Vimana

Dr Uday Dokras PhD SWEDEN

The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took
place when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th
century A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950
A.D) and the Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period
(1112-1435 A.D) .The activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-
1542 A.D) though on a very small and impoverished scale. The Vimana in the South Indian temple
history had an interesting career. For instance, the most magnificent Vimana of the Raja-rajeshwara
temple at Tanjavur (1009 AD) rises to an imposing height of 58 meters. Another temple of the same
period at Gangaikonda-chola-puram (1025 AD) rises to a height of 48 meters. Thereafter, in the
subsequent periods, the Vimanas tended to grow shorter. But the Gopuras, the towers that stand over the
gate-ways (dwara-gopura) became increasingly ornate, complicated and huge.
It being the most important feature of the Dravida style is that its superstructure is always in the shape of
a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather each tier is decorated with a combination
of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the tiers.

Unlike the Nagara tradition, the Dravida style doesn’t allow for variety in the Shikhara typologies in
general. The Dravida style was codified with fixed components. Under this, we see a completely different
form of temple architecture which is nothing but a combination of Alpa vimana, Kuta, Shala and Panjara
(refer the figure below). The Dravida style incorporates all these elements in a temple arranging them
from top to bottom on an increasing scale. The most important feature of the Dravida style is that its
superstructure is always in the shape of a stepped pyramid where all its tiers are strongly visible; rather
each tier is decorated with a combination of Kuta, Panjara and Shala at intervals that distinguish the
tiers. The walls of the Dravida temple always have pillar-couplets at intervals. However, this rule wasn’t
followed in every structure. Sometimes a niche or aedicule was carved in between those coupled pillars in
order to place a sculpture within. 
The term Vimana has acquired various interpretations. Sometimes the term Vimana stands for the temple.
Often, Vimana means the tower shikara, raised to its final height above the sanctum .
But, some say that the term Vimana should, strictly, refer to the rotund structure above the series of
elevations (tala) which stand on kapota (the flat roof over the sanctum).
In other words, the term vimana, it is said, should refer to the structure between the final Tala and the
stupi, the end. The Vimana rests or is surrounded by the Kanta (neck).
Another interpretation is that Sikhara meaning mountain peak, refers to the rising tower of a temple
constructed as per the architecture of North India; and is it’s most prominent and visible feature. While
the Northern texts identify the Sikhara as Prasada; the Southern texts call them Vimana. The Vimana is
pyramid like; and Prasada is curvilinear in its outline. We may for the present go with the last mentioned
interpretation.

Among the several styles of Sikharas that obtain in temple architecture, the three most common ones
are: the Dravida prevalent in south India; the Nagara   the most common style; and the third born from the
synthesis of the other two called the Vesara, seen mostly in Hoysala and later Chalukya temples of
Karnataka.

ORNATE: The Dravida style is highly ornate; the Nagara style is simpler and consists of a curvilinear
dome. In the Vesara style, the dome is highly ornate and emerges from the Sukanasi or from the richly
carved outer walls of the temple. In every style of Sikhara/Vimanam, the structure culminates with
a Kalashaat its peak.
EARLY VIMANAS: The early vimanas, in south, were circular until they ended in a point of the finial
(stupi); like  the vimanam of Kadambar koil. In some cases , the flat-roof (kapota) of the sanctum on
which the tower rest and rises is overlaid by a single square stone slab known in the text as “the stone
denoting the upper passage of life” (brahma-ranhra-sila). In certain structures, slab after slab is placed in a
diminishing order with the final slab crowned by a perforated stone ring (amalaka) giving the structure a
pyramid shape.

During the later times, the body of the Vimana tended to be more complex and multi layered rising up in
several stages (tala). Each stage of the sikhara contained within itself several layers of mouldings
depicting traditional motifs. The layers in a Tala are called Varga; and the sadvarga (six modules) is
regarded the classic version. The southern texts describe the temples as sadvarga Devalaya. The
sadvargas of a Vimana are Adistana, Pada, Prastara, Kanta, Sikhara and stupi. The vertical expansion of
the sadvarga developed into Vimanas of Dvitala (in two stages) and tritala (in three stages) structures.

