PEDAGOGICAL

VOCABULARY

The language of Instruction

“If you can’t articulate it, you can’t deliver it.”

Kean University
College of Education
Teaching Performance Center

Compiled by
Catherine Wiater Branco
Clinical Instructor
 NOTE: AN ASTERISK (*) INDICATES AN INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGY

ability grouping Assigning students to classes based on their achievements or presumed ability to learn
(also known as homogeneous grouping). Grouping students according to their actual
progress in a particular school subject is different from grouping them according to
assumptions about their ability to learn the subject—although the results may be quite
similar. Grouping them by subject is different from tracking, which strictly speaking
refers to placing them in the same groups for all their classes based on their general
ability to learn. Students may also be grouped within classes, but intra-class grouping
permits more flexibility so is less controversial.
abstinence only The view that sex and family-life education courses should teach that sexual
intercourse is always inappropriate for young unmarried people.
Academic Performance Index (API) A statewide ranking of schools based on student test scores from the CAT/6, CST, and
high school exit exam; it ranges from 200 to 1000. Most schools have an API, a state
ranking (by elementary, middle, or high school), a ranking in comparison to 100 similar
schools, and growth targets for the following year. (Ed-data)
accommodations Changes in the way instruction is given and tests which are designed or administered
to respond to the special needs of a student
accountability The notion that people (e.g., students or teachers) or an organization (e.g., a school,
school district, or state department of education) should be held responsible for
improving student achievement and should be rewarded or sanctioned for their
success or lack of success in doing so.  In education, accountability requires
measurable proof that teachers, schools, districts, and states are teaching students
efficiently and well, usually in the form of student success rates on various tests. Most
accountability programs have involved adoption of state curriculum standards and
required state tests based on the standards.
accreditation Official recognition that an institution meets required standards. Schools are
accredited in two ways: by voluntary regional accrediting associations (such as the
North Central Association Commission on Accreditation and School Improvement), and
by state governments, which are legally responsible for public education. Most high
schools seek and receive accreditation by their regional association so that institutions
of higher education will accept their graduates. However, that form of accreditation
does not necessarily ensure recognition by the state. In recent years, some states have
begun to refuse state accreditation to schools with unacceptably low scores on state
standards tests.
achievement gap Persistent differences in accomplishment among different types of students as
indicated by scores on standardized tests, teacher grades, and other data. The gaps
most frequently referred to are those between whites and minority groups, especially
African-Americans and Hispanics.
achievement test A test used to measure a student's knowledge and skills.  (Ed Source)
ACT A set of test used for college admissions. Most colleges now accept either the SAT or
the ACT for admissions purposes.  (Ed Source)
10. action research Systematic investigation by teachers of some aspect of their work used to improve
their effectiveness. It involves identifying a question or problem and then collecting
and analyzing relevant data. It differs from conventional research because in this case,
the participants are studying an aspect of their own work and they intend to use the
results themselves.
11. active learning Active learning is any situation in which students will learn by moving around and
doing things, rather than sitting at their desks reading, filling out worksheets, or
listening to a teacher. Active learning is based on the premise that if students are not
active, they are neither fully engaged nor learning as much as they could.
12. active participation Active participation can occur through two (2) types of behavior:
 OVERT BEHAVIOR is any type of behavior that is observed directly -
visually by the eye or auditory by the ear.
 COVERT BEHAVIOR is any behavior that is not visible to the eye or heard
by the ear. This includes all behavior that is mental, invisible, cognitive,
or internal.
13. active reading* Good readers utilize 6 common ways to actively read –
1. marking the text
2. asking questions
3. making predictions
4. asking clarifying questions
5. visualizing
 6. Compare & contrast information.
14. activities One of the 4 teacher actions used to convey the learning to the student, and
accomplished through a variety of instructional methods, strategies and structures all
congruent to the instructional objective.
15. ADA See average daily attendance.
16. ADD and ADHD See definition for Attention Deficit Disorder And Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder.
17. Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) Adequate yearly progress is the minimum level of improvement that states, school
districts, and schools must achieve each year, according to federal No Child Left Behind
(NCLB) legislation. It is an individual state's measure, of yearly progress, toward the
achievement state academic standards. This progress is determined by a collection of
performance measures that a state, its school districts, and subpopulations of students
within its schools are supposed to meet if the state receives Title I federal funding. (Ed
Source)
18. adoption Refers to the chosen curriculum of a particular school.
19. Advanced Proficiency Mastery or ability to do something at and above grade level. One of three scores on
the state standardized test – Partially Proficient, Proficient and Advanced Proficient
20. advanced placement (AP) program College-level courses offered by high schools to students who are above average in
academic standing. Most colleges will award college credit to students who pass one of
the nationally standardized AP tests. Passing AP tests can save students time and
tuition on entry-level college courses.
21. advisory system A way of organizing schools so that all students have an adult advisor who knows them
well and sees them frequently. To make advisory groups as small as possible, schools
ask staff members who are not classroom teachers—sometimes including the
principal, the librarian, or others—to serve as advisors. Most schools schedule periods,
sometimes daily, for advisory groups to meet for group and individual activities.
22. affective education Schooling that helps student’s deal in a positive way with their emotions and values is
affective schooling, to distinguish it from cognitive learning, which is concerned with
facts and ideas. Programs designed to help students handle their emotions, which
might at one time have been termed affective education, now use the term social and
emotional learning.
23. AFT See the American Federation of Teachers.
24. alignment The degree to which assessments, curriculum, instruction, textbooks and other
instructional materials, teacher preparation and professional development, and
systems of accountability all reflect and reinforce the educational program's objectives
and standards. (Ed Source)
25. alternative assessments Ways other than standardized tests to get information about what students know and
where they need help, such as oral reports, projects, performances, experiments, and
class participation. (Ed Source)
26. alternative scheduling

