WORD BUILDING

Latin prefixes trans-, per-, circum-

The Latin prefix trans- means “across”, per- means “thoroughly”, circum- means
“around”. These prefixes alter the meaning of a base word. In the word transplant, for
example, the prefix trans- is attached to a familiar base word plant to form a new, distinct
word. These prefixes can also give meaning to a root that is not a word when standing
alone. In the word perplex, for instance, the prefix per- is attached to a form coming from
the Latin verb plectere, meaning “to entwine”.

SPELLING WORDS
transfer persuade circuit
transform perforate circulating
transplant persistence circulation
transparent perplex circumstance
transistor perpetual circumstantial
transition pertinent circumnavigate
persevere circumvent

The first woman to circumnavigate the world by commercial aeroplane was Marjorie
Schuler. Her persistence resulted in travelling 4,650 miles in 42 hours and 28 minutes.
Schuler’s flight exemplifies the transition women’s roles underwent prior to World War
II.

Exercise 1
Write the spelling words that have the prefix meaning “across”.
Exercise 2
Write the spelling words that have the prefix meaning “through”.
Exercise 3
Write the spelling words that have the prefix meaning “around”.
Exercise 4
Write a spelling word for each etymology.
1. Lat. trans-, across + forma, shape
2. Lat. trans-, + parere, to show
3. Intensive form of Lat. per-, through + forare, to bore
4. Lat. per-, + plectere, to entwine
5. Lat. per-, + suadere, to urge
6. Lat. circum-, around + navus, ship + agere, to direct
7. Lat. circum-, + venire, to come

Exercise 5
Write a spelling word for each definition.
1. Device used for amplification.

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 2. Relevant.
3. Depending on circumstances.
4. To uproot and put elsewhere.
5. Distribution.
6. Process of changing.
7. Moving about. (present participle)
8. Closed electrical path.

Exercise 6
Some of the words are misspelled in the following paragraph. Write the spelling words
correctly.
Jackie Cochran (1910? – 1980) held more records during her flying career than
any other pilot. In 1935 Cochran became the first woman to win the Bendix
Transcontinental Air Race. After the United States entered World War II, Cochran was
asked to transferr from her post with the Royal Air Force to the United States Air Force.
This circomstance led to her being made director of the Women’s Air Force Service
Pilots. It was Cochran’s ability to pursevere as well as her perpetuil search for new
challenges that made her the first woman to break the sound barrier.

Exercise 7
Insert the correct spelling word.
1. Is there a way we can (обойти, избежать) that problem?
2. The tired athlete wanted to give up, but he decided to (упорно продолжать).
3. As you complete the new form, be sure to (переносить, передавать) all the old
information.
4. Please let us have any (относящуюся к делу) information.
5. The old radio needed a new (транзистор).
6. Getting lost was an unusual (факт, обстоятельство) for the tour leader.
7. In the puppet show the wizard tried to (превратить) a witch into a queen.
8. The dripping water seemed to be a (непрекращающийся) sound.
9. Magellan died before he was able to (плавать вокруг) the globe.
10. Your complicated ideas tend to (озадачивать) many listeners.
11. The gardener will (пересаживать) the geranium when it outgrows the pot.
12. Undocumented evidence in a trial is called (косвенные).
13. Clear glass is (прозрачный).
14. It took much (упорство) to convince the teacher.
15. The electrician will rewire the (цепь, контур).
16. The break between the first and second acts did not allow for a smooth (переход).
17. Your heart controls your blood (кровообращение).
18. The trial lawyer’s arguments did not (убеждать) the jury.
19. The fan is (циркулировать) the air very well.
20. Manufacturers (перфорировать) books of coupons for easy removal.

CHALLENGE WORDS
circumlocution transient perpetrate
circumspect transcend persuasion

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 transcribe
translucent

Exercise 8
Write the challenge word that fits each definition.
1. a wordy or roundabout expression
2. to go outside the range of
3. a winning-over to believe or to do something
4. letting light through in such a way that the images are blurred
5. watchful; cautious
6. fleeting; not lasting
7. to do or commit something bad or foolish
8. to copy in writing or typewriting

Exercise 9
Complete each sentence with a challenge word.
1. The guard was always _____ near the prisoners.
2. The wife of my father’s brother is a _____ for my aunt.
3. The top salesman had great powers of _____.
4. Youth and beauty are often _____.
5. The detective knew who could _____ the crime.
6. The powers of a magician _____ words.
7. Please _____ my shorthand notes.
8. Waxed paper is not transparent, but it is _____.

Latin prefixes ben(e)-, mal-, equi-

The Latin form ben(e)- means “good” or “well”; mal- means “bad” or “badly”; equi-
means “equal”.

SPELLING WORDS
benefit malice equate
benefactor malady equality
beneficial malfunction equilibrium
beneficiary malnutrition equivocal
benign malpractice equity
benevolent malign equitable
malignant
malicious

If liberty and equality… are chiefly to be found in democracy, they will be best attained
when all persons alike share in the government to the utmost.
Aristotle (384-322B.C.)

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Exercise 1
Write in alphabetical order all of the words beginning with ben(e)-.
Exercise 2
Write in alphabetical order all the words beginning with mal-.
Exercise 3
Write in alphabetical order all the words beginning with equ(i).

Exercise 4
Each group of scrambled letters is followed by its word history. Unscramble the spelling
word and write it correctly.
gneibn, from the Latin words bene + genus, meaning well-born.
balequtie, from the old French word equite, meaning equity.
tifeben, from the Latin word benefactum, meaning good deed.
teqaue, from the Latin word aequus, meaning even.
bacotenerf, from the Latin word benefactio, meaning to do well.
celami, from the Latin word malus, meaning bad.

Exercise 5
Write a spelling word with the prefix mal- for each definition.
1. Threatening to life or health.
2. A disease, disorder, or ailment.
3. To speak evil of.
4. To function abnormally.
5. Resulting from a desire to harm others.
6. Poor nutrition.

Exercise 6
Some of the words are misspelled in the paragraph. Write the spelling words correctly.
The Articles of Confederation did not provide sufficient equety between the state
and central government to survive. The U.S. Constitution, drawn up in 1787, divided
Congress into two chambers to set up equitabel distribution of power among the states.
The U.S. Constitution is the oldest operative doctrine of its kind. The Preamble
acknowledges a basic equalety amongst this nation’s people. The Articles insure that
equilibriem is maintained between executive, judicial, and legislative branches. Article
Five establishes procedures for amending the Constitution, but it is rather equivacal since
the procedure is very difficult; of the 2500 amendments proposed since 1789, only
twenty-six have passed the requirements.

Exercise 7
Insert the correct spelling word.
1. The concert was given for the (в пользу) of American farmers.
2. The workers and management accepted an (справедливый) agreement.
3. Fortunately the tumor is not (злокачественный).
4. The artist’s successful exhibit led to her finding a (благотворитель).
5. The dog frightened me when I saw the look of (злость, злоба) in his eyes.
6. It isn’t fair to (приравнивать, отождествлять) high school with college.

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 7. The lawn mower broke down because of a (отказ, несрабатывание) in the
engine.
8. You will find a hot bath (полезный, благотворный) for soothing aching muscles.
9. The judge was known for his fairness in deciding cases in (в праве
справедливости).
10. Many children in Africa suffer from (недоедание).
11. Her uncle named her as (бенефициарий) of his estate.
12. I won’t let you (клеветать, порочить, чернить) my best friend like this.
13. When all people are treated without bias, we will have (равенство,
равноправие).
14. The new hospital wing was donated by a wealthy and (щедрый) benefactor.
15. We were sent an (неясный, двусмысленный) message by the supervisor.
16. You are a victim of (злобный) gossip.
17. An object that isn’t moving is in (равновесие).
18. If a doctor harms a patient he may be sued for (преступная небрежность).
19. The kindly old man was known for his (кроткий, ласковый) nature.
20. Sam has been sick all week, but we don’t know the nature of his (болезнь).

CHALLENGE WORDS
beneficent equalize malcontent
equatorial maladroit
equinox
equivalency
equivocate

Exercise 8
Write a challenge word that is more exact than the underlined words in each sentence.
1. At first, the young dancer made awkward and clumsy movements.
2. Candidates who want to please both parties speak in a way that can be interpreted
in two ways.
3. I recently read about the time of year when the day and night are both equal in
length.
4. This person is rebellious and not satisfied with the rules of the house.
5. This person is kind and does good deeds.
6. The weather was so hot and humid that it was like conditions at or near the
equator.
7. The scientist tried to make even or uniform the pressures inside and outside the
tank.
8. A balance will determine whether two objects have the condition of being equal
in weight.

Exercise 9
Write an adjective that best describes each person or place. Use challenge words.
1. a benefactor or a do-gooder
2. a bungler or an oaf

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 3. a rebel or a faultfinder
4. Ecuador or Kenya

Exercise 10
Write a short science fiction story in which a person rebels and wants to change the
weather and the length of days and nights on Earth. Use as many challenge words in
your story as you can.

Latin prefixes ob-, sub-, sur-, in-

The Latin prefix ob- means “toward” or “against”, in- means “into” or “not”, sub- means
“under” or “below”, and sur- from super- means “over” or “above”. The prefixes oc-,
of-, op-, and o- are variants of ob-; im- il-, and ir- are variants of in-, suc-, suf-, sug-,
sup-, etc. are variants of sub-.
The words in this part came from Latin words. The original Latin words were made up of
prefixes added to forms of verbs. For instance, immerse came from the Latin word
immersus, which consists of the prefix im- + a form of the verb mergere, meaning “to
dip” or “to plunge”.

SPELLING WORDS
obstacle submerge incorporate
occupy succinct incentive
occupation suppress immerse
offend supplement immaterial
offensive sustain implicate
oppressive surpass impressionable
surface
surplus

Exercise 1
Write the spelling words with the prefix ob-, or with one of its assimilated forms o-, oc-,
of-, or op-.
Exercise 2
Write the spelling words with the prefix sub-, or with one of its assimilated forms suc-,
sup-, or sus-.
Exercise 3
Write the spelling words with the prefix sur- (the French form of the prefix super-).
Exercise 4
Write the spelling words with the prefix in-, or with its assimilated form im-.
Exercise 5
Sometimes an assimilated prefix results in a double consonant. Write the spelling words
that double the consonant when beginning with the assimilated form of ob-. Underline
the double consonants.

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Exercise 6
Write the spelling words that double the consonant when beginning with the assimilated
form of sub-.

Exercise 7
Add the prefix to the base to make a spelling word.
When adding the prefix in- to a base word that begins with m, b, or p, change the prefix
to im-. E.g. im material
1. __centive 4. __corporate
2. __plicate 5. __pressionable
3. __material 6. __merse

Exercise 8
Some entry words have more than one part of speech. These parts of speech are included
in one entry known as a combined entry. Indicate the parts of speech for each spelling
word. Use each spelling word in a sentence.
offensive
supplement
surface
surplus

Exercise 9
Insert the correct spelling word.
1. The icy road was an (препятствие) to driving.
2. It seems impossible to (подавить) a yawn.
3. Her neighbour was not involved in the prank, so why did she (вовлекать,
впутывать) him?
4. On Sundays some newspapers include a TV (приложение).
5. How much of the parking lot will the buses (занимать)?
6. She rewrote the report in order to (включить) the suggestion.
7. Forecasting weather is a meteorologist’s (занятие).
8. A sensitive child is especially (восприимчивый, чувствительный).
9. Food and water are essential to (поддерживать) life.
10. Her brother did not realize that his angry words would (обижать, оскорблять)
her.
11. If the girl swims more than twenty laps, she will (превосходить) her goal.
12. The information was not important, so the jury ignored the (несущественный)
remarks.
13. The odour of a skunk’s spray is (неприятный, отвратительный).
14. That dog needs a bath, but how will we (окунать) it in water?
15. We could not bear the climate because of the (томительный, угнетающий) heat.
16. He was highly motivated with the (стимул, побуждение) of winning the
scholarship.
17. They saw the submarine rise in the water and then (погружаться).

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 18. Having more vegetables than he needed, the farmer gave away the (излишек,
избыток).
19. In an effort to be brief, the mayor issued a (сжатый, краткий, короткий)
announcement.
20. The child felt the rough (поверхность) of the coconut.

CHALLENGE WORDS
obligatory impromptu supplant
obnoxious infuriate surmise
obsolete
obstruction

Exercise 10
Write the challenge word that matches each expression.
1. make one see red
2. on the spur of the moment
3. behind the times; old hat
4. put two and two together
5. a fly in the ointment
6. step into someone else’s shoes

Exercise 11
Complete each sentence with a challenge word.
1. The odour was so _____ that I couldn’t stand it any longer.
2. If the bullfighter waves the red cape, it will _____ the bull.
3. In Russia, formal education is _____ for children under a certain age.
4. Since the speaker had no time for preparation, her speech was _____.
5. Latin is an _____ language in terms of everyday use.
6. Who will _____ the dictator?
7. Although there is no proof, I _____ that someone who attends the school turned
off the lights.
8. The fallen tree was an _____ in the road.

Suffixes

The suffix –ity is attached to adjectives to form nouns. It means “the state or quality of
being.” When an adjective base word ends in –ble, that ending is normally changed to –
bil before the –ity suffix is added e.g. liable + ity = liability.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
Persius (Roman 34-64 A.D.)
SPELLING WORDS
availability
capability
flexibility fragile fragility
individuality inferior inferiority

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liable liability
originality
personality practicality punctual punctuality
superior superiority
technical technicality
visibility

Exercise 1
Write the spelling words that are nouns. Underline the nouns that refer to human
qualities. Circle the nouns that refer mainly to things. Underline and circle those nouns
that refer to both.

Exercise 2
With the adding of –ity to most adjectives, the primary stress shifts e.g.' technical -
techni'cality.
Write the six sets of adjectives and nouns. In the nouns, circle the syllable that has the
primary stress and underline the syllable that has a secondary stress.