The sanctity of Vimanas was not in any manner affected by its diminished size. While the sculptures on
the outer Gopuras could house secular and even erotic themes, the Vimana had to be austere and carry
only the prescribed divinities associated with the mula-bhera in the sanctum. The Vimana is verily the
representation or the outer visible form of the murthi that resides within it; and is revered as such. It
represents the glory (vaibhava) of the deity the antaryamin who resides within it. The Gopura on the other
hand does not usually command an equal status.

The ‘Barrel-vault’ also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon vault is an

architectural design looking like an oblong wagon-top or a vault or resembling a boat placed up-side
down, is rather an old feature of the Indian temple architecture. Its curvy shape lends the structure a semi-
cylindrical appearance.

The term Valabhi could relate to the name of an ancient city located in the Saurashtra region of Western
India. It was the seat of the Maitraka dynasty who ruled the peninsula and parts of southern Rajasthan
(from fifth to the eighth century). The City of Valabhi was also a celebrated centre of learning, with
numerous Buddhist monasteries. It might be that such architectural type was the main characteristic of the
Valabhi region, where there were numbers of Buddhist Chityas.
In the earlier periods, the temples and Stupas, which were successors to the huts, were constructed out of
brick and timber. These were generally either elliptical (Kuta) or rectangular huts with gable roofs (Sala)
made of bamboos.
In South, the centre of the sanctum, from where the divine grace flows into the Man. His effort is the
ascent towards. There, the earlier temples had taller Vimanas (say, as in Brihadisvara of Tanjore-58
meters; Gangaikonda-chola-puram – 48 meters). But the in the temples of later centuries, the Vimana
tended to grow comparatively shorter. Over a period, the Vimanas assumed pyramidal or curvilinear form
that we are familiar with. But the Gopura at the entrance (dvara) grew increasingly ornate, complicated,
huge and monumental in size.

Thus, the Vimanas over the sanctum grew shorter or modest; and , in the process , lost their wide vaulted-
roof- the Valabhi. In contrast to that, by about the twelfth century, the Gopura (gate-house) at the entrance
grew amazingly massive, towering in pyramidal structures, as tall as up to sixteen stories, elaborately
adorned and covered with brightly coloured plethora of sculpture of and guardian deities; and, capped at
the top by an apsidal, eight-sided, or oblong, barrel vault shaped Sala (roof) pinnacle by a series of Stupi,
the temple Kalashas.

Thus, the ‘Barrel-vault’, the Valabhi, did not entirely disappear. It transformed, moved up and sat on the
top of a magnificent Gopura.

While the temple complex is designed as a Mandala with the sanctum at its heart (Brahma –sthana); the
sanctum along with the Vimana atop is itself regarded a Mandala. The image is located in the mid-point
of the sanctum which is designed as a square; that is, where its diagonals intersect each other. This point
is elevated, in a three dimensional projection, and rendered as the sthupi or the central point of the
Vimana. The Kalasha is installed at this point.
In order to appreciate the Mandala configuration of the Vimana, one could take its top-elevation; that is,
take an aerial view from directly above the Vimana. The entire structure of the Vimana resting on a
square base, projecting into the air in successive diminishing tiers and concluding into a needle (bindu) is
a Mandala resembling the Chakra. The sanctum with its Vimana, thus, represents the worshipful (archa)
form of the divinity. The different deities associated with the mula-bhera are aligned along the four sides
of the Vimana (Mandala), according to their importance, starting with the grosser ones on the outer
periphery of the Vimana (outermost layer of the Mandala).The sthupi , the central point , the needle of the
Vimana being  the  bindu of its Mandala configuration.
The crowning glory of the Brihadeeswara temple is the staggering cupola of the Vimana comprising two
huge, sculpted, granite blocks weighing 40 tonnes each. The engineering skills and the expertise that
made the mounting of these huge stones atop a structure that is nearly 200 feet high must have been way
ahead of their times. Legend says that the stone was brought from Sarapallam (scaffold-hollow), four
miles north-east of the city, using a specially designed ramp.