27. alternative schools Schools that differ in one or more ways from conventional public schools. Alternative
schools may reflect a particular teaching philosophy, such as individualization, or a
specific focus, such as science and technology. Alternative schools may also operate
under different governing principles than conventional schools and be run by
organizations other than local school boards.
The term alternative schools is often used to describe schools that are designed
primarily for students who have been unsuccessful in regular schools, either because
of disabilities or because of behavioral or emotional difficulties. However, some
proponents argue against establishing "last chance" or "remedial" schools that view
students as a problem fixed. They say a better approach is to alter the program and
environment to create a positive match with each student.
Although some school districts continue to operate alternative schools established a
few years ago, those districts starting new unconventional schools these days often
characterize them as charter schools.
28. Alternative Schools Accountability An alternative way of measuring student performance in schools with mostly high-risk
Model (ASAM) students—such as continuation schools or some county office of education schools—
and schools with fewer than 11 valid test scores. (Ed Source)
29. alternative teacher certification A way for individuals to become classroom teachers without completing an
undergraduate or graduate program in teacher education. Alternative certification
takes into account an individual's background and experience, and usually requires
some professional training in the first years of teaching. Alternative certification is
most common in urban school systems that have difficulty hiring enough regularly
qualified teachers. For example, Teach for America recruits recent college graduates to
 teach for two years in needy urban schools. Advocates point out that such programs
provide a way for bright, idealistic young people to make a needed and worthy
contribution. Critics say teaching requires extensive preparation and that such
shortcuts undermine efforts to make teaching a true profession.
30. American College Test (ACT) The ACT is one of the two commonly used tests designed to assess high school
students' general educational development and their ability to complete college-level
work. Some states or institutions require or prefer the Scholastic Assessment Test
(SAT) for college entrance, some the American College Test. The ACT covers four skill
areas: English, mathematics, reading, and science reasoning. More than 1 million
college-bound high school students take the ACT each year.
31. American Federation of Teachers (AFT) One of the two large teacher unions (the other is the National Education Association).
The AFT represents about 1 million teachers, school support staff, higher education
faculty and staff, health-care employees, and state and municipal employees. The AFT
is an AFL-CIO affiliate.
32. Annual Measurable Objective (AMO) The annual target for the percentage of students whose test scores must be proficient
or above in English/language arts and mathematics. Meeting the AMO is the first step
toward demonstrating adequate yearly progress under the federal law No Child Left
Behind (NCLB). (Ed-data)
33. Anticipation Guide* Anticipation Guides allow the reader to make predictions about text by eliminating
unlikely possibilities. It is a way to prepare a reader prior to a reading assignment by
asking them to react to a series of statements related to the content of the material.
34. Anticipatory Set An activity designed to engage the students’ attention at the beginning
of class. Called the “hook” or the “bell ringer”, it serves as a focus for
the day’s activities. It directs student attention to the learning task and
tells the students what they are about to learn. It is NOT about drill
work. It involves active participation, either overt or covert, relates to
students prior knowledge/life experiences and relates to the objective. It
acts as a bridge to the lesson objective.
35. aptitude tests Tests that attempt to predict a person's ability to do something. The most familiar are
intelligence tests, which intend to measure a person's intellectual abilities. The theory
underlying intelligence tests is that each person's mental ability is relatively stable and
can be determined apart from her knowledge of subject matter or other abilities, such
as creativity. Some aptitude tests measure a person's natural ability to towards
particular subjects, skills or suitability to certain careers.
36. ASCD Founded in 1943, ASCD—an international, nonprofit association—is one of the largest
professional development organizations for educator leaders. It provides world-class
education information services, offers cutting-edge professional development for
effective teaching and learning, and supports activities to provide educational equity
for all students. ASCD's 165,000 members reside in more than 140 countries and
include principals, teachers, superintendents, professors of education, and other
educators.
37. assessment Teacher-made tests, standardized tests, or tests from textbook companies used
evaluate student performance. The effectiveness of a particular approach to
assessment depends on its suitability for the intended purpose. For instance, multiple-
choice, true-or-false, and fill-in-the-blank tests used to assess basic skills or to find out
what students remember, to assess other abilities, performance tasks may be more
appropriate.
Performance assessments require students to perform a task, such as serving a
volleyball, solving a particular type of mathematics problem, or writing a short
business letter to inquire about a product. Sometimes the task designed to assess the
student's ability to apply knowledge learned in school. For example, a student might
be asked to determine what types of plants could be grown in various soil samples by
measuring their pH levels.
Authentic assessments are performance assessments that are not artificial or
contrived. Educators who want assessments to be more authentic worry that most
school tests are necessarily contrived. Writing a letter to an imaginary company only to
demonstrate to the teacher that you know how it is different from writing a letter to a
real person or company in order to achieve a real purpose. One way to make an
assessment more authentic is to have students choose the particular task they will use
to demonstrate what they have learned. For example, a student might choose to
demonstrate her understanding of a unit in chemistry by developing a model that
illustrates the problems associated with oil spills.