Exercise 3
In spelling words ending in –ble, the –ble changes to –bil when the suffix –ity is added.
Write the spelling words formed by adding –ity to the following adjectives. Circle the
syllable that has the primary stress.
1. capable
2. visible
3. flexible
4. available

Exercise 4
Write the spelling word that is a synonym for each word.
1. usability
2. inventiveness
3. singularity
4. celebrity

Exercise 5
Insert the correct spelling word.
1. The museum kept the vase in a case because of its (хрупкость).
2. The usher indicated the (наличие) of seats in the balcony.
3. Is this car (лучший, превосходящий) to a less expensive one?
4. (Пунктуальность) is an admirable characteristic.
5. One dancer in the advanced class has the (способность, одаренность) of
becoming a star.
6. The cartoonist was very proud of the award for (оригинальность).
7. The newcomer, who had never played the game, felt (плохой, худший).
8. A thick piece of wood has little (гибкость).

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 9. Once you sign a legal contract, you are (обязанный) to abide by it.
10. Although she is a twin, her (индивидуальность) is obvious.
11. Don’t handle the glass sculpture since it is very (хрупкий, ломкий).
12. The conference did not begin on time because the participants were not
(пунктуальный).
13. The poor short-stop was developing an (неполноценность) complex.
14. Do not drive a car unless you have (ответственность) insurance.
15. The driver’s (видимость, обзор) was limited by the thick fog.
16. An engineer must take many (специальный, технический) courses.
17. The more experienced soccer players soon showed their (превосходство).
18. The talk-show host had a winning (личность, характер).
19. The contract was cancelled because of a (техническая сторона дела).
Taking a raincoat on your vacation is a sign of (практичность).

CHALLENGE WORDS
eligibility formality generality hospitality informality
eventual generosity
eventuality

Exercise 6
Write the adjective that fits each definition below. Then add the noun-forming suffix –ity.
Write the appropriate challenge word to complete the equation.
Example: equal+ ity = equality
1. willing to share with
2. without ceremony
3. fit to be chosen
4. not detailed
5. according to set customs or rules

Exercise 7
Write a synonym for each word below. Use challenge words.
1. final
2. casualness
3. cordiality
4. unselfishness

Exercise 8
Answer each question with a challenge word.
1. What could someone thank you for if you held a reception in his or her honour?
2. What might the judges of a contest consider if they wanted to know whether you
were properly qualified?
3. What might someone accuse you of making if you gave a vague or indefinite
statement?
4. What might you expect at a ceremony that followed a custom?
5. What could someone compliment you on if you showed unselfish behaviour?

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 6. What might you be prepared for if you knew a certain occurrence was a
possibility?

Exercise 9
Write a thank- you note to the parents of your friend for an imaginary weekend stay at
their home. Use as many challenge words as you can in your note.

Suffixes –ary, -ory

The suffix –ary often means “connected with”. The suffix –ory often means “having the
function of”. These suffixes frequently denote adjectives.

SPELLING WORDS
complimentary advisory
contemporary auditory
contrary circulatory
elementary introductory
extraordinary mandatory
involuntary migratory
legendary preparatory
literary satisfactory
preliminary sensory
primary
pulmonary

Exercise 1
Note that the suffixes –ary and –ory both have two syllables. When one of these suffixes
is added to its base word, a syllable in the new word often receive a secondary stress.
Write the spelling words with their primary and secondary stress. Some of the words do
not receive a secondary stress.
1. complimentary 5. introductory
2. literary 6. advisory
3. migratory 7. preparatory
4. satisfactory 8. auditory

Exercise 2
Write a spelling word for each definition.
1. Basic.
2. Unconsciously performed.
3. Of the lungs.
4. Before the main part.
5. Living at the same time.
6. Opposite.
7. Concerning the senses.

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 8. Required.
9. Famous as in a legend.
10. Referring to the circulation system.

Exercise 3
Some of the words are misspelled in the paragraph. Write the spelling words correctly.
The giant heart at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia is a huge model of a heart
proportionate in size to a person 220 feet tall. It is popular exhibit with elementery and
secondary students. The entrance to this exhibit leads into the right atrium, where the
blood from the circulatary system begins its journey. The next passage leads to the right
ventricle, where the blood is directed to the pulmonory system. The visitor exits through
the left ventricle. This extrardinary exhibit also includes graphs and photos that
demonstrate the heart’s primory functions.

Exercise 4
Insert the correct spelling word.
1. Paul Bunyan is a (легендарный) hero.
2. Through your five senses, your body collects (сенсорный, чувствительный)
information.
3. Don’t buy a ticket, because I have (бесплатный) passes.
4. School counsellors have primarily (совещательный, консультативный)
responsibilities.
5. Hearing aids were invented to help people with (слуховой) problems.
6. Members of the debating team expressed (противоположный) opinions.
7. Veins and arteries of the body are part of the (кровеносный) system.
8. The most important tasks are your (основной, главный) responsibilities.
9. To get a passing grade, it is (обязательный) to take the final exam.
10. The members of the book club have (литературный) discussions each week.
11. Some high school students take college (подготовительный) courses.
12. Judy Blume is a (современный) children’s book author.
13. Scientists study the (миграционный) habits of birds.
14. Grades 1 through 6 are considered the (начальный) grades in some states.
15. The repair work of the builder was most (удовлетворительный).
16. Before the season began, the doctor gave the runners a (предварительный)
examination.
17. The dance teacher offered beginners an (вводный) course.
18. Having three desserts at one meal is (необычный) for you, I hope.
19. Your lungs are part of your (легочной) system.
20. Her startled gasp was completely (невольный, непроизвольный).

CHALLENGE WORDS
exemplary exploratory
monetary savory
parliamentary unsavory
revolutionary

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subsidiary

Exercise 5
Use the clues in each statement below to identify the adjective that describes the person
or thing. Write the appropriate challenge words.
1. I am a most agreeable roasted turkey. I am especially pleasing in taste and smell.
2. I am worth imitating, so follow my example.
3. My procedure is according to the rules and customs of a high lawmaking body.
4. I’m coins and currency valued in terms of the money of a country.
5. I have my own company, but it’s controlled by another company.
6. People find me unpleasant in taste and smell.
7. I am an invention that brought about great changes.
8. I am a kind of surgery that examines a part of the body.

Exercise 6
Write a challenge word that is an antonym for each word in the first column. Write a
challenge word that is a synonym for each word in the second column.
1. imperfect 5. sweeping; radical
2. unappetizing 6. branch
3. pleasant 7. financial
4. uninquiring 8. according to parliament

Exercise 7
Use a challenge word in writing detailed description of two or more of the items below.
Try to paint a vivid word picture of each item. Write complete sentences.
1. a baked apple
2. an expensive toy
3. a search or an examination
4. an idea with far-reaching effects

SYNTAX
Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Place

Clauses of place are used to express the place of the action. They are introduced with the
following conjunctions:
where* - anywhere – everywhere - wherever

*
“Where” is a conjunction when it introduces adverbial clauses of place.
“Where” is a conjunctive adverb when it introduces a subject clause, a predicative
clause, and an object clause.
“Where” is a relative adverb when it introduces an attributive clause.

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Normally a clause of place follows the main clause. There is no comma before it.

Piercing morning air came into the hall where they were standing so that Aunt Kate
said,”Close the door, somebody.”
Everywhere Jurdis went he kept meeting them.

Exercise 1
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of place together with the
prepositions, if any.
1. We were invited to go back where he came from (Hughes).
2. From where he sat he could see a cluster of apple-trees in blossom (Galsworthy).
3. Take us to where we can work on this thing without being disturbed (Murdoch).
4. Taking the advantage of having in their hands weapons which no other State had
the equivalent at that time, the US were testing atomic bombs whenever and
wherever they liked without paying heed to what the people thought or spoke
about (Daily Worker).1
5. I am quite comfortable where I am (Wilde).
6. And as soon as the messenger was gone he took a chair whence he could see the
street (Galsworthy).2

Exercise 2
Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of place.
1. Оставайся там, где ты есть!
2. Мы решили в конце концов оставить вещи там, где они были.
3. Ученик смотрел куда угодно, но только не туда, куда показывал учитель.
4. Я оставил тебе записку там, где мы договорились.
5. Тетя Полли сказала Тому: «Иди, куда я тебе говорю, и не останавливайся ни
с кем поболтать».
6. Туристы сложили свои вещи в таком месте, где они не могли намокнуть.
7. Я люблю проводить отпуск там, где можно купаться.
8. Возвращайся туда, откуда ты пришел и продолжай свою работу.

Exercise 3
Define the type of the subordinate clauses joined by “where” and state whether “where”
is a conjunction, a conjunctive adverb or a relative adverb.
1. The car which had passed him and lost him and then returned was just where it
should have been, just where the player had desired it to be (Grimm).
2. No one knew where the fighting was (Mitchell).
3. Turning to the right she ran down the side garden path to where she had seen the
face (Christie).
4. The doctor mopped his brow and cast a quizzical glance at the corner, where his
wife sat among the chaperons (Mitchell).
5. But he isn’t where she thinks he is (Christie).
1
The conjunctions wherever, whenever, whatever and the like commonly used to join concessive
subordinate clauses retain the meaning of concession when joining other types of clauses.
2
The conjunction whence is highly literary or archaic.

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 6. Tuppence had intended taking her for a walk, but it was raining hard, so the two
of them adjourned to the bedroom where Betty led the way to the bottom drawer
of the bureau where her playthings were kept (Christie).
7. Dear Raymond knows that if only I know where he is or where he is going I don’t
worry quite so much (Christie).
8. That was where they walked up the sleigh-smoothened road (Hemingway).
9. Where the conference was didn’t matter much.

Exercise 4
Complete the sentences and define the type of the subordinate clause introduced by
“where”.
1. I didn’t know where …
2. I met her at the place where…
3. I discovered that the book was not where…
4. The mother left the child where…
5. Where she was waiting for me is…
6. You should have gone to the town where…
7. The difficulty was where…
8. He walked straight into the hall where…
9. I hoped I should find her where…

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Time

Clauses of time are used to express the time of the action. We use the following time
conjunctions to introduce time clause:
when – as – while – before – after – since – until/till – whenever – as long as – as soon
as – no sooner...than – hardly/scarcely...when – once - since

The tense in the since-clause can be perfect or past, depending on the meaning. Compare:
I’ve known her since we were at school together.
I’ve known her since I’ve lived in this street.

We visit my parents every week since we bought the car.

We visit my parents every week since we have had the car.

You’ve drunk about ten cups of tea since you arrived.

You’ve drunk about ten cups of tea since you’ve been sitting here.

They had been close friends since Alice was small.

They hadn’t seen much f each other since Polly (had) moved away.
Time conjunctions hardly/scarcely...when, no sooner...than can be used (often with a past
perfect tense) to suggest that one thing happened very soon after another. Note the
sentence structure:
I had hardly/scarcely closed my eyes when the phone rang.
I had no sooner closed the door than somebody knocked.

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We no sooner sat down in the train than I felt sick.
In a formal or literary style, these structures are sometimes used with inverted word
order.
Hardly had I closed my eyes when I began to imagine the most fantastic shapes.
No sooner had she agreed to marry him than she started to have terrible doubts.
No sooner did Steve start going out with Tracy than she fell in love with Jasper.
Here are some other “time” words and typical contexts they are used in.
I had written to her prior to meeting the committee. (formal/written style)
It was nice to be in Venice. Previously I'd only been to Rome.(fairly formal, more
informal would be before that I …)
I was in the office from 2.30. I was out earlier on. (before then, fairly informal)
The city is now called Thatcherville. Formerly it was Grabtown. (used when something
has changed its name, state, etc.)
I saw her just as she was turning the corner. (precise moment)
During the war, I lived in Dublin. (does not specify how long)
Throughout the war, food was rationed. (from beginning to end)
She was entering at the very moment/the very moment I was leaving. (These two are
stronger and more precise than as or just as.)
We went to the castle. Then we caught a bus to the beach.
First we went to the theatre. After that, we had a meal.
He fell ill and was admitted to hospital. He died soon afterwards. (In these two
examples, after that and afterwards are interchangeable.)
Following my visit to Pekin, I bought lots of books about China. (fairly formal)
The moment/the minute I saw his face I knew I'd met him before.
I stayed in that hospital the time (that) I broke my leg.
I met Polly at Ken's wedding. On that occasion she was with a different man.
The meal will take about an hour. In the meantime/meanwhile, relax and have a drink.
(between now and the meal)
The new whiteboards are arriving soon. Till then, we'll have to use the old ones.
I last met him in1995. Since then I haven't set eyes on him.
By the time I retired, I will have worked here 26 years.

Exercise 1
Fill in the gaps with by, until, while, before, hardly...when, as soon as, when, as long
as, or by the time.
1. You can keep those CDs as long as you like.
2. I can't do any washing __________ the washing machine is repaired.
3. We saw the smoke __________ we turned into our street.
4. We had ________ gone to bed _________ there was a knock at the door.
5. Sarah parked the car _________ Paul dashed into the bank.
6. I have to finish these letters _________ I can leave the office.
7. Wait here _________ I get back.
8. I was washing my hair _________ the phone rang.
9. You must be home _________ eleven o'clock tonight.
10. _________ Sue reached the bank, it had closed.

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Exercise 2
Underline the appropriate time phrases and put the verbs into the correct tense.
1. I'll call you while/the moment I get (get) home.
2. You can visit me whenever/till you _________ (want) to.
3. We went for a walk after/until we _________ (eat) breakfast.
4. Once/Before he _________ (read) the manual, he knew how to operate the
machine.
5. I was doing the ironing during/while he ________ (wash) the car.
6. They didn't get married until/by the time they ________ (save) enough money
for their honeymoon.
7. I'll write to you as soon as/immediately I________ (have) the results.
8. I got to the station till/just as the train _________ (pull in).
9. We won't move to a new house since/before the children ________ (leave)
school.
10. They had fixed the roof until/by the time John ________ (come) back.
11. The students don't know when/till the results _________ (announce).