Vertically the vimana is organized by pilasters that break up the facade of the base, creating spaces for
niches and windows in between.  However, the temple departs from southern Indian convention in one
significant way: the vimana is taller than the gopura (gateways) of the temple’s walls.  Normally the
gopuras are taller than the vimana.
The Vimana rises to a height of abut 216 feet, a tower of fourteen storeys. The basement of the structure
which supports the tower is 96 feet square. The gilded Kalasa over it is 12.5 feet high. It is believed
the sikhara and the stupi does not throw on the ground. The dome rests on a single block of granite, 25.5
feet square.

The architects and engineers attribute the stability of the massive temple to its pyramidal structure. They
say it is more robust than its counterparts from north India with their complex curvilinear profiles.
Another fine example of the Chola temple architecture is the temple in Gangaikondacholapuram, which
succeeded Tanjore as the capital of the Chola Empire. The Vimanam of this temple, in contrast to the
rigid pyramidal structure of the Brihadeeswara temple, rises up in a concave manner with fluid lines. The
tallest Sikhara of a Hindu temple, it is said, is under construction at Mayapur in west Bengal. The temple
when completed (say by 2014) will be 35 stories tall and almost as high as the great pyramid in Giza.

Kalasha

The crowning glory of the Vimana is its Kalasha, the vase. Some say it is reminiscent of the life giving
Amrita-kalasha that emerged out of the milky ocean when it was churned. Kalash symbolizes blessings
and well-being.
In the development of the Indian temple this feature appears to have arrived rather late.  The early
kalashas were perhaps made of stone blocks, round or ribbed. They might have been in the nature of cap-
stones that structurally held   the tall and tapering vimana,    as in the North Indian temples. The copper
and brass vases seem to have been the later innovations; and the agama books favor use of copper vases.
Kalasha  has several members, such as “the foot-hold” (padagrahi) which is its foothold, the egg (anda) or
the belly, the neck (griva), the lotus-band (padma-pashika), the rim (karnika) and the bud  (bija-pura). The
shape of this unit could resemble the bell, the flower bud, the lump, coconut, alter or pot. all these shapes
symbolize the potential and the possibilities  of life.

Interestingly, the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana, it is said, is not imbedded into the structure by
packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of the
centre of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasha. It is through this tube that the
lanchana‘tokens’ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the hallow tube
represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna that connects to the Sahasra, the seat of
consciousness, through the Brahma randra. This is completes the analogy of the temple to the purusha ot
to the human form.

Kalasha, the pot, on top of the Vimana has an important hidden component, the golden person (suvarna
purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The belly of the Kalasha contains a tiny
cot made of silver, copper or sandal; over which is laid a soft feather mattress. A tiny golden icon holding
a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. Four tiny pots made of gold, silver or copper containing
consecrated water are placed on the four sides of the cot. There is also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. This
entire procedure of introducing the “golden-person “into the Kalasha is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi.
Another kalasha is deposited under the sanctum. And, like the one on top of the Vimana, this Kalasha also
contain tokens of growth and prosperity, viz., cereals with subtle seeds (such as millet) and nine types of
precious stones. The womb, the icon and the sthupi the finial run along the same axis.

There are a few other symbolisms associated with the Kalasha. The structure of the Kalasha resembles an
inverted tree; and is almost a replica of the “womb” buried under the sanctum. Both are described as
roots. The one at the bottom urges upward growth; while the one atop is the root of the inverted tree.
The earliest specimens of Dravida tradition are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra
and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.

Under the constant cultural influx from north India, the south Indian temple architecture evolved out of
the pre-existing secular architecture prevalent in the region. The earliest specimens of Dravidatradition
are present in the form of brick shrines in Ter, Maharashtra and Chezarla, Andhra Pradesh.Both were
Buddhist sites, most probably Chaitya halls later converted into Hindu shrines. These shrines feature
apsidal types of Alpa-vimana crowned by a barrel roof Shala covering and they are dated around the
3rd to 4th century CE. 