38. Assigned Questions Assigned questions prepared by the teacher, and answered by students. Students
discuss their responses among one another and/or with the teacher.
39. association One of the variables of transfer, association is the process by which a learner
interconnects learnings in his/her memory. Various types of associations include
inferential, causal, analogical, deductive or inductive.
40. at-risk students Students who have a higher than average probability of dropping out or failing school.
Broad categories usually include inner city, low-income, and homeless children; those
not fluent in English; and special-needs students with emotional or behavioral
difficulties. Substance abuse, juvenile crime, unemployment, poverty, and lack of adult
support increase a youth's risk factor.
The term came into use following the 1983 report of the Commission on Excellence,
which declared America's public schools to be "at risk." Educators responded that the
real problem was society's neglect of certain students.
Some advocates question use of the term "at risk," arguing that it may affect the way
teachers, administrators, and peers view the student. Officials agree that such
students need special attention and support, including caring adults who challenge
them with high expectations.
41. Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Children diagnosed with attention deficit disorder tend to have problems staying on
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity task and focusing on conversations or activities. ADD children may be impulsive, easily
Disorder (ADHD) distracted (e.g., by someone talking in another room or by a passing car), full of
unfocused energy, fidgety, and restless. Many people with ADD are also hyperactive
and may move rapidly from one task to another without completing any of them.
Hyperactivity, a disorder of the central nervous system, makes it difficult for affected
children to control their motor activities. More than half of students with learning
disabilities exhibit behaviors associated with attention problems but do not necessarily
have ADD.
According to the National Attention Deficit Disorder Association, ADHD is a "diagnosis
applied to children and adults who consistently display certain characteristic behaviors
over a period of time. The most common core features include: distractibility (poor
sustained attention to tasks); impulsivity (impaired impulse control and delay of
gratification); and hyperactivity (excessive activity and physical restlessness). In order
to meet diagnostic criteria these behaviors must be excessive, long-term, and
pervasive. The behaviors must appear before age 7, and continue for at least 6
months. A crucial consideration is that the behaviors must create a real handicap in at
least two areas of a person's life, such as school, home, work, or social settings. These
criteria set ADHD apart from the 'normal' distractibility and impulsive behavior of
childhood, or the effects of the hectic and overstressed lifestyle prevalent in our
society."
Source: Quote from Fact Sheet on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD/ADD), 1998, Highland Park, IL: National Attention Deficit Disorder Association.
Copyright 1998 by Peter Jaksa. Retrieved February 18, 2002, from
http://add.org/content/abc/factsheet.htm
42. authentic assessment Assessment that measures realistically the knowledge and skills needed for success
in adult life. The term is as the equivalent of performance assessment, which, rather
than asking students to choose a response to a multiple-choice test item, involves
having students perform a task, such as serving a volleyball, solving a particular type
of mathematics problem, or writing a short business letter. There is a distinction,
however.
Specifically, authentic assessments are performance assessments that are not
artificial or contrived. Most school tests are necessarily contrived. Writing a letter to
an imaginary company only to demonstrate to the teacher that you know how is
different from writing a letter to a real person or company in order to achieve a real
purpose. One way to make an assessment more authentic is to have students
choose the particular task they will use to demonstrate what they have learned. For
example, a student might choose to demonstrate her understanding of a unit in
chemistry by developing a model that illustrates the problems associated with oil
spills.
43. authentic learning Schooling related to real-life situations—the kinds of problems faced by adult citizens,
consumers, or professionals. Advocates complain school has little relationship to
anything people do in the world outside of school; efforts to make learning more
authentic intend to overcome that problem. Authentic learning situations require
teamwork, problem-solving skills, and the ability to organize and prioritize the tasks
needed to complete the project. Students should have a clear understanding of
expectations before beginning their work. Consultation with others, including the
instructor, is encouraged. The goal is to produce a high-quality solution to a real
problem, not to see how much the student can remember.
44. Author’s Chair* Author's Chair is the final step in the writing process. A time and place allotted to
writers who wish to share their final products with an audience. A student’s work of
writing completed the revising and editing and the publishing process. The author and
fellow classmates gather together to provide the writer with positive feedback. The
student in the author's chair reads selected piece of their writing. Peers then have an
opportunity to respond positively to what the text.
45. average class size The number of students in classes divided by the number of classes. Because some
teachers, such as reading specialists, have assignments outside the regular classroom,
the average class size is usually larger than the pupil-teacher ratio. (Ed Source)
46. average daily attendance (ADA) The total number of days of student attendance divided by the total number of days in
the regular school year. A student attending every school day would equal one ADA.
Generally, ADA is lower than enrollment due to such factors as transiency, dropouts,
and illness. ADA is the basis for a school district's revenue limit income.(Ed-data)
47. average daily attendance (ADA) Based on counts taken on predetermined dates during the school year, average daily
attendance is a factor used by state and federal departments of education to
determine how much money schools are to receive.
48. Balanced Literacy* Balanced Literacy incorporates the skills of reading, writing, thinking, speaking and
listening for all students. It’s major components include:

WRITING
READING
Modeled Reading (Read Alouds) Modeled Writing
Shared Reading Shared Writing
Guided Reading Guided Writing
Independent Reading Independent Writing

49. basal reader Textbooks and anthologies (collections of stories or other writings) used to teach
beginning reading. Many basal readers used to have mostly stories written especially
for teaching (only certain words were used, as in the Dick and Jane stories), but many
now contain a wider variety of children's literature.
50. basic (see also proficiency)
51. basic skills The fundamental skills needed to succeed in school and eventually in life. Most people
think of basic skills as the ability to read, write, and compute. Others, however, would
broaden the term to include such skills as the ability to use a computer, the ability to
work cooperatively with others, or even the temperament to cope with continuous
change.
52. behavior modification Use of an approach based on behavioral science to change a person's way of doing
things—specifically, systematic use of rewards, and sometimes punishments, to shape
students' classroom deportment. Such systems usually involve explicit objectives,
elaborate record keeping, and visible tracking of progress.
Used especially in special education classes for behaviorally disturbed students,
behavior modification is controversial. Opponents say it is impersonal and mechanistic,
makes students dependent rather than independent (at least at first), and borders on
cruelty. Advocates see it as scientifically based and effective.
53. benchmark A standard for judging a performance. Just as a carpenter might use marks on his
workbench to measure how long a part should be, teachers and students can use
benchmarks to determine the quality of a student's work. Some schools develop
benchmarks to tell what students should know by a particular stage of their schooling;
for example, "by the end of sixth grade, students should be able to locate major cities
and other geographical features on each of the continents."
54. benchmarks A detailed description of a specific level of student achievement expected of students
at particular ages, grades, or developmental levels; academic goals set for each grade
level. (Ed Source)
55. bilingual education Bilingual education provides English language development plus subject area
instruction in the student's native language. The goal is for the child to gain knowledge
and be literate in two languages. (Ed Source) It can include the use of two or more
languages for instruction. In the United States, students in most bilingual classes or
programs are those who have not acquired full use of the English language, so they are
taught academic content in their native language (usually Spanish) while continuing to
learn English.
56. block grant The result of combining funding for several separate government programs (usually
federal) into a larger program with one set of requirements. A positive feature of such
a grant is greater flexibility. Federal funds released to states in the form of block
grants, allow individual states to have more discretion in allocating the funds.
 Advocates believe that states can define and serve their own areas of need better than
the federal government can. A negative aspect of block grants is that the total amount
provided is often less than it would otherwise have been.
57. block scheduling Instead of traditional 40- to 50-minute periods, block scheduling allows for periods of
an hour or more so that teachers can accomplish more during a class session. It also
allows for teamwork across subject areas in some schools. For example, a math and
science teacher may teach a physics lesson that includes both math and physics
concepts.
58. block scheduling Block scheduling, an alternative to traditional scheduling of classes, is a way of
organizing the school day, usually in secondary schools, into blocks of time longer than
the typical 50-minute class period. Students take as many courses as before
(sometimes more), but the courses do not run the entire school year. One alternative
schedule used in some secondary schools, known as 4 × 4 (four by four), has four 90-
minute classes a day with course changes every 45 days (four times a school year).
Students and teachers have fewer classes to prepare for and experience fewer
interruptions in the school day. Longer blocks of time allow for complex learning
activities, such as complicated science experiments.
59. Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Also known as “Bloom’s Hierarchy of Thinking Skills” – HOTS. A classification of
Domain educational objectives developed in the 1950’s by a group of researchers headed by
Benjamin Bloom of the University of Chicago. Commonly refers to the objectives for
the cognitive domain, which range from knowledge and comprehension (lowest) to
synthesis and evaluation (highest). The taxonomy has been widely used by teachers to
determine the focus of their instruction and is probably the original reference of the
term higher-order thinking.
60. bond measure A method of borrowing used by school districts to pay for construction or renovation
projects. A bond measure requires a 55 percent majority to pass. The principal (original
amount borrowed) along with the interest are repaid by local property owners through
an increase in property taxes. (Ed Source)
61. Book Talks* Book talks, provide an opportunity for students to share and/or discuss books they
have encountered. Students acquire knowledge of books in a wide variety of ways:
books they read, books read to them, or books they have heard about. The book talk
provides the student with a forum for sharing informative text, newly discovered ideas
related to their reading and their recommendations for reading.
62. brain-based teaching Approaches to schooling that educators believe are in accord with recent research on
the brain and human learning. The theory advocates that the human brain is
constantly searching for meaning and seeking patterns and connections. Authentic
learning situations increase the brain's ability to make connections and retain new
information
63. Brainstorming* Brainstorming is a process that allows for the free flow of ideas. It begins with the
introduction of a topic/question with relevant words and phrases accepted without
criticism or judgment. It works to generate a wide variety of ideas, then evaluated as
relevant to the subject.
64. Brown v. Board of Education The case heard by the United States Supreme Court in 1954 in which racial segregation
in public schools was held to be unconstitutional.
65. CAPA The Collaborative Assessment and Planning for Achievement (CAPA) initiative is a
partnership among the N. J. Department of Education (DOE), schools, districts and
local educators designed to pinpoint obstacles to student achievement, identify needs
and develop solutions to improve school performance. During a four-day process that
targets Title I schools in improvement status as defined under the No Child Left Behind
Act (NCLB) a team of six to seven experienced educators, district and school staff,
representatives from higher education and DOE staff conduct a review of the school
using CAPA Indicators and essential questions. During the visit, the team analyzes
data; reviews the school’s NCLB Unified Plan; conducts interviews; makes classroom
visitations; and gathers and analyzes data. The CAPA team shares a draft of the school
report of findings and recommendations with district and school leadership staff.
Based on this collaborative effort, an action plan is developed