Exercise 3
Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
1. As soon as he woke up, he jumped out of bed.
moment He jumped out of bed the moment he woke up.
2. She did some research before she wrote some report.
after She wrote her report __________ some research.
3. I had no sooner entered the house than the phone rang.
hardly I had _________ the phone rang.
4. Simon hurt his leg climbing a tree.
while Simon hurt his leg ________ a tree.
5. We can't go. We have to wait for the taxi to arrive.
until We can't go ________ arrives.
6. We opened the gate. The dog ran towards us.
sooner We had _________ than the dog rang towards us.
7. The shop will open at nine o'clock. The staff will have come in to work by then.
time The staff will have come in to work __________ the shop opens.
8. Moira bought the ring only after she had made sure it was solid gold.
before Moira made sure the ring was solid gold __________ it.
9. Her phone card ran out during her conversation with her mother.
while Her phone card ran out ___________ her mother.

Exercise 4
Complete the sentences using time expressions from the boxes.
prior to ● previously ● earlier ● formerly ● precede ● by the time
1. ________ the advent of the Industrial Revolution, pollution was virtually unheard
of.
2. ________ the army had restored order, the city had been almost devastated.
3. ________ known as Burma, the republic of Myanmar is undergoing a slow and
painful political transformation.

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 4. A sudden drop in temperature will usually __________ a blizzard.
5. It was my first trip on an aeroplane. ___________ I'd always gone by train.
6. The Prime Minister made a speech praising charity organisations working in
Mozambique. _________ that day he had promised massive economic aid to
stricken areas.
while/as/just as ● during/throughout ● at that very moment ● in the
meantime/meanwhile
1. _________ the minister was making his speech, thousands of demonstrators took
to the streets.
2. _________ the speech they jeered and shouted slogans.
3. The minister continued speaking. _________ the police were ordered onto the
streets.
4. He finished the speech with a word of praise for the police. _________ people
began throwing bottles and bricks, and the riot began.
afterwards ● as soon as/once/the minute that ● following
1. ___________ the earthquake, emergency organisations around the world swung
into action.
2. ___________ the stock market collapsed, there was panic buying on an
unprecedented scale.
3. The Klondike gold rush lasted from 1896 to 1910. ___________ the area became
practically deserted overnight.

Exercise 5
Look at these pages from the personal diary of Laura, a businesswoman who travels a lot,
then do the exercise.
Mon Paris – day 5 Up early. Said goodbye to Nick and Fri
12 Pompidu Centre then theatre left. Saw bad accident on motoway. 16
Tue Been away 6 days! Paris OK, but Answered at the mail, then felt I Sat
13 miss home could watch TV! 17
Wed Left Paris 10 am. Huge pile of mail Lots of phone calls! Sandra, Joyce – Sun
14 waiting! Manchester, then and Dougy all in a row! Lazy day! 18
Thu Glasgow. Met Maura at Nick's. Book tickets for Dublin - 24th Notes
15
Fill in the blanks with connectors. An example is given.
1. Prior to going to Manchester, Laura was in Paris.
2. Her next trip after Glasgow is on 24th. ___________ she can have a quiet time at
home.
3. She was in Paris for over a week. __________ she got home there was a big pile
of mail waiting for her.
4. ___________ she was at Nick's place on the 16th, she met Maura.
5. She went to the theatre in Paris on Monday. _________, she had been to the
Pompidu Centre.
6. __________she had said goodbye to Nick, she left.

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 7. __________ she had answered all her letters, she felt she could watch TV for a
while.
8. __________ she put the phone down it rang again. This time it was Dougy.

Exercise 6
Complete the sentences adding the principal clause or an adverbial clause of time.
1. … as he sat alone at table.
2. Don’t leave till …
3. … as long as they stay here.
4. Start making the translation after …
5. … before he had entered.
6. We were busy preparing the report while …
7. … while they are discussing the problem.
8. She has stayed at my parents’ since …
9. … when he stops making such bad mistakes.
10. You can travel now that …
11. … when he had read the assignment.
12. It was some time since …
13. She wept as …
14. … as he was putting on his coat.
15. They were still waiting for the girl while …
16. He said he would return as soon as …
17. She hadn’t been there two weeks before …
18. … after they had left.
19. We’ve known each other since …
20. … before we knew where we were.
21. … since she has been ill.
22. You can ask him any question you like now that …

Exercise 7
Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of time. Give variants with
different conjunctions and verb-forms.
1. “Как поживает Аня?” “ Не знаю. Я ее не видела с тех пор, как вернулась из
Крыма”.
2. Нам нет смысла сейчас обсуждать работу. Когда я напишу вторую часть, мы
встретимся и обсудим обе части вместе.
3. Он очень устал и после того как поужинал, лег спать.
4. Мы едва узнали друг друга. Я не видела ее с тех пор, как кончила школу. А
у нее уже большие дети. Уже пять лет, как ее сын ходит в школу.
5. Они уже ушли, когда мы вернулись.
6. Машинистка сказала, что только когда она кончит печатать статью, она
сможет напечатать упражнения.
7. Отец был расстроен. Он чувствовал себя гораздо хуже с тех пор, как начал
принимать это лекарство.
8. Пока он ел, он рассказал им о том, что произошло.
9. Его жена вошла в комнату, когда он еще не кончил бриться.

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 10. Мальчик жил у бабушки все то время, что мать была в отъезде.
11. Они не разговаривали в то время как шли по дороге, так как сердились друг
на друга.
12. “Только посмотрите, кто пришел”, - сказала тетя, когда мы входили.
13. Не успел я пройти половину пути до дома, как сэр Персиваль, который шел
в противоположном направлении, неожиданно остановился и окликнул
меня.
14. Я очень волнуюсь. Уже три часа как она ушла и до сих пор не вернулась.
15. Ее подруга писала, что вот уже три года, как она вышла замуж, что муж ее
врач и что у нее есть сын.
16. Женщина выглядела старой, потому что она очень много работала с тех пор
как умер ее муж: ей нужно было прокормить пятерых детей.
17. Я знала, что они побеседовали до того, как началось собрание.
18. Дети прекрасно говорили по-французски, потому что уже несколько лет
занимались языком.
19. На ней было то же синее платье, в котором она была, когда они
познакомились.
20. Мы были озадачены. Снова и снова мы вспоминали, что он нам сказал,
когда мы вместе ехали в поезде.
21. “Прошло пятнадцать или шестнадцать лет с тех пор как Семеновы
переехали в Петербург?” “ Думаю, что пятнадцать …”
22. Казалось, ничего в комнате не изменилось, хотя она не была в ней уже
четыре месяца.
23. Как только эта новость достигла Британии, население возликовало.

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Cause/Reason

Clauses of cause/reason are used to express the cause/reason for something. They are
introduced with the following conjunctions:
because – as - since – for - so
Conjunctions as and since
As and since are used when the reason is already known to the listener/reader, or when it
is not the most important part of the sentence. As- and since-clauses often come at the
beginning of sentences.
As it’s raining again, we’ll have to stay a home.
Since he had not paid his bill, his electricity was cut off.
As- and since-clauses are relatively formal; in an informal style, the same ideas are often
expressed by so.
It’s raining again, so we’ll have to stay at home.
Because puts more emphasis on the reason, and most often introduces new information
which is not known to the listener/reader.
Because I was ill for six months, I lost my job.
When the reason is the most important part of the sentence, the because-clause usually
comes at the end. It can also stand alone. Since and as cannot be used like this.
Why am I leaving? I’m leaving because I’m fed up.

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 “Why are you laughing?” “Because you look so funny”.
A because-clause can be used at the end of a sentence to say how one knows something.
You didn’t tell me the truth, because I found the money in your room. (=…I know
because I found).
For introduces new information, but suggests that the reason is given as an after-thought.
A for-clause can also be in brackets. For-clauses never come at the beginning of
sentences, and cannot stand alone. For, used in this sense, is most common in a formal
written style.
I decided to stop and have lunch – for I was feeling hungry.
Here are some other “cause” words and typical contexts they are used in. Note how verbs
and nouns can do the same job as conjunctions.
The reason for+noun/-ing form; the reason why+clause
The reason for his resignation was (the fact) that he had been offered a better job.
The reason why he resigned was (the fact) that he had been offered a better job.
Because of/on account of/due to+noun; because of/on account of/due to the fact
that+clause
All flights were cancelled because of/on account of the thick fog.
All flights were cancelled due to the thick fog.
He asked for a few days off because of/on account of the fact that he was exhausted.
He asked for a few days off due to the fact that he was exhausted.
Now(that)+clause
Now that they have children, they have less free time.
Owing to the icy conditions, the two lorries collided.
The collision was due to the icy conditions.
The collision was cause by ice on the road.
The cause of the collision was ice on the road.
The rise in prices sparked off a lot of political protest. (often used for very strong,
perhaps violent, reactions to events)
The President's statement gave rise to / provoked / generated a lot of criticism.(slightly
less strong than spark off)
The new law has brought about / led to great changes in education. (often used for
political/social change)
This problem stems from the inflation of recent years. (explaining the direct origins of
events and states)
The court- case arose out of allegations made in a newspaper. (the allegations started the
process that led to the court-case)
I wonder what prompted him to write this letter?
He refused to answer on the grounds that his lawyer wasn't there.

Exercise 1
Translate the sentences into Russian paying attention to the word order in the adverbial
clauses of cause and the conjunction used.
1. Unused as I was to strangers, it was rather a trial to appear thus formally
summoned in Mr. Rochester’s presence (Bronte).

21
 2. Besieged as she is by practical problems of all sorts the mother today can hardly
have the time … to brood over the intricacies of the psychological relationship
between mother and child (Daily Worker).
3. … but she had become increasingly difficult; jealous of her step-daughter June …
and making ceaseless plaint that he could not love her, ill as she was, and useless
to everyone … (Galsworthy).
4. I can now conjecture readily that this streak of light was, in all likelihood, a gleam
from a lantern, carried by some one across the lawn; but then, prepared as my
mind was for horror, shaken as my nerves were by agitation, I thought the swift
darting beam was a herald of some coming vision from another world (Bronte).
5. This state of things should have been to me a paradise of peace, accustomed as I
was to a life of ceaseless reprimand and thankless fagging (Bronte).
6. It was far from me to go, weak and ill as I was (Doyle).

Exercise 2
Rewrite the sentences using the words in brackets.
1. She went to bed because she was tired.(since)
She went to bed since she was tired.
2. The singer cancelled her appearance. She was feeling unwell. (on account of)
3. She hadn't eaten all day, and therefore she was hungry. (as)
4. He was rude and, as a result, the teacher punished him. (because of)
5. The reason why the Prime Minister did not attend the press conference was that
he was out of the country. (for)
6. He has passed his exams, so his parents are pleased with him. (now that)
7. The job was very dangerous, so she turned it down. (the reason for)
8. His car ran out of petrol, so it wouldn't move. (due to)
9. He was late. He took a taxi. (since)

Exercise 3
Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
1. It was very cold, so I wore my coat.
as I wore my coat as it was very cold.
2. We didn't go for a walk because it was raining.
account We didn't go for a walk _____________ the rain.
3. He didn't tidy his room. As a result, his mother shouted at him.
because His mother shouted at him ____________ his room.
4. She didn't close the gate. As a result, the dog escaped.
due The dog escaped ______________ she didn't close the gate.
5. The reason why she got a lot of presents was that it was her birthday.
for The fact that it was her birthday was ____________ a lot of
presents.
6. We didn't understand the lecture, so we asked the tutor to explain.
since We asked the tutor to explain, _____________ the lecture.
7. The car skidded on the road because it was icy.
due The car skidded on the road _____________ ice.
8. I couldn't sleep because it was noisy.

22
 of I couldn't sleep _____________ noise.

Exercise 4
Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of cause.
1. Я все эти дни не записывал впечатления, потому что писать не хотелось.
2. Раз уж вы настаиваете, мне придется подчиниться.
3. Девочка, должно быть, серьезно болела: она очень бледна.
4. Андрей решил, поскольку он находится здесь, он может, по крайней мере,
зайти и договориться о встрече.
5. Возьмите с собой плащ, так как барометр падает и небо покрыто тучами.
6. Ребенка надо отдать в музыкальную школу, так как у него хороший слух.

Exercise 5
Make full sentences using “cause” words.
Example : closure of twenty mines → strikes in coal industry The closure of twenty
mines sparked off a lot of strikes in the coal industry.
1. announcement → strong attack from opposition
2. new Act of Parliament → great changes in industry
3. signalling fault → train crash
4. violent storm → wall collapsed
5. food shortages → riots in several cities
6. food shortages → poor management of the economy

Exercise 6
Make two sentences into one, using the “cause” words in brackets.
Example: There was a controversial decision. She wrote to the local newspaper to
protest. (prompt) The controversial decision prompted her to write to the local
newspaper to protest.
1. I didn't contact you. I'd lost your phone number. (reason)
2. I will not sign. This contract is illegal. (grounds)
3. She sent everyone flowers. I wonder why? (motives)
4. The salary was high. She applied for the job. (prompt)

Exercise 7
Join the first part of a sentence in the left-hand column with a second part from the right-
hand column, using an appropriate expression showing reason from the central column.
In some cases, more than one of the expressions from the middle is possible.
1. The police asked him his … prompted him to ... … pass his exams
…
2. He failed his exam ... … on account of ... … wake anyone
3. A persistent cough ... … owing to ... … upsetting me like that?
4. She started haranguing … on the grounds that ... … his lack of revision
the crowd ...
5. He spent the whole … so as not to ... … starting a riot

23
 weekend revising ...
6. They came in quietly ... … with the aims of ... ...its low turnover and poor
sales history
7. He refused to lend … in order to ... ...seek professional medical
anyone money ... help
8. What were your ... … motives in ... … people rarely repay a
loan
9. The school was forced … due to ... … poor student attendance
to close ...
10. The bank manager … reason for ... … speeding through the
refused to lend the town
company more money ...