Ter Temple, Maharashtra

 Components of
Dravida Shikhara or Vimana (Source: Author)
We see variations in the heights and details of the fixed superstructural elements. However, we do see
some different types of roof forms in the famous rock-cut Pancharathas at Mahabalipuram carved out
under the Pallava dynasty most probably in mid-7 th CE or earlier. These types of roof forms can be
basically assigned to the early form of Dravida temple architecture. Texts like Mansara, Mayamatam and
Kashyapa Shilpa talk about the Dravida style in greater detail. 
ukhamandapa attached to it. The roof form is complex as compared to Draupadi Ratha. It is aDvitala or
two-tiered Shikhara adorned with a Vimanam and elements like Kuta, Shala and Panjara. 

Draupadi and Arjuna Ratha at

Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia)
The Bhima Ratha is a long rectangular shrine with an Ektala barrelled roof or Shala Shikhara. The
presence of ornate columns on all sides gives a sense of circumambulation path within of Sandharaplan.
The Nakula-Sahadev Ratha is a different type of monolithic shrine with a Gajaprishtha roof; shaped like
an elephant back adorned with two ornate columns. 
Bhima Ratha at Mahabalipuram (Source: Wikipedia)
\
Parts of a Dravidian Temple Vimana:
1)Sopana Marga: The staircase to enter the Garbha Griha. South Indian Temple Stair cases are flanked on
both sides with Yali (Vyala) Figures
2)Upa Pitha: Sub Base of the Garbha Griha
3)Adhishthana: Base to support the wall of Garbha Griha
4)Simhaavari: Band of Lions
5)Paada: Wall of Garbha Griha
6)Koshtha: Miniature Temples on external wall of Garbha Griha with Avataras of Main deity
7)Prastara: Area between pillars & Roof – Entablature
8)Vyaalaavari: Band of Vyaali figures
9)Haara: Parapet looking like the Necklace
10)Koota: Square Miniature shrine on Haara region
11)Shaala: Rectangular Miniature Shrine on Haara Region
12)Tala: Storeys. Eka Tala (1 Storey), Dwitala (2 Storey), Tritala (3 Storey)
13)Tala Vahana: Vahana of Main deity on the Top Storey
14)Griva: Neck of the Vimana
15)Kudu: A motif that appears like Gavaksha (also called Naasi) – An horse shoe shaped Arch
16)Shikhara: The main tower of the Vimana
17)Stupi: The Finial (Final) of the Vimana - Kalasa
 Evolution of Hindu Temples Architecture in Orissa

 
Etymologically the term temple is derived from the Latin word ‘Tempulum’ which in its original
sense means a square or a rectangular place marked out by the augur for the purpose of worship. In its
primitive sense this word corresponds to a place marked off as sacred to a God, in which the house of
God may be erected.

The shrine or the abode of the God has different nomenclatures. In ancient Sastras or literature the temple
is referred as Devagriha, Devalay, Devakula, etc. In the Vastusastra the North Indian temples are known
as Prasada while as the Southern Indian temples are known as Vimana, Harmya and occasionally as
Prasada. The term ‘mandira’ for the first time occurs in Banabhatta’s Kadambari, a text of 7th century
AD.

The temple architecture in India had its humble beginning right from the Mauryan period, i.e. 3rd century
BC, as evident from the archaeological excavation at Sanchi (Madhy Pradesh, temple no. 40 and 18) and
Bairat (Rajasthan). However, it gained momentum in the Gupta period. The temple no.17 at Sanchi and
temple no.1 at Udayagiri near Vidisa were the earliest examples of temple architecture, which blossomed
during the Gupta period.
The Indian Silpasastras recognize three main types of temples known as the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara.
Nagara temple belongs to the country from the Himalay to the Vindhy, Vesara from the Vindhy to the
Krishna, and the Dravida from the Krishna to the Cape Camorin. However, an inscription of 1235 AD in
the mukhamandapa of the Amritesvara temple at Holal in Bellary distrct of Karnatak speaks of a fourth
style, i.e. Kalinga, in addition to the above three. Pratistha Lakhsyanasara Samuchaya by Vaivochana, a
Silpa text of 11th-12th century AD, mentions Kalinga temples as of rekha order. Indigenous texts like
Bhubana Pradip, Silpa Prakasa, Silpa Ratnakosha, etc. deals exclusively with the Kalingan style of
architecture. These silpa text of Orissa mentions three types of temples, rekhadeul, pidhadeul and
khakaradeul.

