Ethics and Moral Reasoning in Everyday Life

INTRODUCTION

This module aims to analyze the nature of mores and values in ethics. It discusses the

interplay between the individual as a free moral agent, and his/her society or

environment, as well as the process of value experience, including the difference

between values and moral values. In broad strokes, it gives a background on the

nature of morality and the mores which are the subject matter of ethics. It examines the

nature of mores, including the development of the notion of what is ‘right’ in our

culture.

The module also examines the notion of freedom as it relates to morality, together with

the wide range of values and moral values, including the nature and basis of the

choices that we make.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Discussed the nature of mores and values in ethics;

2. Explained the difference between values and moral values;

3. Differentiate between a moral judgment and a moral decision; and

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4. Explored the difference between intellectual choice and practical choice.

1.0 The Realm of Morality: Ethics and approaches — normative and meta-

ethics. Normative ethics answers the

Mores
question, ‘What is good?’ It pertains to

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that norms or standards of goodness and the

deals with the systematic questioning rightness or wrongness of an act. A

and critical examination of the comprehensive normative ethical

underlying principles of morality. Ethics system tries to give a moral framework

came from the root word ‘ethos’ which where its standards of morality are

refers to the character of a culture. based. An example is Christian ethics

Ethos includes the attitude of approval with its well defined and clear

or disapproval in a particular culture at parameters and definition of what is

a given time and place. The subject good and bad based on its

matter being studied in ethics is comprehensive framework. Metaethics,

morality. Morality came from the root on the other hand, examines the

word ‘mores’, which refers to the presuppositions, meanings, and

customs, including the customary justifications of ethical concepts and

behavior, of a particular group of principles. For example, instead of

people. This constitutes the core of the assuming that there is an objective

attitudes and beliefs of a particular moral truth, metaethics will question the

group of people. Therefore, mores (in basis for this by asking whether or not

Latin) and ethos (in Greek), both refer to morality is objective or subjective, or by

customary behavior. posing questions about the assumption

of a moral theory such as ‘What is your

Ethics as the study of moral goodness or justification for claiming in your theory

badness or the rightness and wrongness that pleasure is good?’

of an act and it has two general

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The study of ethics and morality entails guests, and a right way of dressing up.

an analysis of both the individual human Sumner refers to these notions of ‘right’

person acting as a free moral agent and ‘true’ as ‘folkways’.

and his/her society with its social rules

Sumner states further that mores come
and sanctions that set limitations on
from folkways, with the added element
individual behavior. Individual behavior
of societal welfare embodied in them. In
is governed by a sense of what is the
order to preserve society and its
right thing to do, which is based on the
accepted norms and practices, the
customs or mores of a particular society.
individual, consciously or unconsciously,
For example, the way parents raise their
defends and upholds society’s notions
children is governed by the mores of
of what is right. At the same time, the
their society.
group as a whole develops social rules
1.1 The Role of Society and the
and sanctions, which may be implicit or
Individual in the Emergence of Mores
explicit, in order to preserve the group

William Graham Sumner, a well-known practices and to control the behavior of

sociologist and anthropologist, claims the individual for the purpose of

that our notion of what is ‘right’ stems maintaining order in society.

from our basic instinct to survive. That is,

Thus, customs emerge out of repeated
human beings formed groups in order to
practices, while from the individual
meet the task of survival, and from living
observance of group practices emerge
in groups they observed best practices
habits. This becomes the culture of a
and developed the most practical way
particular group or society. Mores
of doing things. From these practices
become the compelling reason to do
emerged traditions and notions of the
what ought to be done, because it is
right thing to do. For example, for each
the right thing to do to preserve and
group of people there is a right way of
protect society. Mores exert social
catching game, a right way of treating
pressure on the individual to conform to