Exercise 8
Complete these sentences with an appropriate expression from the central column of the
table above.
1. The government raised the income tax rate ____________ curb inflation.
2. The government raised the income tax rate ____________ the rapidly rising rate
of inflation.
3. When questioned, many racists cannot give a logical ___________ their attitudes
towards other racial groups.
4. The soaring crime rate alarmed the police superintendent and ___________ adopt
a zero-tolerance policing policy.
5. He was arrested _____________ he was a danger to others and himself.
6. The family was forced to economise ____________ go heavily into debt.

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Result

Clauses of result are used to express the result of something. They are introduced by the
conjunctions:
so – so/such … that -
Clauses of result with such/so… that
Such is an adjective and is used before an adjective + noun:
They had such a fierce dog that no one dared to go near their house.
He spoke for such a long time that people began to fall asleep.
So is an adverb and is used before adverbs and with adjectives which are not followed by
their nouns:
The snow fell so fast that our footsteps were soon covered up.
His speech went on for so long that people began to fall asleep.
Their dog was so fierce that no one dared come near it.
But such is never used before much and many, so so is used even when much and many
are followed by nouns:
There was so much dust that we couldn’t see what was happening.
So many people complained that they took the programme off.

24
Note that such + a + adjective + noun is replaceable by so + adjective + a + noun, so that
“such a good man” is replaceable by “so good a man”. This is only possible when a noun
is preceded by a/an. It is not a very usual form but may be met in literature.
Sometimes for emphasis so is placed at the beginning of the sentence. It is then followed
by the inverted form of the verb:
So terrible was the storm that whole roofs were ripped off.
Here are some other “result” words and typical contexts they are used in.
He did no work. As a result / As a consequence / Consequently / therefore, he failed
his exams.
The result / consequence of all these changes is that no one is happy any more. (The
examples with consequence / consequently sound more formal than result)
His remarks resulted in everyone getting angry.
The events had an outcome that no one could have predicted. (result of a process or
events, or of meetings, discussions, etc.)
The upshot of all these problems was that he had to start again. (less formal than
outcome)
When the election results were announced, chaos ensued. (formal)

Exercise 1
Fill in so, such or such a/an
1. The party next door last night was so loud that I couldn't sleep.
2. They sell _________ lovely things in that shop.
3. I bought ________ lot of shopping that I couldn't carry all the bags.
4. It was ________ late when I got home that I didn't have dinner.
5. She dresses _________ elegantly that everyone admires her.
6. I had ________ bad headache yesterday that I had to leave work and go home.
7. I'm _________ hungry that I could eat anything for lunch.
8. He had put __________ little salt in the soup that it was tasteless.
9. It was __________ amusing film that I laughed all the way through.
10. They have got __________ fashionable furniture in their house that it is often
photographed for magazines.
11. She is __________ interesting person that I could spend hours talking to her.

Exercise 2
Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
1. I had a lot of homework to do, so I couldn't go out.
so I had so much homework to do that I couldn't go out.
2. The bus was very late. We decided to take a taxi
so The bus was _________ we decided to take a taxi.
3. He was sleeping soundly. We couldn't wake him.
so He was __________ we couldn't wake him.
4. It was very exciting news and I couldn't wait to tell everyone.
such It was ___________ I couldn't wait to tell everyone.
5. She is a very clever girl and her parents are very proud of her.
such She is ___________ her parents are very proud of her.
6. Jane doesn't spend much time studying. She may fail her exams.

25
 little Jane spends ____________ she may fail her exams.
7. Peter did a lot of work yesterday, so he has nothing to do today.
much Peter did ____________ yesterday that he has nothing to do today.
8. His luggage was heavy. He decided to call a porter.
such He had ____________ that he decided to call a porter.

Exercise 3
Join the first part of a sentence in the left-hand column with a second part from the
right-hand column, using an appropriate expression showing reason from the central
column. In some cases, more than one of the expressions from the middle is possible
1. What are the ... ...ensued ... … was unable to enroll for
the course.
2. Stress and overwork can … as a consequence ... … its action
...
3. The army attacked … affect ... … when the police officers
without considering on trial were acquitted.
the ...
4. He failed to send off his … effects of ... … a large earthquake?
application form and ...
5. Riots and street … consequences of ... … different people in
fighting ... different ways

Complete these sentences with an appropriate expression from the central column of the
table above.
1. Panic buying ______________ when the stock market crashed.
2. People often do things without considering the __________ their actions.
3. The government raised the income tax rate ___________ curbing inflation.
4. The fumes from motor traffic ____________ people in many different ways.

Exercise 4
Write out the conjunctions used to join the adverbial clauses of result and point out the
sentences with asyndetic subordination. Answer the following questions:
a) With which words in the principal clause can the conjunction “that” be correlated?
b) With which conjunction is the adverbial clause of result usually separated by a
comma?
1. When they reached the front it was dark, and the shutters were closed, so that
nothing of the interior could be seen (Hardy).
2. So heavy was the stress of the storm just at this place that I had the hardest task to
win my way up the hill (Wells)3.
3. They replied in such a voice that he no longer pretended ignorance (Galsworthy).

3
With the adverb of degree “so” or the pronoun “such” the word order in the principal clause may be
inverted.

26
 4. Roses on the veranda were still in bloom, and the hedges evergreen, so that there
was almost nothing of middle aged autumn to chill the mood (Galsworthy).
5. So great was the shortage of paper in Confederacy now that Gerald’s note was
written between the lines of her last letter to him (Mitchell).
6. The burglar wore gloves so there were no fingerprints to be found (Hornby).
7. I’m so crazy about music I don’t care what colour he is (Parker).

Exercise 5
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate conjunctions and separate the adverbial clause of
result by a comma wherever necessary.
1. Also she spoke in a curiously loud and ringing tone … what she said echoed
audibly all the way down the room (Murdoch).
2. The activity of translating which had seemed the plainest thing in the world
turned out to be an act so complex and extraordinary … it was puzzling to see
how human being could perform it (Murdoch).
3. None of them had seen the Marcians, and they had but the vaguest ideas of them
… they piled me with questions (Wells).
4. Whenever I have gone there have been either so many people … I have not been
able to see the pictures, which was dreadful, or so many pictures … I have not
been able to see the people, which was worse (Wilde).
5. The marriage of Soames with Annette took place in Paris on the last day of
January 1901 with such privacy … not even Emily was told until it was
accomplished (Galsworthy).
6. Bosinney’s office was in Sloane Street, close at hand … he would be able to keep
his eye continually on the plans (Galsworthy).
7. He was under a considerable debt of gratitude to his hostess; on the other hand,
Denver’s position was such … minor considerations really had to go to the wall
(Sayers).

Exercise 6
Paraphrase the sentences using adverbial clauses of result.
Model: The child was looked after well enough by the others for her not to worry about
him.
The child was looked after so well that she did not worry about him.
1. He continued to sing with too much energy to hear the sound of wheels (after
Dickens).
2. She felt excited and happy enough this morning to include the whole world in the
affection (after Mitchell).
3. She leaped to her feet, her heart hammering too wildly for her to sit still (after
Mitchell).
4. Bosinney’s office was in Sloane Street at hand for him to keep an eye continually
on the plants (after Galsworthy).

Exercise 7
Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of result. Give variants with
inverted word order wherever possible.

27
 1. Девочка была так напугана, что не могла двинуться с места.
2. Лектор говорил так убедительно, что никто не сомневался в правильности
его утверждений.
3. Она смотрела на меня так пристально, что я не могла не обернуться.
4. Всю ночь море сильно бушевало, так что пароходы не могли подойти к
берегу.
5. Кинофильм произвел на учеников такое сильное впечатление, что они
говорили о нем целую неделю.
6. Результаты эксперимента были вполне удовлетворительными, так что
молодые ученые могли продолжать работу в том же направлении.
7. Море успокаивалось, так что рыбаки надеялись, что они смогут отправиться
рыбачить утром.
8. День был такой солнечный и морозный, что никому не хотелось сидеть
дома, и в лесу было много лыжников.

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Purpose

Clauses of purpose are used to express the purpose of an action. That is, they explain why
someone does something They are introduced with the following conjunctions:
so that – so – in order that
They met in a cafe so that they could discuss their holiday.
The purpose of an action can be expressed in the following ways:
● to-infinitive
She went shopping to look for some new clothes.
● in order to/so as to = infinitive (formal)
He did a postgraduate course in order to/so as to widen his knowledge of international
politics.
In negative sentences use in order not to or so as not to. Never use not to alone.
He wrote the number down in order not to/so as not to forget it.
● so that + can / will (present or future reference)
Emma has booked a first-class ticket so that she can travel in comfort.
so that + could /would (past reference)
He recorded the match so that he could watch it later.
Note: in order that has the same structure as so that . However, it is not used very
often as it is formal.
We will send you the forms in order that you can make your application.
● in case + present tense (present or future reference)
in case + past tense (past reference)

In case is never used with will or would.

Take your credit card in case you run out of cash.

He took a jumper in case it got cold.

● for + noun (when we want to express the purpose of an action)
He went to the doctor's for a check-up.

28
for + ing form (when we want to express the purpose or function of something)
We use a spade for digging.
Clauses of purpose follow the rule of sequence of tenses, like time clauses.
He borrowed some money so that he could pay his phone bill.
Note: We can express negative purpose by using:
a) prevent + noun/pronoun + (from) + -ing form
She covered the sofa with a sheet to prevent it (from) getting dirty.
b) avoid + -ing form
They set off early in the morning to avoid getting stuck in traffic.

Exercise 1
Underline the correct word.
It was three o'clock on Saturday afternoon and Ben was in the park. He had taken
his sister, Katy, with him 1) so that / for she could play on the swings. While they were
playing, Ben noticed that a small bird was sitting near a tree. He walked towards it 2) in
order to / so that have a closer look. He walked slowly and quietly 3) not to / so as not
to frighten it. The bird had a broken wing, so Ben and Katy went home and got a box 4)
for / to carry it in. When they had put it in the box, they took it to the vet 5) to / for
treatment. The vet was very gentle 6) in order to / so that he wouldn't hurt it. The bird
recovered a few weeks later and the vet released it in the park again.

Exercise 2
Join the sentences using the words in brackets.
1. He got the car out of the garage. He wanted to wash it. (so that)
He got the car out of the garage so that he could wash it.
2. I always lock the doors and windows. I don't want to be burgled. (avoid)
3. The doctor examined the patient. He wanted to find out what was with him. (so as
to)
4. I've taken out a loan. I want to buy a car. (to)
5. We'll take some food with us. We might get hungry. (in case)
6. She is studying medicine. She wants to become a doctor. (so that)
7. He put his keys in his briefcase. He didn't want to lose them. (in order not to)
8. They will take some magazines with them. They may get bored. (in case)
9. She set her alarm clock. She didn't want to oversleep. (so that)
10. We put the letters on the table. We didn't want to forget to post them. (so as not
to)

Exercise 3
Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
1. We took a taxi. We didn't want to be late.
not We took a taxi so as not to be late.
2. Tony is employing more staff. He wants to expand his business.
that Tony is employing more staff ____________ his business.
3. Take your mobile phone. It is possible that someone may call you.
case Take your mobile phone ___________ you.
4. We use a microwave to cook food quickly.

29
 for We use microwave ____________ food quickly.
5. We took a camera. We wanted to take some photographs.
that We took a camera __________ some photographs.
6. She applied sunscreen. She didn't want to get sunburnt.
not She applied sunscreen __________ sunburnt.
7. I did my homework. I didn't want the teacher to be angry with me.
that I did my homework __________ not be angry with me.
8. Mark called John. He wanted to ask him for some advice.
to Mark called John ___________ for some advice.
9. He checked his answering machine. There may have been a message for him.
case He checked his answering machine __________ message for him.
10. She put her jewellery in the hotel safe. She didn't want it to get stolen.
prevent She put her jewellery in the hotel safe _____________ stolen.

Exercise 4
Analyse the moods of the verbs in bold type and answer the following questions:
1. What moods are used in adverbial clauses of purpose?
2. Is the sequence of tenses observed in adverbial clauses of purpose after the indicative
and the oblique moods in the principal clause?
1. Mr. Fox and I hold an open house for all the members of the staff so that the new
men can meet everyone else (Wilson)4.
2. In the pantry every cup was hung on a hook, every wineglass was lightly wedged in a
fitting so that it could dash itself against another wineglass (Bennet).
3. These committees investigate various areas of our national life so that they may
gather proper information (Wilson).
4. He turned on the other side so that he might see the reality of the world (O’Henry).
5. I will not make a noise lest I should disturb you (Poutsma).
6. They drove with both windows closed so that the Vicar should not catch cold
(Maugham).
7. She took to pronouncing words carefully, lest she say things like “goil” for “girl”…
(Smith).5
8. It means that we all have to get on the ground floor so that everyone starts even
(Wilson).
9. Moon kept jerking the table cloth so that it all hung down her side and Sun hadn’t any
and then she pretended she didn’t do it on purpose (Mansfield).
10. I’m saving every cent I can out of your pay so that next year both of you will be back
in school (Smith).
11. They climbed down the three flights of stairs and crossed the back yard on tiptoe so
that the snow would not come up over their rubbers (Saxton).
12. I am coming back to England early this year and would like to meet the girl straight
away so that I can marry before the end of the year (Daily Worker).
13. We’d better exhume the body and make our own measurements … so that it may not
be so easy for Mason to make any use of the tripod now that he has it (Dreiser).