66. Carnegie unit A measurement used in most high schools to determine how much coursework a
student has completed. Students usually need at least 20 Carnegie units to graduate;
one unit is equal to a conventional 50-minute class taken five times per week
throughout the school year. A one-semester course is worth one-half of a Carnegie
unit. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching established and
promoted the units 100 years ago.
67. Case Studies* Case studies are accounts of actual events relevant to the topic of study. They prompt
the learner to apply their own knowledge and research the unknown while all the
while analyzing the events from a variety of perspectives. They promote the use of
higher order thinking skills coupled with problems solving. When used the teacher
facilitates the use of the case study while the students learn by doing in a student
centered environment.
68. Categorizing* Categorizing is the act of grouping ideas, items, words, skills, according to a
criteria/feature that is common to all members of the set. Categorizing allows
students to determine similarities and differences of the items categorized.
69. CCSS – Core Content State Standards Authored by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, and the
Council of Chief State School Officers, the Common Core State Standards focus on core
conceptual understandings and procedures starting in the early grades, thus enabling
teachers to take the time needed to teach core concepts and procedures well—and to
give students the opportunity to master them. The CCSS are currently in place for
English Language Arts/Language Arts Literacy and Mathematics. Forty-five states, the
District of Columbia, four territories, and the Department of Defense Education
Activity have adopted the Common Core State Standards.
70. certificated/credentialed employees The state requires school employees to hold teaching credentials, including full-time,
part-time, substitute, or temporary teachers and most administrators. A teacher who
has not yet acquired a credential, but has an emergency permit, is part of the
alternative program or a waiver to teach in the classroom is included in the count. The
normal requirements for a fully credentialed teacher in the state of New Jersey include
a bachelor's degree, student teaching and passing the Praxis Examination in their
program field. Those going through the alternative program fulfill their requirements
while working in a district that accepts alternative teachers.(Ed-data and Ed Source)
71. Chapter I The label assigned at one time to a section of the federal Elementary and Secondary
Education Act of 1965. The section, which is intended to benefit children who live in
high-poverty areas, was originally called Title I, was renamed Chapter I when the
legislation was reauthorized, and now is again known as Title I. The current version
emphasizes higher learning standards and requires state assessments for measuring
student progress.
72. character education Teaching children about basic human values, including honesty, kindness, generosity,
courage, freedom, equality, and respect. The goal is to raise children to become
morally responsible, self-disciplined citizens. Problem solving, decision-making, and
conflict resolution are important parts of developing moral character. Service learning
is frequently a part of a comprehensive character education program.
73. charter school A self-governing educational facility that operates under contract between the school's
organizers and the sponsors (often local school boards but sometimes other agencies,
such as state boards of education). The organizers are often teachers, parents, or
private organizations. The charter may detail the school's instructional design,
methods of assessment, management, and finances. Charter schools usually receive
government funding, may not charge tuition, and must be nonsectarian and
nondiscriminatory, and chosen by teachers, students, and parents. To renew their
charters, schools must demonstrate that they meet the expectations of parents and
their governing boards, continue to attract families, and retain and attract teachers.
74. Checking for Understanding A method of eliciting learner responses so that periodic formative assessments can
used during instruction to evaluate the learner’s understanding of the segment of
content and therefore inform the teacher’s decision making process and guide the
instruction
75. NJ Commissioner of Education New Jersey’s highest ranking education official other than the governor. Sometimes
called the Superintendent or the Chief State Officer in other states, the national
organization of these officials is the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSO).
76. child-centered Educational programs designed around the assumed characteristics and needs of the
child, rather than of parents, teachers, or society.
77. church-state separation The requirement based on interpretation of the First Amendment of the U.S.
Constitution and reinforced in numerous rulings of the U.S. Supreme Court that
government programs may not advance religion.
78. Circle the Sage* The instructor polls the students looking for special knowledge on a certain topic.
Those with the knowledge spread out around the room. (They are the Sages.) The
other students (no two from the same team) circle the sage, take notes on the
information they are presenting, and question them. Then, the group reforms and
each explains what they have learned. If there is a disagreement, the group presents
their argument with the whole class, and it is resolved there.
79. class size reduction A state-funded program for kindergarten through third grade classes to ensure that
 there are no more than 20 students per teacher. A separate program supports some
smaller classes for core subjects in ninth grade. (Ed-data)
80. classified employees School employees who are not required to hold teaching credentials, such as bus
drivers, secretaries, custodians, instructional aides, and some management personnel.
(Ed-data, Ed Source)
81. classroom climate
The "feeling" or tone of a classroom indicated by the total environment, inclusive of
the physical organization, the visual presentation of content and student work, the
respect and rapport developed between teacher and student, the management of
student behavior and classroom procedures and the general culture of learning
projected in the classroom.
82. classroom management The strategies to manage organize and administer the behavior and routines of
individuals, groups and the whole classroom of students and materials.
83. Closure The actions, prompts or statements by a teacher that are designed to have students
perform either a covert or overt activity that brings the critical attributes of a specific
learning or a lesson segment together in students minds, in order to make sense out
of what has just been taught. It is an activity performed by the students not the
teacher. The students should do the intellectual work – not the instructor – so that the
closure activity summarizes for the students what they learned.
84. Cloze * Cloze is a technique whereby, a text is presented and words critical to the
understanding of the topic are left out. Students then apply their knowledge by
inserting words that have the text make sense according to the topic studied. This
technique assesses knowledge and understanding of the topic, the reading process,
vocabulary and critical thinking.
A variety of (cloze) strategies provide __(practice)_ to students.

