The nature has endowed its choicest gifts to this wonderful land

called India. In the last episode of this program on Indian History

we showed you some of the great rivers of this country. The
Himalayan rivers – the Sindhu, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra;
and the peninsular rivers – Krishna, Kaveri, Godavari and the
Mahanadi.

These rivers, along with their numerous tributaries, fulfil one of

the most basic needs for life survival –water. That is why we find
all ancient civilizations of the world taking birth on the banks of
major rivers. Similar is the case with India whose first recorded
civilization is the Harappan on the banks of the river Indus.
Impact of Geography on Indian History
Throughout its early History, mankind constantly moved from
one hostile environment to more favourable living conditions.
The topography of the land, availability of water, and the climate
are the factors that have played a crucial role in the growth of
human settlements.

Once man’s basic needs – food, water, clothing and shelter – are
taken care of, he seeks refinement in his living conditions as well
as his thought process. Both, however, are substantially affected
by his environment – land conditions and climate.

In this episode we shall see how geographical factors affect the

course of history.

India is well-known for her vast dimensions and the varied

physical features. It has a winding chains of hills and high
mountain ranges that are covered with snow and thick forests. Its
vast plains are covered with fertile land yielding rich harvest year
after year. Its rivers criss-cross the entire length and breadth of
the country, providing life sustaining water to its inhabitants. Its
arid deserts seem almost untouched by the feet of man. Its dense
forests are the sanctuaries of a multitude of floral and faunal
varieties.

India also has every variety of climates, from polar to temperate

to tropical. The highlands of the North India have icy winds and
snowy weather. The plains of Rajasthan experience scorching heat
and dust-stroms. The coastal areas brave high velocity wind
storms. And the evergreen rainforests of the north-east are result
of high rainfall in the region.
All these natural conditions divided India into different territorial
units – each with its own history.

The history of India developed in essence as the history of its

various regions. In the process of historical evolution these
regions acquired cultural features of their own. Regions had their
distinct languages; their art forms differed; even their social
customs and practices were different from each other. Thus great
dissymmetry in historical change are witnessed between regions
of this country.

In the north of the Indian sub-continent lie the formidable

Himalayas. Geographically these can be divided into three broad
regions, namely:

• The Eastern Himalayas

• The Central Himalayas, and
• The Western Himalayas

The eastern branch of the Himalayas, the Patkai hills with its
extension in the form of the Khasi, Garo and the Jaintia hills,
closes the Brahmaputra valley from the south, adding to the
isolation of Assam. South of Manipur, the Lushai and the Chin
hills narrow into a long range of hills of the Arakan Yoma range,
which demarcate the border with Myanmar and take it to Cape
Negaris situated on the mouth the Irrawaddy river.

Although the routes through the eastern mountains are difficult,

that has not prevented the flow of cultural influence from
Southeast Asia and South China. The region has also witnessed a
few military invasions from the east as also the gradual and
partly peaceful penetration by people like the Ahoms, from
Arakan into the Assam valley.
Ethenic and Cultural Expansion in the North-East: Process and
Impact
The central Himalayan region, extending from Bhutan to Chitral,
lies at the fringe of the great table-land of Tibet. There have been
trade and other contacts between India and Tibet across this
frontier.

In the west lies the Hindukush range of mountains, which

extends south-westward from the Himalayas and goes deep into
Afghanistan. Between the western end of the Himalayas and the
Hindukush, lie the Karakorum mountains with the Ladakh and
Zanskar ranges as an extension to the southeast. However, these
western and north-western mountain chains have not been able
to keep out the flow of people. Peaceful travellers, traders and a
series of invaders entered India through this barrier during pre-
historic and historic times. Thus Shortugai in southeast
Afghanistan was a trading outpost of the Harappan civilization,
while the ancient towns of Kabul and Kandahar were situated on
the trade routes between India and Iran. The Greeks, the Sakas,
Kushanas, the Hunas, the Turks and the Afghans made their
entry into India through these routes, while Buddhism and other
aspects of Indian culture entered Afghanistan and Central Asia
through these passes.