4
The verbs “can” and “may” are frequent in adverbial clauses of purpose; “should” with the non-perfect
infinitive is common in clauses of negative meaning.
5
The use of the oblique mood form of the type “be”, “say” is rare.

30
14. He would have liked to probe into his soul so that he might see in its nakedness the
dreadful dismay of the unknown which he suspected (Maugham).

Exercise 5
Open the brackets using the required form of the verb.
1. They left it in the hall, so that it (not to seem) that they wanted to be asked to play
or sing (Maugham).
2. And if necessary strike a light blow so as to stun her – no more – so that, falling in
the water, she (to drown) the more easily (Dreiser).
3. “What do you say, De Levis? D’you want everybody in the house knocked up so
that their keys (to be tried)? (Galsworthy).
4. They climbed down the three flights of stairs and crossed the back yard on tiptoe
so that the snow (not to come up) over their rubbers (Saxton).
5. Judge not that ye (to be) not judged (Carter).
6. At your age I looked for hardship, danger, horror, and death, that I (to feel) the
life in me more intensely (Show).
7. Miss Osyth turned and ran, she ran lest she (to be seen) (Bennet).
8. “Of course, there may not be a vacancy, and I don’t want to put another person
out of her place that I (to step) into it (Mulhollard).
9. Now here’s a form of receipt I’ve made out and you must get her to sign that so
that there (to be) no possible mistake (Priestley).
10. Roberta … finally arranged with her mother to leave in order that she (to help) her
more directly with her wages (Dreiser).
11. All insisted on refilling the glasses so that everybody (to drink) to Mrs. Cough’s
health, happiness, and prosperity on the fields (Pritchard).

Exercise 6
Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of purpose.
1. Я отказываюсь от приглашения, чтобы провести воскресенье с вами.
2. Они ехали с закрытыми окнами, чтобы сын не простудился.
3. Он отошел в сторону, чтобы всем было видно, что написано на доске.
4. Я ушла в свою комнату, чтобы мне никто не мешал заниматься.
5. Займите места в первом ряду, чтобы лучше слышать оратора.
6. Она сказала, что будет сопровождать их обоих, чтобы ни у кого не было
причины жаловаться (по Драйзеру).
7. Позже, чтобы Клайд мог сделать несколько снимков, они пристали к берегу
(по Драйзеру).
8. Купите другую, новую шляпу, а эту оставьте на воде. Вы могли бы даже
спороть подкладку, чтобы по ней нельзя было установить, кому она
принадлежала (по Драйзеру).
9. План Соумса заключается в том, чтобы подождать немного, а затем
построить действительно хороший дом, чтобы нам потом не пришлось
строить заново (по Голсуорси).

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Comparison and Manner

31
Clauses of comparison and manner are introduced with as if/ as though and are used to
express the way in which something is done/said, etc.
● We use as if/as though after verbs such as act, appear, be, behave, feel, look, seem,
smell, sound, taste to say how somebody or something looks, behaves, etc.
He is acting as if/ as though he has had bad news.

We also use as if/as though with other verbs to say how somebody does something.
She talks as if/as though she knows everything.

● We use as if/as though + past tense when we are talking about an unreal present
situation. Were can be used instead of was in all persons.
He spends his money as if/as though he was/were a millionaire. (But he isn't.)
He behaves as if/as though he owned the place. (But he doesn't)

● We use as if/as though + past perfect/past perfect continuous tense when we are
talking about an unreal past situation.
She had a feeling as if/as though she had known him all her life.
He spoke English as if/as though he had been studying it for many years.
● We use as if/as though + would + simple infinitive when we are talking about an
unreal future situation.

She spoke and it seemed as if/as though she would never stop.

Note: We can use like instead of as if/as though in spoken English.

She looks like she's going to faint. (informal spoken English)

Exercise 1
Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.
1. She was wandering up and down the street. She looked as though she was (be)
lost.
2. Although he had a degree in French, it sounded as though he _________
(not/speak it well).
3. The sky is dark. It looks as if it __________ (rain).
4. There is a strange smell in the kitchen. It smells as though something ________
(burn).
5. Tom is twenty-five years old, but he sometimes acts as though he ________ (be) a
child.
6. Colin was out of breath. He sounded as though he _________ (run).
7. Jim has only just learned this game, but he plays it as if he ___________ (play) it
for years.
8. We had never met before, but she greeted me as if we _________ (know) each
other all our lives.

Exercise 2

32
Analise the moods of the verbs in bold type in the adverbial clauses of comparison and
manner joined by “as if”, “as though”.
1. I can see her as though it were but yesterday (Maurier).
2. Stephanie continued to read as if no one else were in the room (Saxton).
3. This is the last letter I shall write to you … if I should happen to return, when we
meet I will act as if this had never been written (Wilson).
4. The world saw a serious and rather silent little man … going about his work as
though he would go on doing it for ever (Deeping).
5. … she ‘ll proceed with her French lesson, as if nothing had happened (Bennett).
6. I found you staring at me across the kitchen table as if you’d never seen me before
(Saxton).
7. She dropped the journal as if it had been a living coal of fire (Galsworthy).6
8. Leeds shook her head again as if she could find no words to express herself
(Saxton).
9. Erik, don’t say it as if you hate me (Wilson).
10. If he is able to have dinner with you, take a book to your window as though you
want to catch the light (Greene).
11. Johnny kept glancing at him as if he were trying to think of something to say
(Saxton).
12. And I treat a duchess as if she was a flower girl (Shaw).7
13. Are you still working for your uncle? “Oh, yes,” replied Clyde quickly, as though
it would make an enormous difference to her if he were not (Dreiser).

Exercise 3
Make up complex sentences with adverbial clauses of comparison according to the
models.
Model 1: Principal clause + as if Subordinate clause
as though Subjunctive mood forms of the
type “were”/”spoke”
(“had been”/”had spoken”)
e.g. She speaks (spoke) English so well as if she were a native.
She looks (looked) so pale as though she had been ill for some time.
1. He dances so well as if …
2. He treated me so badly as though …
3. … as if she had never seen me.
4. She ran so fast as if …
5. The little girl behaved …
6. … as though I were a stranger.
7. I will act as if …
8. The boy was stammering as if …

Model 2: as if + indicative mood8

6
The perfect form is used here to express a highly unreal action simultaneous to the action of the
principal clause; this use of the perfect form is rare.
7
The form of the oblique mood “was” instead of “were” is common in colloquial English.
8
The model with the indicative mood is less common than Model 1 and is confined to colloquial
English.

33
 as though
e.g. He acts as if he is a coward.
He acted as if he was a coward.
1. He teaches them so well as if …
2. She is reciting the poem in such a hurry as if …
3. … as though he has lived here for ages.
4. They were packing so hastily as though …
5. … as if she does not know me.
6. She passed by without greeting me as if …

Exercise 4
Open the brackets using the required form of the verb.
1. I advise you to receive me as if nothing (to happen)… (Show).
2. The old man said nothing, but he folded the white square of paper as if it (to be)
the legal deed of land in itself (Aldridge).
3. I lowered the boat more carefully than I (to raise) it … (Aldridge).
4. I knew you better than you (to know) me now (Saxton).
5. I don’t feel half as mean as I (to do) (Greene).
6. But it was plain that he admired Judith immediately hanging over her with a
merry possessive look as though at any moment he (to pick her up) and (to slip)
her into his deep coat-pocket (Walpole).
7. My mother was a very poor woman who had no reasonable choice but to do as
she (to do) (Shaw).
8. … Andrews turned around at her as if she just (to occur) to him in his own mind
(Aldridge).
9. Knocking out his pipe on the heel of his boot, Philip inspected it as though it (to
demand) all his attention (Cronin).
10. Then he laughed as if he never (to laugh) before (Aldridge).
11. Come, my child; you must not trifle with me as if I (to be) a stranger (Shaw).
12. She closed her eyes as though she too (to be) tired (Maurier).
13. I had to smile as though I (to know) all about it …(Maurier).

Exercise 5
Translate into English using adverbial clauses of comparison and manner. Give variants
with different verb forms wherever possible.
1. Девочка говорит с матерью шепотом, как будто боится, что их кто-нибудь
услышит.
2. Молодой папаша нес ребенка, как будто он боялся уронить или сломать его.
3. Эта студентка будет хорошей преподавательницей. Она уже сейчас ведет
урок так, как будто преподает уже несколько лет.
4. Он так тщательно готовит доклад, как будто он должен делать его не на
занятиях, а на научной конференции.
5. Он повторил свой ответ несколько раз, как будто повторение могло лучше
передать значение его слов.

34
 6. Эндрю так хорошо провел операцию в шахте, как будто он был опытным
врачом, как будто у него и раньше уже были подобные случаи. (по
Кронину).
7. Том красил забор так, как будто эта работа действительно доставляла ему
удовольствие. Когда мальчишки попросили разрешить им помочь ему, он
разговаривал с ними так, как будто это было для него очень опасно и как
будто тетя Полли запретила ему делать это (по Твену).
8. Фаулер говорил Пайлу откровенно все, что думал о нем. Он даже сказал
ему, что он желал его смерти, когда тот приехал к нему на линию фронта.
Но, несмотря на это, Пайл смотрел на него так, как будто Фаулер шутит, и
он не верит ни одному его слову (по Грину).
9. Фаулер боялся потерять Фуонг. Он скрыл от нее, что жена отказала ему в
разводе. А в отношении Пайла он принял такое решение: “С ним я буду
вести себя так, как будто все уладилось. Тогда он оставит Фуонг в покое”
(по Грину).

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Condition

As well as if, there are a number of other words and phrases for expressing condition.
● You can't come in unless you have a ticket.
● You can borrow the bike on condition that you return it by five o'clock.
● In case of fire, dial 999.
● You can stay, as long as you don't mind sleeping on the sofa. ( less formal than so long
as and not so strong as on condition that)
● Providing (that) or provided (that) can also be used in sentences 2 and 4. They are
less formal and not so strong as on condition that but stronger and more restricting than
as long as.
Provided/Providing you don't mind cats, you can stay with us.
● Note the use of supposing and what if (usually in spoken language) for possible
situations in the future. What if is more direct.
Supposing/What if he doesn't turn up; what shall we do then?

●Conditions with -ever

However you do it, it will cost a lot of money.
You'll get to the railway station, whichever bus you take.
Whoever wins the General Election, nothing will really change.
That box is so big it will be in the way wherever you leave it.

These four sentences can also be expressed using no matter.

No matter how you do it, it will cost a lot of money.
You'll get to the railway station, no matter which bus you take.

Notice in all these example how the present tense is used in the clause with the
conditional word or phrase.

● Some nouns which express condition

35
Certain conditions must be met before the Peace Talks can begin.
A good standard of English is a prerequisite for studying at a British University.
(absolutely necessary; very formal word)
What are the entry requirements for doing a diploma in Management at your college?
(official conditions)
I would not move to London under any circumstances. It's awful!

Exercise 1
Fill the gaps with a suitable conditional word or phrase.
1. You can come to the party ____________ you don't bring that ghastly friend of
yours.
2. __________ emergency in the machine-room, sound the alarm and notify the
supervisor at once.
3. __________ I hear from you, I'll assume you are coming.
4. A person may take the driving test again __________ they have not already taken
a test within the previous fourteen days.
5. __________ I lend you my car, would that help?

Exercise 2
Change the sentences with -ever to no matter, and vice- versa.
1. Wherever she goes, she always takes that dog of hers.
2. If anyone rings, I don't want to speak to them, no matter who it is.
3. No matter what I do, I always seem to do the wrong thing.
4. It'll probably have meat in it, whichever dish you choose. They don't cater for
non-meat eaters here.
5. No matter how I do it, that recipe never seems to work.

Exercise 3
What would your answers be to these questions?
1. Are there any prerequisites for the job you do or would like to do in the future?
2. Under what circumstances would you move from where you are living at the
moment?
3. What are the normal entry requirements for university in Russia?
4. On what condition would you lend a friend your flat?

Exercise 4
Analyse the forms of the verbs in bold type. Answer the following questions: 1) Which
subjunctive mood forms are used in the two clauses of complex sentences with adverbial
clauses of unreal condition? 2) Which combinations of perfect and non-perfect forms can
be found in the two clauses?
1. You don’t know everything about me. I think that if you did, even you would
turn from me (Wilde).
2. If you had come in yesterday at a particular moment … you would have found
me in tears (Wilde).

36
 3. I … have seen twenty-three of his plays publicly acted. But if I had not read
them as well, my impression of them would be not merely incomplete, but
violently distorted and falsified (Shaw).
4. If a dramatic author were to publish a pantomime, he could only make it
intelligible to a reader by giving him the words, which the pantomimist is
supposed to be uttering (Shaw).
5. If it should unfortunately happen, Mr. Cokane, that this leads to nothing but a
disappointment for Blanche, probably she would rather not see you afterwards.
But if all turns out as we hope, Dr. Trench’s best friends will then be our best
friends (Shaw).
6. Sartorius: … in case difficulties arise and the match - you see I call it a match –
be broken off, I should not wish Blanche to think that she had allowed a
gentleman to-to- [Trench nods sympathetically] (Shaw).
7. It’s always been difficult. We’ve no hospital, let alone an isolation ward. If you
should run into anything very nasty ring up Griffiths at Toniglan. … He’s the
District Medical Officer (Cronin).
8. Presently he began again in his soft, murmuring purr “just the voice a jaguar
would talk in if it could speak and were in a good humour”, Gemma said to
herself with rising irritation (Voynich).
9. “There she goes”, he said, “there she goes, with two pounds’worth of food on
board that belongs to me, and that I haven’t had”. He said that if they had given
him another day he thought he could have put it straight (Jerome).
10. Still Beatrice had taken the trouble to go up to London and to buy the books for
me. She would not have done that if she disliked me (Maurier).
11. I will do all I can to avoid having to use your evidence. But if there should be no
other way, I will see that you have police protection from the moment that the
subpoena is served on you (Sayers).
12. With regard to the sums of money mentioned by Monsieur Parker, if monsieur
would give him the number of some of the notes, efforts would be made to trace
them (Sayers).9

Exercise 5
Open the brackets using the appropriate form of the verb.
1. If your Eminence (to know) what I and my assistants have put up with from this
man you (to feel) differently about the matter (Voynich).
2. Martel told me he believed they never (to go) through the expedition at all if it
(not to be) for Rivares (Voynich).
3. Her jealous reproaches (to act) on his nerves, if he (to be) to hear much of them
tonight (Voynich).
4. “I doubt whether it could be managed”, Marcone answered with a very grave
face. “But - if it (to be) possible – you (to do) it?” (Voynich).
5. She had some jewelry – a diamond ring and pin and several other pieces. She
(can, to get) fifty dollars for these if she (to go) to a pawnbroker (Dreiser).
6. Jim, dear, if anger and passion (can, to save) Italy, she (to be) free long ago, it is
not hatred that she needs, it is love (Voynich).
9
When “would” is used in the adverbial clause of condition it is a modal verb (see exercise 1 above).