85. cluster To place small groups of students together for instruction

86. coaching Educators use this term, commonly used in athletics, to refer to any situation in which
someone helps someone else learn a skill. The late Mortimer Adler, who devised the
Paideia program, maintained that coaching is one of three basic modes of teaching
(the other two are presenting and leading discussions). Coaching considered an
important part of training programs allows teachers the opportunity to learn new
teaching methods. A process in which teachers visit each other's classes to observe
instruction and offer feedback called peer coaching.
87. Coalition of Essential Schools A high school-university partnership established at Brown University and founded by
Theodore Sizer. The coalition grew out of a study of secondary education sponsored by
the National Association of Secondary School Principals and the National Association of
Independent Schools. Coalition schools accept a set of nine governing principles which
include: helping students learn to use their minds; mastering a limited number of
essential skills and areas of knowledge; holding all students accountable for the same
goals; maintaining a teacher-to-student ratio that permits teachers to know students
as individuals; arranging for competitive teacher salaries; substantial planning and
training time. The coalition supports the idea that students should demonstrate their
mastery of certain skills and knowledge, decided on by the faculty and administrators
along with the community, in order to graduate.
88. cognitive development The process, which begins at birth, of learning through sensory perception, memory,
and observation. Children are born into cultures and backgrounds that affect what
they learn as well as how they learn. Children from enriched environments (in children
are read to, taught letters and numbers, and taken to plays and museums) come to
school better prepared to learn; children from impoverished or abusive backgrounds
often many of these preschool advantages. To stimulate the cognitive development of
such children, teachers use strategies such as placing learning into a meaningful
context, providing situations in which students can be active participants, and
combining general information with specific learning situations.
89. cognitive learning The mental processes involved in learning, such as remembering and understanding
facts and ideas. Educators have always been interested in how people learn but are
now becoming better informed about cognition from the work of cognitive
psychologists, such as Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Lev Vygotsky who have
compiled a great deal of information about thinking and learning.
90. cohort A particular group of people with something in common. For instance, a cohort might
be a group of students who taught an interdisciplinary curriculum by a team of middle
school teachers. Researchers might want to track their progress into high school to
identify differences in success of students in the cohort compared with students who
had attended conventional classes in the same school.
91. collaboration A relationship between individuals or organizations that enables the participants to
accomplish goals more successfully than they could have separately. Educators are
finding that they must collaborate with others to deal with increasingly complex issues.
Many schools teach students how to work with others on group projects. Some
educators call this collaborative learning, also known as cooperative learning.
92. collaborative action research Systematic investigation by two or more teachers of some aspect of their work in order
to improve their effectiveness. Action research involves identifying a question or
problem and then collecting and analyzing relevant data. It allows the participants the
opportunity to study an aspect of their own work and they intend to use the results
themselves.
93. common ground Fundamental values or goals that people agree upon, although they may disagree
strongly on other matters. The term refers to a process for improving communication
between public educators and their critics.
94. Common Planning Time (CPT) Usually done between teachers of the same grade level CPT is an institutionally
expectedandsanctionedpracticeofadultsmeetingtogetherona regularbasistoreviewand
craftplans,and toimprovetheacademic
engagementandachievementofthestudentstheyserve.
95. community center schools Organizations that provide services—often including medical and dental services,
nutrition classes, parent programs, and social services—as part of the school program
for both students and families. Community center schools, sometimes called full-
service schools, provide essential services that many families could not otherwise
obtain because they lack transportation, information, money, or time. The goals of
such programs are to help urban parents feel comfortable with teachers, become a
part of the learning community, and support their children's studies.
96. community college A two-year college also referred to as a junior college. Anyone who is 18 years old or
holds a high school diploma (or equivalent) is eligible to attend a community college.
Students can transfer from community colleges to a 4-year colleges or universities.
97. community-based learning Students, faculty, administrators, and community members working together to create
new learning opportunities within local communities but generally outside traditional
learning institutions.
98. comparable growth Subgroups of students in a school must improve their scores on standardized tests.
They must achieve 80 percent of the predominant student group's target, which is the
as comparable growth.
99. Compare & Contrast* Comparing and Contrasting determines similarities and differences. Many times
teachers have students read a given text and then compare and contrast the content
by listing the similarities and differences in chart. Comparing and contrasting allows
the students to identify the critical attributes of the topic. A “T” chart is the most
common form of graphic organizer used to compare and contrast. Additionally, a 2 or
a 3 circle Venn diagram is useful.
100. competency tests Tests created by a school district or state that students must pass before graduating.
Sometimes called minimum competency tests, such tests intend to ensure that
graduates have reached minimal proficiency in basic skills. In recent years, some states