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society’s expectations in terms of together with its customs, social rules,

character and behavior — that is, to and social sanctions, and that of the

come as close as possible to the ideal individual or the free moral agent who

man or woman. develops habits in the course of

following the social norms established

Even as society defends and preserves
by society. Ultimately, it is still the
its mores, these same mores may
individual, in his/her capacity as a
change to adapt to new conditions. The
rational and free moral agent, who will
changes in the mores of a particular
decide whether to follow these norms.
society do not happen in an instant, but
On the other hand, society is not
they happen unconsciously over time.
homogenous, because there is an
For example, during the Spanish period,
interplay of varying views and groups
women wore dresses that covered them
where the individual belongs. The
from head to toe, and it was thought
factors that may affect the individual’s
that seeing a woman’s ankles was
choices are varied and even
tantamount to seeing her naked. But
contradictory at times. The individual
women’s fashion has changed so much
may belong simultaneously to different
through the years that our Spanish
groups, and these groups could exert
ancestors might well be rolling in their
varying and sometimes contrasting
graves at the way women are dressed
degrees of influence on him/her. For
today. According to Sumner, this point
example, individuals can be influenced
can be summarized, thus: “The ‘morals’
by their family, peer groups, church,
of an age are never anything but the
school, the mass media, and social
consonance between what is done and
media. Ultimately, however, it is still the
what the mores of the age requires.”
individual who would make his/her own
Consequently, with regard to morality
moral decisions.
one always has to consider two points

of view —the point of view of society,

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As mentioned, the notion of morality valuing what he/she considers as most

develops with the interplay between important when he/she makes his/her

society and the individual. Here, society choices society, as a whole, functions as

would be composed of different groups a way of controlling the behaviour of an

that directly or indirectly shape the individual. It becomes necessary to

values of the individual. These values impose social controls and sanctions so

serve as the individual’s guide in his/her that the individual would be guided

pursuit of what he/she believes to be accordingly. To a certain extent, society

the moral or the ‘good’ life. Note that coerces its members to follow its rules to

the individual is assumed to be a free maintain order. For example, even if we

moral agent who can make choices are irritated by people who disobey

and deliberate or reflect before acting traffic rules, we are not free to do what

or making a decision. Moreover, as we would like to do, like kill them,

society grows and becomes more because we are bound by the mores of

complex, the different groups that our society. These mores become the

comprise it could put forward basis of the morals of that society when

competing values, including different expressed or laid out as ethical

notions of ‘what is good’. In this case, it principles that its members are bound to

is the rational individual who can respect and follow. This is the force or

decide for him/herself which moral power of mores. The individual can feel

principles to uphold, based on his/her this power whenever he/she does

upbringing and the influence of various something against the rules of society

groups in his/her society (family, church, and he/she is bothered by his/her

school, peer groups, social media, mass ‘conscience’ as if he/she is hearing the

media, etc.). Therefore, the individual voices of elders telling him/her what

plays a pivotal role as a free moral he/she should do.

agent in analyzing, choosing, and

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According to Sumner, as society grows, personal loans without collateral (also

it becomes more difficult to control the known as “5-6”) from enterprising

behavior of its members, and there is a people, and even keeping common

need to formalize and codify some of law wives on the part of philandering

the rules that we are bound to follow. husbands have long been part of our

Thus, from mores as the embodiment of culture and are examples of our

societal welfare, laws and institutions customary or common law. They may

emerge in order to protect society and not be legal but these practices are

to set some system of societal control part of the Filipino culture and are

over the behavior of individual accepted or tolerated by many.

members. These laws could be positive

Institutions, on the other hand, can be
laws and customary or common laws,
considered crescive or enacted.
while institutions could be crescive or
Crescive institutions, according to
enacted.
Sumner, are products of our mores like

Sumner states that common laws or our very rich religious practices which

customary laws are part of the customs mirror the religiosity of Filipinos. In

of our society, and they emerge contrast, enacted institutions are

unconsciously as part of the mores of products of rational reflection and are

our culture, whereas positive laws are purposely established to cater to the

formulated and are products of rational needs of the members of society, in the

reflection, discussion, and verification. process establishing order and

For example, our constitution and penal protecting society. Examples of

code are part of the positive laws of the enacted institutions are our banking

Philippines while certain practices in our system and land titling system.