37
 7. But I wish you could have accepted the invitation of your English doctor friend; if
you (to spend) a month in his house you (to be) more fit to study (Voynich).
8. I (to talk) to mother if I (to think) of it; but it went right out of my head
(Voynich).
9. If I ever sincerely (to love) you, if I (to love) you still, I (not to loathe) so and (to
hate) myself for my weakness as I do now (Hardy).
10. If I (to be) such a dog, I (can, to write) to him as well (Wilson).

Exercise 6
Translate the sentences into English paying attention to the use of verb-forms in the
conditional sentences presented in indirect speech.
1. Мейбл сказала, что если бы она попыталась рассказать (рассказала бы)
кому-нибудь о своей любви к белому человеку, ее бы назвали сумасшедшей.
2. Лэнни понимал, что если бы он проявил смирение и страх в разговоре с
белым человеком, тот не ударил бы его.
3. Герт предупредил Лэнни, что если он сделает хоть один неверный
(неугодный ему) шаг, это будет стоить ему жизни (по Абрахамсу).
4. Кэрри не понимала, что если бы она была одна, она должна была бы платить
за комнату и стол, и не могла бы тратить весь свой заработок на одежду и
другие вещи (по Драйзеру).
5. Друг Давида Копперфильда просил его не думать о нем плохо, если бы их
вдруг когда-либо разлучили (по Диккенсу).
6. Джейн сказала своей подруге Элен, что если бы она была на ее месте, она
бы возненавидела эту злую учительницу, которая постоянно мучила и
унижала ее (по Бронте).
7. Джемма сказала, что если бы Овод согласился переделать свой памфлет и
исключить из него все личные нападки, он (памфлет) мог бы стать очень
полезным (по Войнич).
8. Артур сказал Монтанелли, что если бы он получил свободу, он продолжал
бы бороться против религии (по Войнич).
9. Как вы думаете, если бы Монтанелли мог отказаться от религии, может
быть он мог бы спасти Овода, (по Войнич).
10. Что бы ты сделал, Гарри, если бы я сказал тебе, что я убил Бэйзила? –
спросил Дориан Грей (по Уайльду).

Complex Sentences with Adverbial Clauses of Concession/Contrast

Concession means accepting one part of a state of affairs but putting another argument or
fact against it.
Although they were poor, they were independent.
He is a bit stupid. He's very kind, nevertheless.
These clauses are introduced with the following conjunctions/phrases:
but – although/even though/though – in spite of/despite – however – while/whereas – yet
– still - nevertheless – on the other hand
Even though is more emphatic than although.

38
Though is informal and is often used in everyday speech. It can also be put at the end of
a sentence.
Yet is formal.
● Verbs of concession
I acknowledge/accept that he has worked hard but it isn't enough. → I agree but...
(accept is less formal than acknowledge)
I admit I was wrong, but I still think we were right to doubt her. → I accept I'm guilty of
what I'm accused of.
I concede that you are right about the goal, but not the method. → You have won this
point in our argument. (formal)
● Adverbs and other phrases for concession
OK, you're sorry. That's all well and good, but how are you going to pay us back?
You shouldn't seem so surprised. After all, I did warn you.
It's all very well saying you love dogs, but who'll take it for walks if we do get one?
He is boring, and he is rather cold and unfriendly, but, for all that, he is your uncle and
we should invite him.
Admittedly, she put a lot of effort in, but it was all wasted.

● Phrases for contrast

I expected Mr Widebody to be fat. The reverse was true.
We're not almost there at all; quite the opposite. We've got five miles to go yet.
Everywhere in Europe people use metric measures. In contrast, Britain still uses non-
metric.
It's not actually raining now. On the other hand, it may rain later, so take the umbrella.
● On the other hand means “that is true and this is true”.
● On the contrary means “that is not true, but this is true”
John, quiet? On the contrary, he's the noisiest person I know.
John is rather arrogant. On the other hand, he can be very kind.

● Remember these collocating phrases for contrast.

When it comes to politics, Jim and Ann are poles apart.
There's a world of difference between being a friend and a lover.
A yawning gap divides rich and poor in many countries.
There's a great divide between left and right wing in general.
There's a huge discrepancy between his ideals and his actions.

Exercise 1
Rewrite these sentences using the most likely verb of concession (there is usually more
than one possibility).
1. I know that you weren't solely to blame, but you must take some responsibility.
2. Okay, I was wrong, you were right; he is a nice guy.
3. The company is prepared to say that you have suffered some delay, but we do not
accept liability.
4. She didn't deny that we had done all we could, but she was still not content.

Exercise 2

39
Write a beginning for these sentences, as in the example.
1. I expected Mary to be tall and dark. The reverse was true; she was short, with
fair hair.
2. ___________ On the other hand, it does have a big garden, so I think we should
rent it.
3. Jim: ___________? Mary: On the contrary, it's one of the cheapest hotels in
town.
4. __________ In contrast, the traffic in Britain drives on the left.
5. __________; quite the opposite. I feel quite full. I had a huge breakfast.

Exercise 3
Fill in the gaps.
1. a ________ gap
2. a _________ of difference
3. a _________ discrepancy
4. __________ apart
5. a great _________
Now use these phrases for contrast to make comments on these statements.
1. Some people believe in the nuclear deterrent, some in world disarmament.
2. She says one thing. She does quite the opposite.
3. Jim believes in God. Sandra's a total atheist.
4. Being a student's one thing; being a teacher's quite another.

Exercise 4
Complete the sentences with phrases for concession.
1. Okay, you've cleaned the kitchen, ___________ , but what about the mess in the
dining-room.
2. No need to panic. ___________ , it doesn't start till six.
3. She's bossy and sly, but ___________ she is a friend.
4. __________ saying you'll pay me back soon; when is what I want to know!

Exercise 5
Choose between on the other hand and on the contrary.
1. I'm not worried; __________ , I feel quite calm.
2. It's expensive, but __________ , we do need it.

Exercise 6
Choose the correct answer.
1. ____A____ the heavy snow, we managed to get to the office.
A in spite of B However C While
2. _________needing a rest, the team continued to work.
A In spite of B Despite C Although
3. I like peaches. I don't like bananas, _________ .
A whereas B on the other hand C though
4. The film was good, __________ it was also very frightening.
A despite B but C in spite of

40
 5. Paul drives a car, __________ Charles rides a motorbike.
A whereas B even though C despite
6. _________ she isn't fond of classical music, she went to the concert.
A However B Even though C While
7. ________ being hungry, Sally didn't eat anything.
A However B Yet C In spite of
8. The alarm went off,___________ he didn't wake up.
A whereas B yet C while
9. ___________ we left the house early, we still missed the bus.
A Although B Despite C In spite of
10. He wasn't wearing a coat, __________ it was very cold.
A whereas B even though C despite

Exercise 7
Complete the sentences.
1. In spite of the rain, the football match took place.
Although it was raining, the football match took place.
2. Even thouпр we were late, we stopped to have something to eat.
Despite ________________________________
3. Even though they are good friends, they argue a lot.
In spite ________________________________
4. In spite of having a lot of money, they are very mean.
Although ______________________________
5. In spite of winning the competition, he wasn't satisfied
Even though ___________________________
6. Even though he woke up early, he was late for his appointment.
Despite _______________________________

Exercise 8
Rewrite the sentences using the word(s) in brackets.
1. I live in London. Sarah lives in Manchester. (while)
I live in London while Sarah lives in Manchester.
2. We went to the party. We were very tired. (though)
3. She doesn't earn much money. She works very hard. (in spite of)
4. He was ill. He went to work. (despite)
5. This appliance is very expensive. It is impractical. (yet)
6. The teacher explained the question in detail. I didn't understand it. (still)
7. I drank a bottle of water. I was still thirsty. (even though)
8. The film was boring. We continued to watch it. (in spite of)
9. David can't play football. He is good at basketball. (on the other hand)
10. It was very late. The guests didn't leave. (nevertheless)
11. Lisa went shopping. She didn't buy anything. (but)
12. The boy fell off his bicycle. He wasn't hurt. (however)
13. He was tired. He couldn't sleep. (although)
14. Brian is good at Maths. His sister is good at Science. (whereas)
15. Janet is clever. She finds some subjects difficult.(still)

41
 16. He is rich. He is not happy. (despite)

Exercise 9
Rephrase the sentences using the words in brackets, as in the example.
1. Dennis is tired. He doesn't want to go to bed. (although, despite)
a) Although Dennis is tired, he doesn't want to go to bed.
b) Despite (his) being tired, Dennis doesn't want to go to bed.
2. It was a lovely day. They stayed inside. (however, in spite of)
3. Martin is a good cook. He rarely cooks for his friends. (still, though)
4. The house is in bad condition. They paid a lot of money for it. (even though,
nevertheless)
5. The lecture was very important. Few students attended. (despite, yet)
6. There wasn't much food in the fridge. We managed to make a meal. (although,
however)
7. She hadn't slept well. She looked fresh and lovely. (still, in spite of)
8. His parents are very rich. He never asks them for money. (nevertheless, yet)
9. I had seen the film before. I enjoyed watching it again. (though, despite)
10. Celine Dion is my favourite singer. I haven't been to any of her concerts. (even
though, however)

Exercise 10
Paraphrase the sentences using the connectives suggested in brackets.10
Model 1
Carrie applied to many places but she could not find any work (No matter where,
wherever). – No matter where (wherever) Carrie applied (may have applied) she could
not find any work.

1. Andrew made many calls and received many patients but Mrs Page was not
satisfied (No matter how many) (after Cronin).
2. Everything Christine said or did in those days, annoyed Andrew (whatever, no
matter what) (after Cronin).
3. The guest (Mr. Griffiths) was very careful and secretive and yet the landlady soon
noticed that there was something queer about him (though, even though, no matter
how) (after Wells).
4. Lanny and Sarrie could have reached Cape Town, but they would have never lived
in peace there (no matter whether, even though) (after Abrahams).
5. Dr Kemp was interested in Griffiths’s experiments but he would have never agreed
to work with him (no matter how much, no matter how, however much, though).
6. Montanelli could have helped the Gadfly to escape, but they would have never
come to an understanding for neither of them would give up his beliefs (although,
even though) (after Voynich).
Model 2

10
The use of verb-forms may vary depending on the original sentence.

42
If the doctor had examined the young man more carefully he would have found
something wrong with him. – Even if the doctor had examined the young man more
carefully he would not have found anything wrong with him (after Jerome).11
1. If David had behaved better Mr Murdstone would have treated him differently.
2. Mr Murdstone wouldn’t have sent David to Salem House if his mother had
protested against it more strongly.
3. If Pegotty had not been sent away, David’s life would not have been miserable.
4. David would never have found Miss Trotwood’s cottage unless he had
accidentally met Janet, his aunt’s maid.
5. If Mr Dick had not given her any advice Miss Trotwood would not have known
what she should do with David (after Dickens).
6. If Andrew Manson had been a little more experienced he would have put an end
to the outbreak of typhoid at once.
7. Had he known what kind of a job he was taking he would never have accepted
Mrs Page’s offer (after Cronin).
8. If Tom had not come to see Aunt Polly that night she would not have forgiven
him for running away to the uninhabited island.
9. If Tom had expected to meet Injun Joe in the cave he would not have ventured to
search for the treasure.

Exercise 11
Translate the sentences into English using adverbial clauses of concession. Give variants
with different connectives, moods, and modal verbs.
1. Что бы ты там ни говорил, я буду поступать так, как решила.
2. Кто бы ни пришел, не мешайте мне.
3. Где бы он сейчас ни был, немедленно найдите его и приведите сюда
4. Когда бы вы ни пришли домой, позвоните мне.
5. Как бы поздно он ни ложился спать, он всегда встает в шесть часов утра.
6. Как бы рано вы ни встали, разбудите меня.
7. Каков бы ни был ответ, дайте мне знать сразу.
8. К кому бы я ни обращался, никто не может решить мне эту задачу.
9. Куда бы я ни пошла, всюду встречаю знакомых.
10. Сколько бы я ни занимался, мне все кажется, что я плохо знаю урок.
11. Кем бы вы ни хотели быть – переводчиком или преподавателем, прежде
всего вы должны хорошо знать язык.
12. Пусть даже он не сможет довести работу до конца, он сделает очень
большую часть и облегчит этим нашу задачу.
13. Хотя бы даже было и очень холодно, я бы с удовольствием пошел пешком.
14. Пускай бы даже его и не было сейчас дома, все равно надо отнести ему
книгу, как мы обещали.
15. Мы всегда знали, - что бы ни случилось, мы могли обратиться к нашей
старой учительнице за советом и помощью.