The rekha and pidha form two component parts of one architectural scheme, the former is represented by
a sanctum with its curvilinear spire and the latter by the frontal porch having pyramidal roof of receding
tires known as pidhas. In the earlier phase, there was no pidha deul and the Jagamohan or the frontal hall
had a by a flat roof. In course of time to meet the growing need of the rituals two more structures were
added namely natamandapa (dancing hall) and bhogamandapa (offering hall) during the Ganga period
(12th century). All the four components are arranged in one axial alignment and often the temple complex
is enclosed by a prakara (boundary) wall. The khakara order is noted by a semi-cylindrical vaulted that
looks like a inverted boat (boita) or a pumpkin gourd roof. The temples of this order are usually meant for
Sakti worship.

Orissan temples constituted a sub-style of the Nagara style of North Indian temples. The building
activity of this sub-regional style continued for nearly one thousand years from the 6th-7th century to the
15th-16th century AD in unbroken continuity. Bhubaneswar, the ancient Ekamra Kshetra served as the
experimental ground of these temple building activities without being distracted by the change of ruling
dynasties or their cult affiliation. As a result, the temples are identified with the land Kalinga rather than
the royal families such as Pallava art, Rastrakuta art, Chandella art, Chalukyan art, etc. It is worthwhile to
mention here that temple building activities of another tradition were prevalent in ancient Orissa, as
attested by epigraphic evidences. Hathigumpha inscription (line-17) of the 1st century BC described
Kharavela as the “repairer of all shrines of Gods” (sava-devayatana- sankara-karako). From the village of
Asanpat in Keonjhar district, a stone inscription records the construction of a temple by Maharaja
Satrubhanja, who is ascribed to 3rd-4th century AD.
The Orissan temple is remarkable for its plan and elevation. The interior ground plan of the temple is
square as a rule. Rarely, however the temple has a star-shaped layout (as noticed at Boudh) or circular
plan (Ranipur-Jharial & Hirapur) to conform to the nature of rituals. Generally speaking, the Orissan
temples are distinguished by vertical offset projections called rathas (on plan) or pagas (on elevation).
Depending on the number pagas, the temples are classified into triratha, pancharatha, saptaratha and
navaratha. The earlier temples are characterized by a triratha plan.

On elevation, the temples show interesting features. Both sanctum and the porch can be divided into three
parts along the vertical plane viz. bada, gandi and mastaka. From bottom to top or final, each part of the
temple has a special name corresponding to that of limbs of the human body standing on a pista or the
platform on which the temple stands (which is not a compulsory element in early temples and is generally
found in later temples).

The bada or the vertical wall portion of the temple is divisible into pabhaga, jangha and baranda. This
type of three-fold division of Triangabada is found in early temples and in later temples. Bada has five
elements namely pabhaga (or the foot portion is composed of five mouldings called khura, kumbha, patta,
kani and basanta), tala jangha (lower thigh), bandhana (mouldings joining the two thigh), upara jangha
(upper thigh) and baranda (the waist portion). The baranda, forming the top most part of the bada has a set
of mouldings, starting with one moulding in the early phase progressing into seven and ten mouldings in
the later and last phases of the classical tradition. The gandi (or the torso) of deul has a curvilinear super
structure; in the temples of early phase gandi is devoid of any sculptural embellishment.