Indus Plains
The passes of the western Himalayas lead to the Great Plain of
Hindustan which extends from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of
Bengal, stretching over 3,000 kms in length and between 250 and
300 kms in width. Its north-western part is formed by the rich
plains of the Indus, comprising,

• The Punjab, and

• The Sindh
The Punjab, literally the land of five rivers, today lies divided
between India and Pakistan. The five rivers – Satluj, Jhelum, Ravi,
Beas and Chenab, have made this region the ‘Bread-Basket’ of the
sub-continent. The prosperity of this region coupled with its
strategic location has always lured invaders. As a result, a
number of intrusive elements have fused into the existing culture
and so Punjab is sometimes also referred to as the ‘Melting-pot of
Cultures’.

The lower Indus valley and the delta formed by it constitute

Sindh. This region has been historically linked with Gujarat. The
prosperity of this region can be gauged by the fact that it was in
this region that the first urban culture of the sub-continent
emerged during the 2nd millennium BC. Thus Harappa, the
famous and the first excavated site of the Indus Valley
Civilization is situated in the Sahiwal district of Punjab, while
Mohan-jo-daro is located in the Larkana district of Sindh, both in
present day Pakistan.

Ganga Plains
Bounded on the north by the Himalayan foot-hills and the Terai,
on the west by the Aravali range, on the south by the Central
Indian Plateau, and on the east by the Rajmahal hills, lie the
Ganga plains of northern India.

The upper plains in south Uttaranchal and western and central

Uttar Pradesh largely include the Doab, literally the land of two
rivers namely, the Ganga and the Yamuna. This area has been
marked by conflicts and cultural synthesis since ancient times.
The Harappan culture also made inroads into this region. This
was also the centre of the Painted Grey Ware or PGW culture and
the scene of pulsating activities during the Later Vedic period.
The terminal point of the Doab is Prayag, now known as
Allahabad, situated at the confluence of the Ganga and the
Yamuna. This confluence or Sangam witnesses a swarm of
devotees taking bath on auspicious days even today.

The middle Ganga plains correspond to eastern Uttar Pradesh

and Bihar. This is where the ancient Mahajanapadas of Kosal,
Kasi and Magadh were situated. It was Magadh which was the
seat of the Mauryan imperial power which witnessed the earliest
manifestation of the political unity in the country. Magadh
remained at the centre of history of this country till the Gupta
period or the 5th Century A.D.

The lower Ganga plains terminate with the province of Bengal.

Here rainfall in low-lying plains created forests and marshlands
making settlements in early Bengal a difficult proposition. It was
only with greater utilisation and control of iron technology that
the fertility of the heavy alluvial soil of this region could be
exploited, leading to the spread of urban culture, into this region.

The Ganga plains nurtured a number of human settlements, and

have constituted the heartland of Indian Civilisation from the first
millennium B.C.

Central India
The Vindhya and the Satpura hills lying in an east-west
orientation divide India horizontally in the centre. It has often
impeded the movement from northern part to the south and vice
versa. The central Indian belt, especially Chattisgarh, Jharkhand
and eastern Madhya Pradesh has been an area of tribal
concentration, which may be a result of the absence of the cultural
influences from the adjoining regions. Two important routes
generally utilised to bypass the Vidhyas were along both its
extremities. The western or the ‘Barada’ gap lying through
Gujarat was given greater preference due to its strategic location.
This gap was used by the Aryans to penetrate into south. The
Sakas used it to invade the Satvahanas while the Chalukyas used
it to stop the imperial designs of Harsha. Ujjain, too, developed
into an important commercial trade and political centre, as it gave
access to Gujarat as well as to the Gulf of Khambat, bypassing the
Vindhyas and the Satpuras.

Western India
Western India comprises the great regions of Rajasthan and
Gujarat. Rajasthan is divided into two equal halves by the
Aravalis, which run diagonally across it.

The eastern half is more habitable; Mewar and its surroundings,

which form its lower part, are almost as fertile as the Ganga
plains. The towns of Ajmer and Udaipur in particular enjoy
locational and strategic advantages, which enabled the Rajputs to
retain full or partial independence. The ravines and valleys of
Mewar enabled the Ranas to defy the Muslim rulers of Delhi with
their deeds of bravery recounted in a thousand songs and ballads.

The western part of Rajasthan consists largely of desert and is

therefore, less habitable. However, the towns of Jodhpur, Bikaner
and Jaisalmer, provided safe habitat to the Rajputs of the eastern
half, whenever they faced hostile pressure.