Complex Sentences with Attributive (Relative) Clauses

11
In paraphrasing the sentence change the form in the principal clause from affirmative to the negative or
vice versa.

43
 Attributive (relative) clauses are introduced with a) relative pronouns (who(m),
which, whose, that) and b) relative adverbs (when, where, why).
We use:
 who/that to refer to people
 which, that to refer to objects or animals.
Who/which/that can be omitted when it is the object of the relative clause; that is,
when there is a noun or subject pronoun between the relative pronoun and the verb. It
cannot be omitted when it is the subject of the relative clause. We can use whom instead
of who when it is the object of the relative clause. Whom is not often used in everyday
English.
a) I saw a friend. I hadn't seen him for years.
↓
I saw a friend (who/whom/that) I hadn't seen for years. (Who/ whom/
that is the object, therefore it can be omitted.)
b) I met a woman. She was from Japan.
↓
I met a woman who/that was from Japan. (Who/that is the subject, therefore it
cannot be omitted.)
 whose instead of possessive adjectives (my, your, his, etc.) with people, objects
and animals in order to show possession.
a) That's the boy – his bicycle was stolen yesterday.
↓
That's the boy whose bicycle was stolen yesterday.
b) That's the building – its windows were smashed.
↓
That's the building whose windows were smashed.
 We usually avoid using prepositions before relative pronouns.
a) The person to whom the money will be entrusted must be reliable. (formal
English – unusual structure)
b) The chair that you are sitting on is an antique. (usual structure)
c) The chair you are sitting on is an antique. (everyday English)
 which can refer back to a whole clause.
He helped me do the washing- up. That was kind of him.
He helped me do the washing- up, which was kind of him. (which refers back to
the whole clause. That is, it refers to the fact that he helped the speaker do the
washing- up.)
 We can use the structure all/most/some/a few/half/none/two, etc. + of +
whom/which.
a) He invited a lot of people. All of them were his friends.
He invited a lot of people, all of whom were his friends.
b) He has a number of watches. Three of them are solid gold.
He has a number of watches, three of which are solid gold.
 That is never used after a comma or preposition.
a) The Chinese vase, which is on the coffee table, is very expensive.
b) The bank in which the money was deposited is across the street.

44
  We use that with words such as all, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing),
no(thing),none, few, little, much, only and with the superlative form.
Is this all that you can do for me? (more natural than … all which you can do..)
The only thing that is important to me is my family.
It's the best song that I've ever heard.

who/that subject - cannot be omitted

(people)
who/whom/that object - can be omitted
(people)
which/that subject - cannot be omitted
(objects, animals) object - can be omitted
whose possession - cannot be omitted
(people, objects, animals)

We use:
 where to refer to place, usually after nouns such as place, house, street, town,
country, etc.
It can be replaced by which/that + preposition and, in this case, which/that can
be omitted.
The house where he was born has been demolished.
The house (which/that)he was born in has been demolished.
 when to refer to time, usually after nouns such as time, period, moment,day, year,
summer, etc. It can either be replaced by that or can be omitted.
That was the year when she graduated.
That was the year (that) she graduated.
 why to give reason, usually after the word reason. It can either be replaced by
that or can be omitted.
The reason why she left her job was that she didn't get on with her boss.
The reason (that) she left her job was that she didn't get on with her boss.

Exercise 1
How much do you know about films? Fill in the gaps with who, which, whose, where or
when, then answer the questions.
1. Name the actor who plays Mr Bean.
A Rowan Atkinson B Rolph Harris
2. Name the US president ______ was first an actor.
A James Carter B Ronald Reagan
3. Name the US city ______ Hollywood can be found.
A Los Angeles B Las Vegas
4. Name the film ________ tells the story of a strong mythical character.
A Aladdin B Hercules
5. Name the character_______ nose grows when he tells lies.
A Pinocchio B Peter Pan
6. Name the year _______the first studio was built in Hollywood.
A 1991 B 1911

45
 7. Name the year _______ Titanic was released.
A 1998 B 1988
8. Name the superhero _______ lives in Gotham City.
A Superman B Batman
9. Name the place _______ The Lion King is set.
A Africa B America
10. Name the city _______ the Hunchback of Notre Dame lived.
A Paris B Prague

Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with who, which or where.
 The Coca-Cola Company, 1) which was founded in 1892, is famous all over the
world.
 The company, 2) _______ produces many soft drinks, is based in Atlanta.
 John S. Pemberton, 3) _______ invented Coca- Cola, invented the drink to be
used as a cure for common illnesses.
 Frank Robinson, 4) ________ worked for John Pemberton, chose the name Coca-
Cola.
 Fanta, 5) ________ was originally produced in Germany, was bought by the
Coca-Cola Company.
 Sprite, 6)_________ was introduced in 1961, is also made by the Coca-Cola
Company.
 The US Patent Office, 7) ________ the trademark “Coca-Cola” was registered,
has also registered the trademark “Coke” and the glass Coca-Cola bottle.
 In America, 8) ________ Coca-Cola was first produced, there is a large soft drink
industry, but the Coca-Cola company is the most successful.

Exercise 3
Fill in the correct relative pronoun/adverb. If it can be omitted, put it in brackets.
1. When did you buy the jacket (which/that) you are wearing?
2. Is that the girl _______ sent you a Valentine's card?
3. The reason _______ John is successful is that he works very hard.
4. What did you do with the money_______ I gave you?
5. Sam is mending the chair _______ he broke yesterday.
6. Is this the place _______ you lost your jacket?
7. Have you met the people ________ live next door to you?
8. I'll never forget the day ________ my daughter was born.
9. Claire is reading the book _________ she bought yesterday.
10. I've been running. That's ________ I'm out of breath.
11. This is the town ________ my favourite singer lives.
12. What is the name of the woman _______ works in the chemist's?
13. Is this the boy ________ parents own the factory?
14. I'll never forget the time________ she fell into the swimming pool.
15. Where are the children _________ ball broke our window?

Exercise 4

46
Fill in who, which, whose where or why.
One of the most famous buildings in the world is the White House, 1) which is
the official home of the US president. The White House is in Washington DC,2) _______
there are many other important buildings and monuments. The city, 3)________ was
founded in 1790, was deliberately planned as a national capital. George Washington, 4)
________ was the first US president and 5) _______ name was given to the city, wanted
it to be the place 6) _________ the nation's government would permanently reside.
The White House, 7) _________ was originally named Executive Mansion, was
built in pale grey sandstone. The colour of the stone, 8) _______ was so different from
the surrounding red brick buildings, was the reason 9) _______ the mansion became
known as the White House. The main building, 10) ________ many presidents have
lived, is part of a large complex 11) ________ consists of over 130 rooms.
People find the White House fascinating and that is the reason 12) ________ the
parts of the complex 13) _________ are open to the public are toured every year by one
and a half million people 14) ________ want to see the place 15) ________ their
president lives and works.

Exercise 5
Complete the pairs of sentences, as in the examples.
1. Tom is playing football with a boy. The boy is his cousin.
A The boy who/whom Tom is playing football with is his cousin.
B The boy Tom is playing football with is his cousin.
2. Sam has gone to a party. The party is at his friend's house.
A The party _________
B The party _________
3. I was talking to a woman. The woman is my boss.
A The woman __________
B The woman __________
4. She works for a writer. The writer is very famous.
A The writer _________
B The writer _________
5. I lent my jacket to Pam. The jacket is made of leather.
A The jacket _________
B The jacket _________

Exercise 6
Join the sentences, as in the example.
1. My brother has lots of friends. Many of them are in his class.
My brother has lots of friends, many of whom are in his class.
2. My father has a large collection of coins. Many of them are foreign.
3. I baked lots of biscuits yesterday. Very few of them are left now.
4. She knows lots of people at work. A few of them are from New Zealand.
5. I have four aunts. None of them are married.
6. There are thousands of trees in the forest. Some of them are very old.

Exercise 7

47
Link the sentences in order to produce one sentence. The beginning is given.
1. The coach was packed with tourists. The coach was driving around London. The
tourists had gone there to see the sights.
The coach, which was driving around London, was packed with tourists who had
gone there to see the sights.
2. I went to the dentist's. He is a friend of mine. I met him at university.
The dentist …
3. A song won the competition. It was written by a schoolboy. He was thirteen years
old.
The song …
4. I helped someone with his homework. His name is Alec and he's a classmate of
mine.
I helped …
5. Elaine's house is going to be pulled down. She is looking for a new flat.
Elaine, …
6. The book is a bestseller. It's written by Nathan Davis. He has written ten novels.
The book, …

Identifying / Non-identifying Clauses

There are two types of relative clauses: identifying relative clauses and non-
identifying relative clauses. An identifying relative clause gives necessary information
and is essential to the meaning of the main sentence. It is not put in commas. A non-
identifying relative clause gives extra information and is not essential to the meaning of
the main sentence. It is put in commas.
Identifying relative clauses are introduced with:
 who, which, that. They can be omitted if they are the object of the relative clause.
a) People are prosecuted. ( Which people? We don't know. The meaning of the
sentence is not clear.)
People who/that lie in court are prosecuted.(Which people? Those who lie in
court. The meaning of the sentence is clear.)
b) The papers are missing. (Which papers? We don't know. The meaning of the
sentence is not clear.)
The papers (which/that) you gave me to check are missing. (Which papers?
The ones you gave me to check. The meaning of the sentence is clear.)
 whose, where, when, (the reason) why. Whose cannot be omitted. Where can be
omitted when there is a preposition. When and why can either be replaced by that
or can be omitted.
a) The man was angry. (Which man? We don't know. The meaning of the sentence
is not clear.)
The man whose car was damaged was angry. (Which man? The one whose car
was damaged. The meaning of the sentence is clear.)
b) The shop is near my house.(Which shop? We don't know.)
The shop where I bought this shirt is near my house. Or The shop I bought this
shirt from is near my house. (Which shop? The one I bought this shirt from.)
c) The day was the happiest day of my life. (Which day? We don't know>)
The day (when/that) I got married was the happiest day of my life. (Which

48
 day? The day I got married.)
d) I was upset. This is the reason. (The reason for what? We don't know.)
I was upset. This is the reason (why/that) I didn't call you. (The reason I didn't
call you.)
Non-identifying relative clauses are introduced with:
 who, whom, which. They cannot be omitted or replaced by that.
a) Jenny Ladd is my favourite author. (The meaning of the sentence is clear.)
Jenny Ladd, who has written a lot of successful books, is my favourite author.
(The relative clause gives extra information.)
b) My cousin Peter is a doctor. (The meaning of the sentence is clear.)
My cousin Peter, who(m) you have just met, is a doctor.(The relative clause
gives extra information.)
c) His flat is modern and spacious.
His flat, which he bought two years ago, is modern and spacious.
 whose, where, when. They cannot be omitted.
a) The bride looked stunning. (The meaning of the sentence is clear.)
The bride, whose wedding dress was designed by Valentino, looked stunning.
(The relative clause gives extra information.)
b) Stratford-upon-Avon, is visited by thousands of tourist every year.
Stratford-upon-Avon, where Shakespeare was born, is visited by thousands of
tourist every year.
c) The best time to visit the island is in May.
The best time to visit the island is in May, when it isn't too crowded.

Exercise 8
Fill in the relative pronoun or adverb. Put commas where necessary. Write I for
identifying, NI for non-identifying and say whether the relative can be omitted or not.
1. Paul whose birthday is on Friday, is having a party tonight. (NI, cannot be
omitted)
2. My office _________ is very big is on the first floor.
3. Martin _________ works in the library writes poetry in his spare time.
4. That's the woman ________ house was burgled last week.
5. The day ________ I left school was hot and sunny.
6. Sarah Jones _________ I knew at university is a doctor now.
7. This is the girl _________ letter was printed in the newspaper.
8. This CD __________ I bought yesterday is awful.
9. Tina __________ lives next door is a wonderful cook.
10. People _________ play musical instruments are called musicians.
11. The café ________ we had lunch served delicious food.
12. This is the reason _______ I haven't finished.
13. My friend Peter ________ has just moved to Wales sent me a long letter.
14. My boss _________ office is next to mine is on holiday at the moment.
15. London ________ the Houses of Parliament are is the capital of England.
16. My favourite time of the year is summer __________ the weather is hot.
17. The woman _________ won the lottery gave an interview to the newspaper.

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Exercise 9
Complete each sentence with two to five words, including the word in bold.
1. This is Mark. His sister is a famous author.
whose This is Mark whose sister is a famous author.
2. This is the motorbike. I repaired it myself.
that This is the motorbike ___________ myself.
3. Mr Smith owns the company. He is a wealthy businessman.
who Mr Smith, __________ ,is a wealthy businessman.
4. I'm afraid of water. That's why I never swim in the sea.
which I'm afraid of water, __________swim in the sea.
5. You were talking to a girl. She is my niece.
whom The girl __________ is my niece.
6. The boy broke the window. He said he was sorry.
who The boy ________ said he was sorry.
7. Bath is the city he lived in when he was young.
where Bath is the city __________ he was young.
8. People should be punished if they commit crimes.
who People _________ should be punished.
9. The best time to go shopping is in the morning. The shops are not very busy then.
when The best time to go shopping is in the morning, ________are not very
busy.
10. He lent me some money. That was very kind of him.
which He lent me some money, __________ of him.
11. Michael lives next door to me. He is an architect.
who Michael, _________ to me, is an architect.
12. This is the suit. I bought it last week. It doesn't fit me.
which This suit, __________ , doesn't fit me.
13. She interviewed a man. He is my father.
whom The man _________ is my father.

Linking Words

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence.
Positive Addition
and, both … and, too, besides (this/that), moreover, what is more, in addition (to), also,
as well as (this/that), furthermore, equally, likewise, on top of (all) that, further to,
apart from, alongside, along with
For this job you need a degree. In addition you need some experience.
Video cameras are becoming easier to use. Furthermore/Moreover/What's more they
are becoming cheaper.
It'll take ages to get there and it'll cost a fortune. Besides** we'll have to change trains
three times at least.
Children should respect their parents. Equally /Likewise they should respect their
teachers.
We'll have all the stress of going to court and giving evidence. On top of (all) that***
we'll have to pay the lawyers' bills.

