outcome that should be attained at the end of the
instruction.
2. Enroute or enabling – the objective leading to the attainment of the terminal
objective.
SPECIFICATIONS OF OBJECTIVES
- it refers to the process of formulating objectives in a functional form( i.e.
complex to simple). It follows the following steps:
1. State the general unit objectives in terms of expected learning outcomes
(terminal objectives).
Dimensions of Learning Outcomes:
a. Knowledge – recall and remembering of information
essential to a discipline or subject area.
b. Reasoning – student ability to use knowledge to reason and
solve problems.
c. Skills – student ability to demonstrate achievement –
related skills such as reading aloud, interpersonal
interaction, speaking a second language and
performing psychomotor behaviors.
 d. Products – student ability to create achievement – related
products such as written report, oral presentations,
projects, artworks.
e. Affective – (attitudes, values and appreciations) – moods
and connections or dispositions to act in a given
manner toward a person, thing, or event and the
sensitive awareness or perception of worth of an object
or event.
2. State terminal learning outcome in measurable learner performance or product
- avoid terms like KNOW, UNDERSTAND, LEARN, THINK, and APPRECIATE
because they are not observable behaviors.
3. Obtain representative samples of essential and supportive pre-requisites (enroute or
enabling objectives).
Sequencing of Objectives
- the process of ordering or arranging the behavior of the objectives in the same
content in hierarchical order from simplest to most complex.
The designers of objectives in many forms were finalized based from:
1. TYLER – interprets philosophical and psychological concerns of instructional
objectives.
2. Gronlunds – distinguishes objectives between general and specific outcomes.
3. Mager – relies on three major characteristics as behavioral, conditional and with
proficiency level in the formulation of objectives.
4. Gagne – just as precise as Mager – defines types of learning objectives as
measurable and observable.
5. Bloom and his associates (1956) – developed the taxonomy of cognitive objectives
6. Krathwohl and Associates (1964) – developed the taxonomy of affective objectives.
7. Simpson – developed the taxonomy of psychomotor objectives
Domains and Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
Taxonomy – classification systems of learning heirarchy.

LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF

TERMS OBJECTIVES
A. Cognitive – refers to the mental or thought complexity
1. Recalling and remembering Name, match, Identify equal
Knowledge previously learned material list, identify, fractions.
including specific facts, recall, define,
events, persons , dates, label, select,
methods, procedures state
concepts, principles and
theories
2. Understanding and grasping Explain, convert, Change fractions to
Comprehensi the meaning of something, estimate, lower/higher term
on including translation from one describe,
symbolic form to another interpret,
interpretation, explanation, illustrate, infer,
prediction, inferences, represent
 LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
3. Using abstract ideas, rules Demonstrate, use, Add two to four
Application or generalized methods in apply, solve, similar fractions.
novel and concrete prepare,
situations. implement, carry
out, construct,
show
4. Analysis Breaking down a Differentiate, Analyzed word
communication into a distinguish, problems involving
constituent parts or discriminate, addition and
elements and relate, compare, subtraction of
understanding the contrast, classify, similar fractions
relationship among categorize
different elements
5. Synthesis Arranging and combining Combine, assemble, Solve non – routine
elements and parts into suggest, integrate, problems involving
novel patterns or create, plan, fractions
structures propose,
Design, conclude,
synthesize,
summarize
6. Evaluation Judging the quality worth, Appraise, critique, Judge the
 LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
B. Affective Domain – reflects underlying emotions, feelings or values
1. Receiving/ Develops an awareness , Observe, listen, Pay attention to the
attending shows willingness to attend, look, traits of a well –
receive, shows controlled watch, kept house
or selected attention,
2. Responding Shows willingness to Share, follow, Keep the house
respond and finds some respond, comply, clean and orderly as
initial level of satisfaction conform, react told.
in responding
3. Valuing Shows the object, person Admire, support, Formulate a
or situation has worth. praise, assist, cleaning schedule in
Something is perceived as cooperate, the house indicating
holding appositive value, participate, tasks that need
a commitment is made. conserve, promote cleaning daily,
weekly, and
occasionally.
4. Brings together a complex Propose, resolve, Keep the house
Organization set of values and balance, integrate, clean and orderly
organizes them in an organize everyday
ordered relationship that
is harmonious and
 LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
5.Characterization Organized system of Advocate, approve, Maintain the
values becomes a justify, influence, cleanliness and
person’s like commit, assert, orderliness of one’s
outlook and the maintain house and other
basis for a places at all times
philosophy of life
c. Psychomotor – observable reflexive behavior, which involves cognitive and
affective components
1. Perception Uses the sense Monitor, observe, Observe how to
organ to obtain cues listen, watch position the fingers
that guide motor in the keyboard
activity;
(awareness),
through cue
selection to
translation
2. Set Readiness to take a Show, prepare, Tell the order of the
particular action, set-up, ready alphabet in the
includes mental, keyboard
physical, and
emotional set.
 LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
3. Guided Concerned with the early Imitate, follow, Practice proper
Response stages of learning a complex copy, install, position in the
skill. Includes imitation, trial repeat, practice keyboard.
and error.
4. Mechanism Concerned with the habitual Demonstrate, Type at least 60
responses that can be manipulate, words per minute
performed with some collect, draw, using the correct
confidence and proficiency. use, sketch, position of the
Less complex type, write fingers.
5. Skillfully performs acts that Operate, build, Execute the print
Complex/ove require complex movement construct, drive, formatting
rt response patterns, like the highly troubleshoot operations.
coordinated motor activities.
Proficiency indicated by quick,
smooth and accurate
performance, requiring a
minimum of effort.
6. Adaptation Concern with skills so well Change, modify, Use the desktop
learned that they are modified repair, adjust, publishing
to fit special requirement or integrate applications in
to meet problem situations. creating income
 LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL TERMS EXAMPLE OF
OBJECTIVES
7. Origination Creates new Create, originate, Creates one’s own
movement patterns produce, develop, web page.
to fit a particular compose
situation or problem