Gujarat lies to the south of Rajasthan, on the western fringe of the

central Indian belt. It consists of Saurashtra, which experienced an
extension of Harappan culture because of its closeness to Indus.
The Northern part of Gujarat is known as Anant. It is
characterised by semi-arid wind-blown soils. Its southern part is
known as Lata; it largely comprise of fertile land and covers the
entire western coast. The central peninsula of Gujarat is known as
Kathiawar. The Rann of Kachchh lying between the south
western end of the Aravalis and the Gulf of Kachchh was once an
inlet of the Arabian Sea but is now a saline marsh which is barely
above sea level.

The lengthy coastline of Gujarat is dotted with several ports,

which have been engaged in overseas trade since the 3rd
millennium B.C. Lothal was one such flourishing Harappan port.
Dwarka and Bhrigukachchha (Broach) were active trading ports
during the Vedic times. many more ports came into existence
during the later centuries. Any flourishing maritime trade
requires good communication with the hinterland. Thus the
routes leading to the Deccan, to the eastern end of the Ganga
plain, to the middle and the western part of the Aryavrata, and
into Rajasthan were in use since early historical times. This, in
turn, further gave a fillip to the commercial activities in these
regions.

Importance of Gujarat Ports in trade and commerce in Ancient

India
Eastern India
The coastal plains of Orissa, lying to the south west of the delta of
Ganga at the eastern end of the Central Indian Plateau, are
centred largely on the Mahanadi basin. The narrow strip of the
Orissa coast between the Garhjat hills and the sea offers an easy
access from eastern India to the eastern part of the Deccan
Plateau.

Protected by extensive forests and mountains in the mainland

and bound by the sea on the east, Orissa remained immune from
invasions from the Ganga plain over long periods of time.
Nevertheless several incursions did take place from the Ganga
plains into Orissa along this route. Asoka used the direct route
from Magadha to Kalinga for his famous Kalinga War. King
Kharvela later used it for the reverse direction – from Kalinga to
Magadha. By late first millennium A.D. Orissa had begun to
develop her distinct linguistic and cultural identity.

Peninsular India
The Deccan Plateau and the surrounding coastal plains define the
contours of Peninsular India. The Plateau is divided into three
major regions which largely correspond to the states of
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

The fertile black soil of Maharashtra helped in the growth of

agriculture-based chalcolitic communities in northern Deccan.
The red soil of the Telangana region of Andhra required manual
irrigation, and thus resulted in pastoral life style of the Neolithic
settlers of the south-western Andhra. In contrast, the Krishna-
Godavari delta of Andhra, has a fertile land. This area, known in
earlier times as Vengi, is considered as the rice bowl of the south.
Karnataka includes south-western Deccan, and is divided into
two parts – the southern part is better watered and more
hospitable for human settlement than the north. Here Mangalore
is an important harbour, situated on an inlet formed by the
Netravati river. While there is no natural division between
Maharashtra and Karnataka, the Nilgiris form a natural division
between the Kannadigas and the Tamils, as well as the
Malayalees.

The Extreme South

The area occupied by the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala
constitute the southern extreme of the Indian sub-continent.
Geographically, linguistically and culturally, Tamil Nadu has
evolved an individuality of its own. At times, interrelated ways of
life are attested to in the earliest literature of the land – the
Sangam literature.
Kerala has a history of spice trade with the west since the post
Mauryan times. Relatively isolated by land, its Malabar Coast saw
the emergence of a number of flourishing international ports, like
Kochi (or Cochin) and Kozikhode (or Calicut). It is therefore, not
surprising that Kerala became the first region in the South Asia to
witness the direct influence of the sea faring Christians and later
of the Arabs. It also had maritime interaction with China, as is
evident from the use of Chinese fishing boats in coastal Kerala.

The famous geographer Richard Hakluyt once said that

geography and chronology are the sun and the moon, the right
eye and the left eye, of the history. As we have seen the impact of
geography or the history of our country had been varied – from
startling to latent. The environmental setting and the availability
and utilisation of resources in different regions has resulted in
uneven patterns of growth. Therefore, the unfolding of the
historical process too has neither been even or uniform through
out the country.

As we move along with our journey, you will witness the

triumphs and turbulence of our people in its entire historical
process.

The Indian subcontinent has three main reasons: Himalaya

Mountains, southern peninsula and Indo - Gangetic plains.

Regional differences and related separate identities greatly

fostered by geography, have stood in the way of the rise of
durable pan Indian states in Indian history.

Never was the whole subcontinent a single political unit.

The Himalayas in the North and northwest and the Indian ocean
in the south create a superficial view of isolation of the country
from the subcontinent.