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* furthermore and moreover are normally interchangeable; what's more is informal;
what is more is more formal.
** a more emphatic way of adding; similar in meaning to anyway.
*** even more emphatic; used mostly in informal spoken English.
Note also: To keep fit you need a good diet plus regular exercise. (normally used to
connect noun phrases, but can connect clauses in informal speech)
Adding words at the end of clauses/sentences
They sell chairs, tables, beds, and so on/ etc.
It'll go to the committee, then to the board,then to another committee, and so on and so
forth. (suggests a long continuation)
He was a good sportsman and an excellent musician into the bargain/to boot.
(emphasises the combination of items)
Adding words that begin or come in the middle of clauses/sentences
Further to my letter of 18/9/2011, I am writing to … (formal opening for a letter)
In addition to his BA in History he has a Ph.D. In Sociology.
He is on the school board, as well as being a local councillor.
Besides/Apart from having a salary, he also has a private income.
Alongside her many other hobbies she restores old racing cars.
Jo Evans was there, along with a few other people who I didn't know.
Note: This last group is followed by nouns or by -ing. As well as speaking French, she
speaks Japanese.
Negative addition
neither … nor, nor, neither, either
Neither John nor David goes to university.
Giving examples
such as, like, for example, for instance, especially, in particular etc.
All the food was delicious, but the steak in particular was excellent.
Exception
except (for), apart from
The party was good fun,apart from the problem with stereo.
Listing Points/Events
To begin: initially, first, at first, firstly,to start/begin with, first of all etc.
First of all, we greeted the guests.
To continue: secondly, after this/that, second, afterwards, then, next etc.
Then, we offered them drinks.
To conclude: finally, lastly, in the end, at last, eventually etc.
Finally, we served them the meal.
Summarising: in conclusion, in summary, to sum up, on the whole, all in all,
altogether, in short etc.
To sum up, I firmly believe that animals have the right to a happy life.

Exercise 1
Read the sentences and underline the correct linking word/phrase.
1. I've never been here before as/but my friend has.
2. You can have some friends over, apart from/as long as you play quietly.
3. Afterwards/ In conclusion, I think that Mark is the best person for the job.

51
 4. I went to the bank in case/in order to get some money.
5. We took a taxi in short/because we were late.
6. This house is beautiful. In addition to/However, it is in poor condition.
7. I was tired, so/for example I went to bed early.
8. All in all/Although she felt ill, she didn't call a doctor.
9. We laughed then/when we heard the funny story.
10. Some foods, moreover/such as chocolate, are very fattening.
11. Everyone attended the meeting whereas/apart from Steve, who was on holiday.
12. I typed the reports despite/while Joanne interviewed a client.

Exercise 2
Join the sentences using the word(s) in brackets.
1. He was hungry. He bought a sandwich. (so)
He was hungry, so he bought a sandwich.
2. Claire is very tall. She is very thin. (what is more)
3. I was tired. I watched the late film. (despite)
4. John did his homework. His brother tidied the kitchen. (while)
5. Tom likes football. Stuart likes basketball.(whereas)
6. He fell asleep. The phone rang. (as soon as)
7. She brushed her teeth. She went to bed. (then)
8. We went to the shops. We had lunch. (after that)
9. I enjoy reading books. I enjoy watching TV. (as well as)
10. Jason doesn't like tomatoes. Tom doesn't like tomatoes. (neither)

Exercise 3
Join the sentences using a suitable word or phrase from the list.
neither... nor, as well as, after, provided (that), in order to, which, as a result, so...that,
even though, where
1. I enjoyed the party. I didn't know anyone there.
I enjoyed the party, even though I didn't know anyone there.
2. She invested some of her money in bonds. She wanted to increase her income.
3. He is a good sportsman. He is a talented writer.
4. Sandra can't cook. Louise can't cook.
5. I will drive you to school. You are ready on time.
6. That's the house. My uncle built it.
7. She left the taps running. The bathroom flooded.
8. They did the washing-up. They had eaten lunch.
9. It was very hot. We decided to go for a swim.
10. This is the restaurant. We had lunch here.

Exercise 4
Join the sentences using the correct word(s) in brackets.
1. Computers are very useful. You can use them to store information. (for example/
whereas)
Computers are very useful. For example, you can use them to store information.
2. Simon is often invited to parties. He is a popular person. (for example/since)

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 3. I had a great holiday. It rained all the time. (and/even though)
4. Paul is a builder. Robin is a plumber. (whereas/too)
5. We had salad for lunch. We both want to lose weight. (in addition/because)
6. My teacher is very kind. She can be strict at times. (then/on the other hand)

Exercise 5
Fill in the correct word/phrase from the lists.
A on the whole, finally, firstly, furthermore, wherever, so
There are many advantages to owing a mobile phone. 1) Firstly, people can reach
you immediately with important news, 2) ________ you happen to be. 3) ________ , you
can call for help in an emergency, 4) _________ a mobile phone is important for personal
safety. 5) _________ , if you are late for an appointment, you can use a mobile phone to
call and explain. 6) ________ , I think everyone should have a mobile phone.
B to sum up, to begin with, however, because, so as not to, as a result,
whenever
I have been playing the guitar for ten years. 1) ________ , I found it very difficult
2) _________ I wasn't used to playing a musical instrument. 3) _________ , I soon
became quite good and, 4) _________ , I was asked to play in a local restaurant. I
practised all the time 5) ________ make a mistake in public. 6) _________ I performed,
people would always applaud. 7) _________ , I became a very popular musician.

Exercise 6
Underline the correct word /phrase.
The party was a disaster. 1) Although/To begin with there were hardly any
people there. 2) All in all/As a result, there wasn't a very exciting atmosphere. 3) After
that/In addition, the stereo had broken, 4) because/so there was no music to dance to. 5)
On the whole/In the end, we all watched a film on television. I left 6) before/as soon as
I could. 7) In short/Next, it was a terrible evening.

Exercise 7
Replace the words in bold with appropriate synonyms from the list.
while, at last, until, in short, in order that, so long as, for instance, apart from,
provided that, due to the fact that, what is more, that
1. Don't make an announcement before I arrive.
Don't make an announcement until I arrive.
2. Everyone passed the exam except for Paul, who hadn't revised.
3. In summary, we had a wonderful time at the concert.
4. That's the dress which I got for my birthday.
5. Finally, the group was ready to leave.
6. I'll give you a lift, providing you are ready on time.
7. Steve is very clever. For example, he got top marks in all his exams.
8. I bought some stamps so that I could post some letters.
9. She was hungry because she hadn't eaten all day.
10. Jane likes classical music, whereas Susan doesn't.
11. You'll be on time, as long as you hurry.
12. Moreover, the problem affects our customers.

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Exercise 8
Choose the correct answer.
There are many reasons for visiting the city of Rome. 1) C it is a city with an
interesting history. 2) ____ , it was the capital of the Roman Empire. 3) ___ , Rome is
very beautiful, 4) ____ its many palaces, churches and squares. 5) ___ , many of the city's
classical monuments have been preserved, 6) ___ it is possible to see how the city used to
be. 7) ____ , many people travel to Rome every year. 8) ____ I believe that, 9) ____ a
trip to Rome may be expensive, it is well worth visiting such a wonderful city.
1. A Since B On the whole C Firstly
2. A Secondly B Finally C Therefore
3. A In order to B Moreover C All in all
4. A due to B because C so
5. A Apart from B However C In addition
6. A because B so C and
7. A Because B But C For this reason
8. A To sum up B Although C For example
9. A moreover B although C due to

Exercise 9
Fill the gaps in this letter with suitable adding words and phrases.
Dear Mr Stoneheart
_________ (1) my letter of 16.10.2011, I should like to give you more information
concerning my qualifications and experience. __________(2) holding a Diploma in
Catering, I also have an Advanced Certificate in Hotel Management. The course covered
the usual areas: finance, front services, publicity, space allocation, __________ (3) I also
wish to point out that, _________ (4) holding these qualifications, I have now been
working in the hotel trade for five years. _________ (5), my experience prior to that was
also connected with tourism and hospitality.
I hope you will give my application due consideration.
Yours sincerely
Nora Hope

Exercise 10
Rewrite the sentences using the word or phrase in brackets at the end.
1. Physical labour can exhaust the body very quickly. Excessive study can rapidly
reduce mental powers too. (equally)
2. My cousin turned up and some schoolmates of his came with him. (along with)
3. He owns a big chemical factory and he runs a massive oil business in the USA.
(as well as)
4. She was my teacher and she was a good friend. (into the bargain)
5. I'm their scientific adviser and act as consultant to the Managing Director. (in
addition)

Exercise 11
Correct the mistakes in the use of addition words and phrases in these sentences.

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 1. I work part-time as well as I am a student, so I have a busy life.
2. Besides to have a good job, my ambition is to meet someone nice to share my life
with.
3. Alongside I have many other responsibilities, I now have to be in charge of staff
training.
4. In addition has a degree, she also has a diploma.
5. Likewise my father won't agree, my mother's sure to find something to object to.
6. To boot she is a good footballer, she's a good athlete.
7. He said he'd have to first consider the organisation, then the system, then the
finance and so forth and so on.

Exercise 12
Choose the correct answer.
The icy conditions make road travel dangerous so C going by car we took the
underground.
A therefore B as well as C instead of D in spite of
1. ______ the many hardships they had to face, the balloonist managed to reach their
destination.
A Despite B Because of C In accordance with D In addition to
2. The candidate has complied with all the requirements set by the university; this
institution, _______ , awards her the degree of Master of Arts.
A moreover B however C therefore D nevertheless
3. At first glance the idea appears to be attractive; ______ there are a lot of details to
be cleared up.
A and B however, C furthermore, D in addition,
4. The problem is that, _______ children who are given cow's milk from birth
benefit greatly from it, those who have never drunk it by a certain age are not able
to tolerate it.
A because B in view of the fact that C whereas D since
5. It is true that other Europeans visited the new world before the fifteenth century,
_____ Columbus is rightly credited with its discovery because of the ultimate
consequences of his voyages.
A so B therefore, C but D and
6. _______ it must be admitted that the NASA space programme has been extremely
costly, there has been a considerable spin-off in terms of new commercially viable
applications of space technology.
A Because B Since C In addition, D Although
7. _______ the extraordinarily good results, it was decided to try the same approach
next year.

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A In spite of B In view of C However D Despite
8. _______ no mutually acceptable agenda could be arrived at, the talks were
eventually called off.
A Because B Although C So D Instead
9. Sleep researchers have been looking for over a decade for a specific enzyme that
needs to be restored at night following daily depletion, _______ it is surprising
that no signs of of such a substance have been encountered, if one actually exists.
A so B but C moreover D in addition
10. The evidence for the connection includes the fact that the narwahl's tusk bears a
striking resemblance to the unicorn's mythical horn and _______ the fact that
northen European fishermen sold narwahl tusks reputed to have magical
properties to apothecaries in the fifteenth century.
A in view of B thus C therefore D in addition

Exercise 13
Choose the correct ending.
We all thought the performance was wonderful, although D
A it really was wonderful
B the pianist himself appeared delighted with it.
C no one disagreed with our opinion.
D the pianist appeared rather nervous at first.
1. The links in the chain, instead of being amino acids, are a type of chemical called
nucleic acids (or DNA). There are twenty amino acids, whereas
A there are twenty nucleic acids.
B these are combined into “amino-acid words”.
C these same amino acids are used throughout nature.
D there are only four kinds of DNA.
2. The project faced a whole series of difficulties, ranging from inadequate funding
to unsuitable working premises. Regardless of these problems,
A the organisers decided to abandon their plan.
B the organisers realized they were very important.
C the organisers decided to go on with its implementation.
D the organisers solved them.
3. The project faced a whole series of difficulties, ranging from inadequate funding
to unsuitable working premises. Yet, despite all of this,

56
 A the organisers decided to abandon their plan.
B it proved to be a great success.
C it was a failure.
D the difficulties proved impossible to overcome.
4. It is important that this venture be adequately capitalized and that strict
accounting procedures be applied. Otherwise,
A its success will be assured.
B there is little hope that it will succeed.
C there are a number of further measures which should be taken.
D nothing will go wrong.
5. It is important that this venture be adequately capitalized and that strict
accounting procedures be applied from the beginning. Then
A its success will be assured.
B there is little hope that it will succeed.
C a number of other difficulties will arise.
D it will be too late.
6. Swimmers are advised that they should observe all safety precautions, particularly
when
A there is no lifeguard on duty.
B they are necessary.
C they are for their own safety.
D this advice is written in easily understood language.
7. Guests are advised that swimming is not allowed in the pool except when
A there is no lifeguard on duty.
B the pool is being repaired.
C there is a lifeguard on duty.
D the pool is empty.
8. The prevailing view is that man sleeps for restorative rather than adaptive reasons;
nevertheless,
A it is likely that those holding the restorative view will continue to
dominate.
B those who hold to the adaptive theory are in a minority.
C this writer is a firm supporter of the restorative standpoint.

57
 D all involved agree that no proof has yet been found to support either
contention.
9. The prevailing view is that man sleeps for restorative rather than adaptive reasons;
moreover,
A this view has retained its popularity over time and against considerable
criticism.
B this opinion is based largely on mere intuition rather than proof.
C some people still hold to the adaptive view.
D supporters of the adaptive view claim more accurate predictions
regarding sleeping habits can be made with their approach.
10. Recently, publishers have looked more and more toward coming up with a few
huge bestsellers from big names rather than supporting large number of
potentially successful young writers; for all that,
A many unpublished authors still devote themselves to full-time writing.
B there are fewer unknown authors getting a break.
C the whole nature of book publishing has recently changed.
D some big-name authors are doing better than ever.

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