Levels of Cognitive Domain

HIGHEST
EVALUATION

SYNTHESIS
ANALYSIS

APPLICATION

COMPREHENSION

KNOWLEDGE LOWEST
Levels of Affective Domain

HIGHEST
CHARACTERIZING

ORGANIZING

VALUING

RESPONDING

RECEIVING
LOWEST
► Levels of Psychomotor Domain

ORIGINATION HIGHEST

ADAPTATION
COMPLEX OVERT RESPONSE

MECHANISM
GUIDED RESPONSE

SET
PERCEPTION LOWEST
Art of Questioning –
Questioning – key technique in teaching
- used for a variety of purposes.
Purposes of Questions:
1. Arouse interest and curiosity
2. Review content already learned
3. Stimulate learners to ask questions
4. Promote thought and the understanding of ideas
5. Change the mood/tempo, direction of the discussion
6. Encourage reflection and self – evaluation
7. Allow expression of feelings
Types of Questions:
1. According to thinking process involved:
a. low – level questions – focus on facts
- do not test level of understanding or problem solving skills
 Ex. Who discovered the cell?
b. High level questions – go beyond memory and factual information, more
advance, stimulating and more challenging, involves abstraction and point of view.
Ex. How did Robert Hooke discover the cell?
2. According to the type of answer required:
a. Convergent questions – tend to have one correct and best
answer.
- use to drill learners on vocabulary, spelling and oral skills
but not appropriate in eliciting thoughtful responses.
- usually start with what, who, where and when
- are referred to as low level questions
- are useful when applying the inductive approach and
requires short and specific information from the learners.
 b. Divergent questions - open – ended and usually have many
appropriate answer.
- reasoning is supported by evidence and examples.
- associated with high level thinking processes and
encourage creative thinking and discovery learning.
- usually start with how and why, what or who
followed by why
3. According to the cognitive taxonomy:

1st level Knowledge memorize, recall, label, specify, define, list, cite etc
2nd level Comprehension Describe, discuss, explain, summarize, translate, etc
3rd level application Solve, employ, demonstrate, operate, experiment, etc.
4th level analysis Interpret, differentiate, compare, invent, develop,
generalize
5th level synthesis Invent, develop, generalize
6th level evaluation Criticize, judge, interpret
4. According to questions used by teachers during open discussion
a. eliciting questions – these are employed to:
1. encourage initial response
2. encourage more students to participate in the discussion
3. rekindle a discussion that is lagging or dying out
b. Probing question – seek to extend ideas, justify ideas, and clarify
ideas.
c. Closure – seeking questions – used to help students form conclusions, solutions
or plans for investigating problems.
Guidelines in Asking questions
1. wait time – the interval between asking a question and the
student response. This is a 3-4 seconds think – time.
2. prompting – uses hints and techniques to assist students to
come up with a response successfully.
3. Redirection – involves asking of a single question for which there
are several answers.
4. Probing – a qualitative technique use d for the promotion of
effective thought and critical thinking
- provides the students a chance to support and defend a stand
or point of view.
5. Commenting and prompting – used to increase achievement and
motivation.
Tips on asking questions:
1. Ask questions that are:
- stimulating / thought provoking
- within students level of abilities
- relevant to students daily life situations
- sequential – a stepping stone to the next
- clear and easily understood
2. Vary the length and difficulty of the question.
3. Have sufficient time for deliberation
4. Follow up incorrect answer
5. Call on volunteers or non – volunteers
6. Call on disruptive students
7. Move around the room for rapport / socialization
8. Encourage active participation
9. Phrase questions clearly.
10. Ask as many learner as possible to answer certain question.
APPROPRIATE LEARNING ACTIVITIES IN THE
DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE LESSON
A. Introductory/Opening/Initiatory activities:
- starters and unfreezing activities to make students feel at ease
- used to motivate the students to participate and to set the tone for the day.
- liken to “preparing the ground before sowing or planting”.
- activities given for students not just to enjoy or for the sake of enjoyment but
should have motivational function because they are related to the day’s lesson.
1. KWL (Know, Want to know, Learned)
2. Video clips
3. Editorial from a current newspaper
4. Posing a scientific question that requires students to formulate hypothesis or
predict what’s going to happen
5. Cartoon or comic strip
6. Game
7. Simulation
8. Puzzle, brain teaser
9. Mysterious Scenario
10. Song
11. Picture without a caption
12. Quotable quote
13. Anecdote
14. Compelling stories from history, literature related to the lesson
15. Current Events
16. Diagnostic Test
17. Skit, role playing
18. Voting
19. Ranking, ordering
20. Devil’s advocate
21. Conflict story
22. Brainstorming
23. Buzz session
24. Question and answer
B. Developmental Activities
1. For data gathering
a. interview
b. library research
c. internet research
d. reading
e. lecture
f. inviting resource speakers
g. field trip
h. experiment
 i. panel discussion
j. hands – on – learning
k. case study
2. For Organizing and Summarizing:
a. using graphic organizer
b. jingles, raps, song
c. verses
d. acrostic
e. power point presentation
3. For Application/Creative Activities
a. solving real world problems
b. performances and demonstrations
c. authentic projects
d. portfolios of students’ best work or work in progress
e. letters to the editor
 f. power point presentation
g. brochures
h. writing and performing a song, rap or a musical
i. news report for local news program
j. television talk shows
k. mock debates and mock trials
l. mock job interviews
m. personal narratives
n. cartoons and comic strips
o. organizing a symposium
C. Concluding Activities:
a. finish and review the KWL
b. passport to leave
c. journal writing at the end of the period
d. Preview coming attractions
e. 3/2/1 countdown – 3 – facts I learned today, 2 – ways I will use the
information/skills I learned today, 1 – question I have
f. using analogies
g. completing unfinished sentences
h. synthesize or summarize the lesson
SELECTION AND
USE OF
INSTRUCTIONA
L MATERIALS
PRINCIPLES
1. All instructional materials are aids of instructions. They do not replace the
teacher.
2. Choose the instructional materials that best suits your instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be sure it is working
well.
5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of media which
includes:
a. learn how to use the instructional material.
b. prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments you may need.
c. provide a conducive environment
d. explain the objectives of the lesson
e. stressed what to be watched or listened to carefully
f. state what they are expected to do with the information
they will learn
g. prepare measure that can assess students’ experiences on t
the use of the material based on the objectives.
VARIOUS FORMS OF MEDIA
1. AUDIO RECORDINGS – include tapes, recordings, and compact discs used by
teachers in connection with speech rehearsals, drama, musical presentations, and
radio and television broadcasting
2. OVERHEAD TRANSPARANCY OR OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP)
- transparency can show pictures, diagrams and sketches at a time.
3. BULLETIN BOARD – usually stationary on a wall or it can be movable which contains
pictures, newspaper clippings, real objects or drawings attached on its surface
usually made from cork or soft wall boards.
4. CHALKBOARD – a convenient writing area where illustrations can instantly be drawn
even during discussion.
5. CHARTS - may be in the form of maps, graphs, photographs and cut outs.
- maybe pre-prepared graphic devices or posters.
6. Mock – ups – is a replica of an object that may be larger or smaller in scale which
can be used to show the essential parts which are made detachable.
7. REALIA – stands for the real things that are to be studied.
8. VIDEO TAPES OR FILMS – motion pictures clearly show movement and sequence of
events which usually motivates learners easily.
9. MODELS – scaled replicas of real objects which include globe car models etc.
10. PICTURES – include flat, opaque and still pictures.
- “Pictures are worth ten thousand words”
11. BOOKS – present accurate facts and details that serve as permanent sources of
information
12. ELECTRONIC MATERIALS – CD’s, DVD’s and CD - ROM’s