However the most difficult terrain does not impede the

movement of ideas and influences between the people. Cultural
influences have been exchanged across the frontiers and there
have been maritime contacts with the west, West Asia and South
east asia from the earlier times.

Himalayan mountains:
The mountains stretch from Pamir in the North West to north
east. It has a length of 2560 km and breadth of 240-320km.
The Himalayas protect Indian subcontinent from cold winds
blowing from Siberia to central Asia.
The Himalayas also protect against external invasions but the
passes Khyber, Gomal, Khurram and Bolan allow easy access.
The Greeks, Huns, Parthian’s, Turks and Sakas entered the
subcontinent through these. Alexander came through the Swat
valley. These passes allowed trade as well as cultural contacts
between India and central Asia.
In the east the Himalayas have thick forests and heavy rains and
thus many regions of the Himalayas are isolated from rest.

Indo Gangetic Plains:

It is a very fertile region irrigated by Ganga, Yamuna and
Brahmaputra. Thar Desert and Aravalli hills are located between
Ganga and Indus plains. Area between two rivers is called
"doab".

Many urban centres are located at the confluence of rivers and

river banks. Most important urban centre is Delhi on the western
side of Gangetic plain.
The plain is a source of temptation and attraction to foreign
invaders due to its fertility and productive wealth. Important
battles were fought to conquer these plains especially the Ganga
Yamuna doab was the most coveted and contested battle.

Kurukshetra and Panipat were most common battles grounds.

The rivers in these regions are arteries of commerce and

communication.

Southern Peninsula:
The Vindhya and Satpuda mountain ranges along with Narmada
and Tapti rivers form the dividing line. The plateau to the south
of it is Deccan plateau which is of volcanic rock. As the rocks are
easier to cut many rock cut temples and monasteries are found
here.
The Deccan plateau is flanked by Eastern and Western Ghats.
The Coromandel Coast is located between Eastern Ghats and Bay
of Bengal. The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats meet at Nilgiri
hills.

The Deccan plateau is bridge between north and south but due to
the dense forests in the Vindhyas the culture and language is well
preserved due to geographic isolation.

In the south, Palghat pass from Kaveri valley to Malabar Coast

was famous for Indo - Roman trade. The Eastern Ghats are low
and cut in places due to fast flowing rivers. The rivers of the
southern peninsula flow from west to east except Narmada and
Tapti which flow from east to west. The rivers flow parallel to
each other.
The Krishna Tungabhadra doab has been hotly contested by
southern kingdoms due to its fertility. Due to the long coastline
the south kingdoms developed cultural and commercial relations
with Greco - Roman kingdoms.
The following points highlight the eight major effects of
geography on the history of India. The effects are:

1. Different Local Zones, Political and Cultural Units

2. The Thar Desert Rendered Indian Defence Difficult
3. Isolation of India
4. Neglect of Defence
5. Preservation of Primitive Indian Culture
6. Impact of the Climate
7. Absence of Strong Naval Power
8. Development of Fine Arts.
Effect # 1. Different Local Zones, Political and Cultural Units:
The varied physical features of the sub-continent of India have
led to the formation of different local zones, political and cultural
units. On account of the difference in the physical features and
natural barriers, India has come to be divided into different
political and cultural units.

The northern India, the Deccan Plateau, Peninsular plans and the
Ghats-all possess special political and social characteristics of
their own, which are quite distinct from each other. The Aryan
civilization could not exercise much influence on the Deccan. In
the Far South the non-Aryans language, customs, and ideas
continued to dominate.

Effect # 2. The Thar Desert Rendered Indian Defence Difficult:

The Thar desert which lays in between the plains of Indus Valley
and the Ganges has also greatly effected the course of the Indian
history. As the Thar desert separates these two regions into two
different units, the Indian Defence was rendered weak. This
greatly benefited the foreign invaders who came to India through
the north-western mountain passes.

As the bulk of the Indian regions were separated through this

region by the great desert, the resources of northern India could
not be fully pooled up against the foreign invaders. In view of the
limited resistance offered to them the invaders won a number of
decisive victories and reached as far as Delhi.

Effect # 3. Isolation of India:

India has been separated from the rest of the world by Himalayan
in the North and sea on the three other sides. As a result India
lived in isolation and evolved her own style of life and
development. No doubt, some of the foreign cultures and
civilizations found their way into India through the northern
passes but their influence was very limited.