Fully developed temples have ornamental bhumis, chaity motifs and angasikharas (miniature shrines).
The gandi of jagamohana is of pyramidal shape (designed with receding tiers in a sequence so as to
reduce the top most tier to the half of the lower tier). The mastaka (the head) consisted of the beki (neck)
or recessed cylindrical portion above gandi, amalaka (ribbed circular stone, resembling the amla fruit),
khapuri (skull), kalasa ( auspicious pot) and the ayudha (weapon of the enshrined deity) in succession.
The mastaka of the pidha deul has the same features except for the addition of ghanta (bell). The
horizontal cross- section of the bada and gandi in both the rekha and the pidha deul are square, while the
mastaka is circular. The ground plan of khakhara deul is oblong. The temples are remarkable for
abundance of sculptures. Stella Kramarisch has aptly remarked, “Architecture in Orissa is but sculpture
on a gigantic scale”. The sculptural repertory consists of human figures, kanyas, erotic motifs, cult icons,
animal figures including mythical and composite figures, decorative designs like variety of scrolls and
architectural motifs like pidha mundi, khakhara mundi, vajra mundi, etc.

The temple style was in full vigour in the wake of vast religious and cultural resurgence that took place
when the Sailodbhavas ruled from the middle of 6th century A.D till the first quarter of 8th century
A.D .The temple building activities gained momentum under the Bhaumakaras (736- 950 A.D) and the
Somavamsis (950-1112 A.D) and reached the climax during the Ganga period (1112-1435 A.D) .The
activities however continued even under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis (1435-1542 A.D) though on a very
small and impoverished scale.

To a keen observer, the temples of Orissa portray a picture of organic evolution from Parasuramesvara to
Lingaraja through Muktesvara and Vaital, which ultimately culminated in Puri and the gigantic Konark.
The evolution can be seen through four distinctive phases of temple building; viz. i) Formative phase, ii)
Transitional phase, iii) Mature phase, iv) Phase of decadence.

Formative Phase:

The period in between the 6th century AD to the first half of the 9th century AD is considered as the
formative phase that synchronized with the rule of the Sailodbhavas and early phase of Bhauma-karas.
The representative temples are Lakshamaneswar, Bharateswar, Satrughaneswar, Swarnajaleswar,
Parsurameswar, Mohini and Kapalini. Of these, Parsurameswar assigned to the 7th century is the best
preserved specimen of the early phase. Its triratha vimana has a rekha sikhara. The jagamohana is a
rectangular pillared hall with a terraced roof sloping in two tiers. The graha architrave has eight grahas
with the absence of Ketu. Temples of this period are triratha on plan with a central graha offset and two
corner projections. On elevation Bada is triangle, with three divisions, i.e. pabhaga, jangha, and baranda.
Pabhaga or the foot portion consists of three mouldings of khura, kumbha and pata. Gandi became a
gradual curveture and started from of the sikhara unburdened by any angasikhara. The temples are of
small and moderate height. Baranda is terminating in a recessed kanthi. Absence of dopicha simha in the
beki, below the amlaka, absence of Dikpalas, absence of baby on the lap of Matrikas. The sculptures are
in low relief, flattish and entrusted on the surface of the stone, beginning with disproportioned and rigid
limbs assumed flexibility and proportion during the Bhauma-kara period.

Transitional Phase:
The temple activities entered into a transitional period in the second half of the 9th century that continued
up to the first quarter of the 11th century under the rule of the later Bhauma-karas and the first half of the
rule of the Somavamsis (Kesharis). The temples of this period are Vaital (khakhra deula), Sisireswar, and
Markandeswar in Bhubaneswar and Bringesvara at Bajarkot (District Angul), Swapaneswar at Kualo
(District Dhenkanal), Siva temple at Badgaon, Simhanatha temple in an island of Mahanadi river at
Gopinathpur (District Cuttack), twin Hari-Hara temple at Gandharadi District Baud, Varahi temple
(khakhara deul) at Churasi (District Cuttack).