culture like ‘sabong’ or cockfighting Unfortunately, not everything that has

with its own rules of the game, or the been passed into a positive law can be

informal practice of transacting considered moral or in accordance with

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the mores originally intended to serve wishes of his captors. Sartre claims that

societal welfare and protect society. In “Man is nothing else but that which he

this regard, an important question to makes of himself.” “Man” is never

consider is: Is what is legal moral? compelled or determined; he is totally

free and therefore, totally responsible

for all the things that he does. When you

1.2 FREEDOM AND MORALITY
exercise freedom in making your

The concept of freedom, as well as the choices, you are taking control and

application of freedom to individual assuming full responsibility for those

rights, has been widely used in different choices.

levels of analysis in Philippine society as

However, there is one important caveat:
a whole. Freedom as a concept that
you are free but this freedom is not
pertains to the moral realm is examined
absolute. You cannot do anything that
in this section. An important question
you please without taking into
that must be brought to light is: What is
consideration the norms of your society.
freedom and how is it exercised in the
Mores are there to serve as a form of
realm of morals?
social control to limit, govern, or

John Paul Sartre, an existentialist regulate your behavior in order to

philosopher, assumes the idea of radical maintain order in your soci-ety. For

freedom by claiming that “man is example, you cannot just go about

condemned to be free”. Sartre killing people you consider as

conceives of “man” as an obnoxious. You are perhaps familiar with

unconstrained free moral agent in the the saying ‘your freedom ends where

sense that he always has a choice in my freedom begins’. Within the given

every aspect of his life. Even if parameters of our environment,

somebody points a gun at his head, he including the economic, political and

still has a choice whether to follow the social environment, we assume

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freedom. Our discussion will come to what other beings feel and to situate

nothing if we assume otherwise — i.e. ourselves in their shoes.

that human beings are not free and

their choices are always deter-mined by

factors or forces in their environment. VALUES AND MORAL VALUES

This deterministic view is tantamount to In the process going through our

saying that human beings are like robots everyday lives, we cannot help but
or machines whose actions and choose and consider the options
functions can be predicted like cause available to us. The range of choices is
and effect given the parameters of the so wide and varied. It ranges from the
variables in his/her environment. Nor most trivial to the most difficult choices
can we embrace fully the extreme view and decisions that we have to make in
of radical freedom without taking into our life. When we are in the process of
consideration the norms of our society. choosing among the alternatives in a

Freedom of the human person in the given situation, even in the most trivial

moral sense of the word assumes that things like choosing our outfit for the

one is a free moral agent. Moral, in this day, or what to eat, or what hair-style to

sense, refers to the freedom to make adopt, the process of value experience

one's choice in accordance with one’s comes into play. Mothershead adds

own moral discernment of what is good that this is the side-taking part of our

and bad, and one is taking full experience. This valuation process

responsibility for one’s own actions and happens when we make choices and

is using his/her rational and empathetic indicate our preferences, for example,

capacity as a moral being. Aside from when we like or dislike, approve or

our reason and critical thinking, we also disapprove, favor or disfavor. Values are

have the ability to empathize or to feel the result of this process of value

experience where you set which

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priorities to pursue. They may also be because it is a means to an end, which

considered as imperatives that you could be another value more important

have set your mind to do. than money and for which you are

willing to give up your money. Your

According to Mothershead, “All values
textbooks are of value throughout the
are priorities with respect to some
school year that you are using them. But
aspect of human experience. This is
once the school year is over, you would
usually expressed by saying that values
normally discard them to make way for
are imperatives; they make a claim
a new set of textbooks in your shelf for
upon us, whether we admit the claim or
the next school year. The value of
not.” We do this valuation process when
looking at a beautiful face is often
we set priorities among the choices or
appreciated by many. When a
alternatives avail-able to us. For
beautiful person passes by, everybody
example, choosing to buy smartphones
would look at that person and perhaps
over something else reflects the value
appreciate beauty when they see it. But
placed on being socially connected.
that is all there is to it. This is because
Now when does a value become a
beauty is just a value.
moral value? The priorities that we

attach to values are limited in its scope Can beauty become a moral value?

of importance or significance in our life. Can money become a moral value?