Effect # 4. Neglect of Defence:

The separation of India from the rest of the world by natural
barriers gave to the people of ancient India a sense of security and
they completely ignored the defence of the country. In fact they
never paid any attention to the security of their frontiers. This
inevitably resulted in a number of invasions on India from across
the border. This neglect of military was responsible for the
enslavement of the country by the foreigners.

Effect # 5. Preservation of Primitive Indian Culture:

The access to certain areas has been so difficult that they have
remained completely cut off from the rest of the country. The vast
sandy deserts, the un-penetrable forests and high ranges of
mountains have provided shelter to the primitive tribes who were
driven away from the plains.

As these areas could not be easily approached the wild primitive

tribes continued to evolve their own culture, which is in existence
even today. Some of the prominent primitive tribes which exist
even today include Bhils, Kols, Santhals, Gonds, etc. These tribes
succeeded in maintaining their primitive characteristics only
because of the difficult terrains of their area.

Effect # 6. Impact of the Climate:

The climate of the country has also exercised great influence on
the course of Indian history. The tropical climate has been greatly
responsible for the failure of the Indians to resist the foreign
invaders from the cold regions.

The hilly terrains of the south made the people of Maharashtra

and Rajputana sturdy. The people living in these areas had to
work hard to earn their livelihood and they developed qualities
of warriors.

These people strongly resisted all the attempts to deprive them of

their liberty. This is mainly due to the physical conditions
prevailing in this region that the Marathas and the Rajputs were
able to offer a tough resistance to the rulers of Delhi.

The variety of the climate prevailing in the different parts of the

country has also exercised tremendous influence on the course of
history. While rich and flourishing towns had existed in
abundance in Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and Bihar due to good
rainfall, famines has greatly stood in the way of the setting up of
similar towns in Rajasthan and Deccan.

The rivers which flow from the Himalayas through the year have
greatly contributed to the prosperity and development of the
plains, which would have otherwise made India a desert. The
fertility and the consequent richness of the people of the plains
invited foreign invaders to India.

Mahmud Ghaznavi and Muhammad Ghori attacked this region

several times and took huge quantities of gold, silver, diamond,
and other valuable articles whenever they attacked this region.
This region also continued to be the field of all political and
cultural activities and number of Important empires rose and fell
here.
The prosperity and richness of the region has also made the
people peace-loving and luxurious. The persons of the Vindhya
mountains have been responsible for the division of the country
into two distinct parts—North and South. This natural division
has been responsible for two separate histories of the north and
south. This has also to a large extent kept South India immune
from the political turmoil of the north.

Effect # 7. Absence of Strong Naval Power:

Though India has a long coast extending over 3,000 miles, she
never maintained a strong Navy for its defence. No doubt, India
carried on cultural and commercial pursuits and established a
contact with the outside world through seas, but it never thought
of political domination over those regions.

A number of Indians inspired by the spirit of enterprise ‘and

adventure went to the neighbouring island, like Burma, Java,
Sumatra Malai etc. to spread the Indian culture.

The ancient rulers of the south also gave every possible

encouragement to the development of Navy. But all these
activities were guided by peaceful motives and no need was felt
for the creation of strong naval force. In fact the Indian rulers
realised the difficulties of establishing overseas empire and
concentrated mainly on military ambitious within India.

Effect # 8. Development of Fine Arts:

The geography of India also exercised tremendous influence on
the lives and habits of the people In view of abundance of wealth
and other resources in the country the Indians not only developed
the habit of staying at home but also became ease living.
These richness and fertility of the Indian soil provided the
people with plenty of leisure and they devoted their attention to
the promotion of art and literature. The Vedic literature is one of
the most valuable treasures of our country.

The arts and crafts also made remarkable progress. The relics of
the Mauryan and Gupta period are the best specimens of
architecture, sculpture, painting, etc. of that period. In the domain
of literature the most outstanding work produced during the
ancient times were the Arthashastra of Kautilya and dramas of
Kalidas.

Two of the world renowned universities Taxila and Nalanda also

flourished in the Northern parts of the country. These universities
attracted students from various foreign countries also. As most of
the Indians were free from the worldly worries, they naturally
spent much time pondering over the problems of life and death
and developed a speculative frame of mind.

This accounts for the predominance of the spiritualism in Indian

culture. Again it was only the Northern parts which were subject
to foreign invasions and influence. The South, which was not
easily accessible to the foreign invaders continued to be promoter
of the Indian civilization and culture.