The notable feature of the period was the introduction of rampant erotic sculptures due to the influence of
Vajrayana philosophy. Mukteswar at Bhubaneswar, which is considered as the gem of Orissan
architecture, was the last monument of the period. Mukhasala or the jagamohana became an inseparable
element with a perfect and natural joining of the vimana with jagamohana without the crude overlapping
of the sanctum decoration as seen in the formative phase. Both the structures were conceived as a uniform
complex in the original plan. Towards the end, the plan and elevation of the mukhasala transformed from
a rectangular flat roof to a square hall with a pyramidal superstructure. Pabhaga had four mouldings.
Introduction of naga-nagi pilasters and chaitya medallions as decorative motifs, introduction of the vyala
and jagrata motifs in the jangha portion, baranda recess is carved with base-reliefs, kanika is divided into
fife horizontal bhumis (storey) by bhumiamlas.

Parsvadevata images are carved of separate single stone unlike the earlier tradition of blocks of stones
that constitute a part of the temple wall. Sculptural treatment of the interior part (particularly the ceiling)
which is a characteristic feature of the Somavamsis period and not noticed in the earlier or the later
temples, Matrikas carry babies on their lap. Finally Ketu was added to the list of planets, which became a
permanent feature of the graha panel in the temples of the subsequent period.

Mature Phase:
The building activity attended its maturity towards the middle of the 11th century (Somavamsis) that
continued till the 13th century (Gangas). The temple architecture developed further under the
Somavamsis, which can be traced through a series of temples like Rajarani, Brahmeswar, and finally the
Lingaraj that presents the Orissan temple style at its best. The building tradition was continued by the
Gangas who are credited with the construction of the great Jagannath temple at Puri, Chateswar temple at
Kakudia (District Cuttack), Sobhaneswar temple at Niali District, Cuttack, Drakshaprajapati at Banapur, a
few shrines at Bhubaneswar, the magnificent Konark temple (District Puri), marks the grand climax of the
Orissan style. The features are quite discernible as given in the discussion.
Bada is devided into five segments, i.e. pabhaga, talajangha, bandana, upara jangha and baranda. Pabhaga
has five mouldings (khura, kumbha, pata, kani and basanta). Gandi is embellished with angasikharas
(miniature temples) of diminishing size as they rise upwards. 

The pagas projections are fully developed and prominently articulated. Amlaka sila is supported by
deulacharinis or seated divinities and dopicha simhas being set in the beki. Introduction of structural
motifs like pidhamundi, khakharamundi and vajramundi are in the jangha portion. The sculptures of this
period are excellent in their plasticity and modeling includes non-iconic female figures. These are more
proportionate, elongated and in alto-relievo. In the iconography of the cult deities new elements were
introduced with profusion of female figures, Ketu in a serpant body and Hanuman head in latter phase,
projected lion (udyota simha) on the Rahapaga. Pista and platform became a regular feature. Natamandap
and Bhogamandap were added to the Jagamohan. Introduction of subsidiary shrines in front of the
parsvadevata niche. Introduced of vahanastambha in front of the temple. Appearance of the female
counter parts of the dikpalas on the uparjangha.

Phase of decadence:
After the Gangas during the 14th to 16th century AD under the Suryavamsi-Gajapatis, the temple
building activities entered into a phase of decadence. The great period of Orissan temple architecture
came to halt with the crowning achievement at Konark. The Suryavamsis, who succeded the Gangas
remained preoccupied with political problems and could not give much time for temple building. Of the
few temples, the temples at Kapilesvara at Bhubaneswar belonged to this period.

Towards the later part of the 15th century AD impoverishment was noticed. Pidha deul became the choice
for both vimana and the jagamohana. The building materials are mostly laterite. The walls of the temple
are devoid of sculptural embellishment and decoration. Such insolvency was also noticed in the
decoration of doorjambs, which also largely remained plain. Thus the temple building activities that
started during the 6th century AD reached its climax during the Ganga Period started declining during the
Gajapati. The most important factors for the declines of temple building activities are a lack of royal
patronage and decline of Hindu power. Whatever it may be, till recently Orissa has possessed a rich
temple heritage which is the imprints of our ancestor, still existing with the ravage of time. These are the
pride of Orissan people in particular and that of India in general. These are the most compact and
homogenous architectural group in India.

From the scholarly article of By: D.B. Garnayak