For example, money is a value and as a Can chastity and purity become a

student you might save money in order moral value? Mothershead argues that

to buy something that you value more, a value can become a moral value if it

like a new mobile phone. Once you becomes an unlimited priority in its

have that new mobile phone, you will scope of relevance in our life. This is to

be fulfilled until the next object of value say that one is willing to give up other

that you would consider worth saving values in order to promote what s/he

up for. In other words, money is a value considers as a moral value. Thus, a

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moral value takes precedence and Values and moral value may change

priority over other values. In other words, over time. As one matures and grows

you are willing to give up other values older, there are values and moral value

just to promote this moral value. that one outgrows and a new set takes

over. These changes could be brought

Moreover, the priority claimed by this
about by changing circumstances or by
moral value is unlimited because it
unforeseen events. For example, after
could influence your decisions in other
the aftermath of Typhoon Yolanda,
aspects of your life and you are willing
people in the affected areas may have
to set other values aside for it. For
re-examined their priorities as they
example, those who value chastity and
faced the reality of losing their loved
purity are willing to forego love in order
ones.
to remain chaste and pure. Money

could also become a moral value for

some people who set aside other

CONCLUSION
values, like family ties or friendship, for

the sake of money. This could be the

To sum up, mores come from our
reason why we sometimes hear
folkways which are the source of our
negative labels like ‘Mukhang pera
notion of what is right, but with the
yan’, ‘Walang kai-kaibigan o kamag-
added element of societal welfare in
anak, lahat pera pera lang ang
order to protect, preserve and maintain
katapat’, ‘Diyos niya ang pera!’ Still
society. In the study of morality, which is
others may consider beauty as a moral
the subject matter of ethics, there are
value when they are willing to take risks
two points of view to consider: first, the
to their health, like having surgical
point of view of society, together with its
enhancements in order to achieve
customs, social rules and sanctions; and
beauty.
second, the point of view of the

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individual or the human being as a free Value experience is the side-taking part

moral agent. of our experience. This valuation process

happens when we make choices and

According to Mothershead, there are indicate our preferences, for example

two necessary conditions for morality to when we like or dislike, approve or

occur: freedom and obligation. disapprove, favor or disfavor. Values are

Freedom is assumed when one is the result of this process of value

making his/her choices and is the agent experience where you set which

who is taking full responsibility for priorities to pursue. They may also be

planning his/her life, and in the process, considered as imperatives that you

planning and budgeting his/her actions have set your mind to do. Mothershead

for some future outlook or goal. This is in argues that a value can become a

accordance with his/her moral and moral value if it becomes an unlimited

rational capacity for knowing and priority in its scope of relevance in one’s

discerning what is right and wrong. life. Moral decisions comprise the most

Together with the assumption of important class of moral judgments

freedom is obligation. In its moral sense, because these have reference to the

obligation is construed as one’s duty to judgers’ own future action. A moral

oneself to exercise this freedom as a judgment has reference to other people

rational moral being. In other words, it is or groups of people, specifically with

seen as a person’s duty to him/herself to regard to what they should or ought to

do this budgeting and planning for the do. “What ought I to do given this

future. Thus, according to Mothershead, situation?” With this question in mind, we

only humans are moral in so far as they could examine and analyze the

are capable of deliberate human situation as objectively as possible using

action. our intellectual and rational capacity in

order to come up with an intellectual

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choice. This is the process of giving

normative answers as rational moral

beings. Normative answers are answers

about what we ought to do from a

moral system that we uphold and its

moral principles. On the other hand, the

question “What would I be inclined to

do given this situation?” has to do with

the practical choice that we make

when faced with the actual situation.

There seems to be a difference

between making moral decisions in

actual situations where we are in-volved

and the normative answers that we give

when we are confronted with a

hypothetical situation.

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