have replaced minimum competency tests adopted in the 1970’s or 1980's with more
demanding tests aligned with adopted curriculum standards.
101. comprehensive school reform An approach to improvement used by schools involving the adoption of a design for
organizing an entire school rather than using numerous unrelated instructional
programs.
102. Computer Assisted Instruction* Fathered by the work of the behaviorist, B.F. Skinner, whose programmed learning,
was popular in the 1960’s. Computer-Assisted instruction (CAI) refers to any computer
generated instruction or remediation program where students work at the computer
with a program that delivers learning in smallest most manageable amounts, is self
paced and delivers immediate feedback. It will usually begin with a pre-assessment
that determines the starting point in the learning. If the student answers a question
incorrectly, the program will automatically provide the correct answer and practice in
the sub skills that lead to remediation. The program records the student’s progress
and can offer data on student accomplishment of sub skills and how the student
compares to other students in the class, school, or nationally.
103. Concept Attainment* Based on the work of the noted cognitive psychologist, Jerome Bruner, Concept
Attainment is a teacher-centered activity involving the use of critical thinking to
determine the critical attributes of a given example of an idea or concept. This indirect
process of inquiry leads to the identification of the concept or idea taught. Before
beginning the activity the teacher should determine:
1. The name of the concept
2. The concept definition or rule
 3. Conceptual attributes
4. Examples of the concept
5. Relationship of the concept to other concepts
Steps in Use of Concept Attainment Strategy:
1. Select and define a concept
2. Select the attributes
3. Develop positive and negative examples
4. Introduce the process to the students
5. Present the examples and list the attributes
6. Develop a concept definition
7. Give additional examples
8. Discuss the process with the class
9. Evaluate
104. Concept Formation* Concept formation is how people organize and classify items, ideas and events, usually
to solve problems. It is a classification activity used to classify items by their
characteristics. The process of using concept formation begins with the presentation of
information and/or data regarding a concept provided by either the teacher or the
student. Students then identify the similarities and differences while naming them
under a specific label. Students examine the characteristics of items to explore ideas
by making connections and seeing relationships between items of information, in
order to recognize commonalities and relationships, generalizations, and the
organization of data along with its supporting data.
105. Concept maps / Webbing* A concept map, also known as webbing, is a web diagram for exploring knowledge
about a given topic/concept. A concept map begins with a central circle that contains
the concept examined; Labeled ideas linking to the topic, listed inside circles outside of
the main circle and are connected, with lines, indicating their connection to the central
idea and other linking ideas. They assist in developing an understanding of the
connecting skill, structures and strategies connected to the main concept
106. conflict resolution Programs that teach students how to negotiate problems in a nonviolent way. Core
concepts include recognizing that conflict can be a pathway to personal growth,
understanding that there are alternative solutions to problems, and learning skills to
solve problems effectively. Conflict resolution provided through peer mediation, in
which students assist other students, teaches students to work through problems
without resorting to violence.
107. Consolidated Application (Con App) The application districts can use to apply for more than 20 state and federal
categorical programs, including the federal Title I program and the state School
Improvement Program (SIP). Most if not all districts use the Con App to secure funding
from at least some of the programs on the application. (Ed Source)
108. constructed response Test items on which students must provide an answer (short answer, explanation of
the process for determining the answer, etc.) in contrast with items (known as
selected response or multiple-choice) on which students choose from among answers
provided. Some psycho-metricians say that selected response items are preferable
because they machine scored and the results are therefore more reliable. Others,
however, believe constructed response items are a better test of what students can
actually do.
109. constructivism An approach to teaching based on research about how people learn. Many researchers
support the theory that each individual "constructs" knowledge rather than receiving it
from others. People disagree about how to achieve constructive learning, but many
educators believe that students come to understand abstract concepts best through
exploration, reasoning, and discussion.
110. content standards Standards that describe what students should know and be able to do in core
academic subjects at each grade level. (Ed Source)
111. continuous progress A system of education in which individuals or small groups of students go through a
sequence of lessons at their own pace, rather than at the pace of the entire classroom
group. Continuous progress, also called individualized education or individualized
instruction, is one version of mastery learning.
In continuous-progress programs, able and motivated students take on new lessons
only if they show they have the prerequisite skills needed. A criticism, however, is that
unmotivated students often progress more slowly than they would in regular classes.
112. Cooperative Learning* Cooperative learning is an instructional method that incorporates social learning
experiences with academic activities. Teachers facilitate activities where groups of
students at differentiated levels of ability, modalities and interest work together on
specific learning activities through which they increase their knowledge, understanding
and use of a concept. Each team member works both as an individual and as part of
the greater team. Thus gaining a sense of both personal and group achievement. The
five defining elements of cooperative learning as listed by Robert Marzano include:

1. Positive Interdependence
2. Face-To-Face Interaction
3. Individual Accountability
4. Social Skills
5. Group Processing

Cooperative Activities include:

Jigsaw - Construct groups with a minimum of five students. Each group member is
assigned some unique material to learn and then to teach to his group members. To
help in the learning students across the class working on the same sub-section get
together to decide what is important and how to teach it. After practice in these
"expert" groups, the original groups’ reform and students teach each other. (Wood, p.
17) Tests or assessment follows.

Think-Pair-Share - Involves a three step cooperative structure. During the first step
individuals think silently about a question posed by the instructor. Individuals pair up
during the second step and exchange thoughts. In the third step, the pairs share their
responses with other pairs, other teams, or the entire group.

Three-Step Interview (Kagan) - Each member of a team chooses another member to

be a partner. During the first step, individuals interview their partners by asking
clarifying questions. During the second step, partners reverse the roles. For the final
step, members share their partner's response with the team.

Round-Robin Brainstorming (Kagan)- Class is divided into small groups (4 to 6) with

one person appointed as the recorder. A question is posed with many answers and
students are given time to think about answers. After the "think time," members of the
team share responses with one another round robin style. The recorder writes down
the answers of the group members. The person next to the recorder starts and each
person in the group, in order, gives an answer until the timekeeper calls time.

Three-minute review - Teachers stop any time during a lecture or discussion and give
teams three minutes to review what has been said, ask clarifying questions or answer
questions.

Numbered Heads Together (Kagan) - A team of four is established. Number each

member 1, 2, 3, or 4. Give each group a set of questions. Groups work together to
answer the question so that all can verbally answer the question. Teacher calls out a
number (two) and each two is asked to give the answer.

Team Pair Solo (Kagan)- Students do problems first as a team, then with a partner, and
finally on their own. The design motivates students to tackle and succeed at problems
initially beyond their ability. Students can do more things with help (mediation) than
they can do alone. By allowing them to work on problems, they could not do alone,
first as a team and then with a partner, they progress to a point they can do alone that
which at first they could do only with help.

Circle the Sage (Kagan)- First the teacher polls the class to see which students have a
special knowledge to share. For example, the teacher may ask who in the class was
able to solve a difficult math homework question, who had visited Mexico, who knows
the chemical reactions involved in how salting the streets help dissipate snow. Those
students (the sages) stand and spread out in the room. The teacher then has the rest
of the classmates each surround a sage, with no two members of the same team going
to the same sage. The sage explains what they know while the classmates listen, ask
questions, and take notes. All students then return to their teams. Each in turn,
explains what they learned. Because each one has gone to a different sage, they
compare notes. If there is disagreement, they stand up as a team. Finally, the
 disagreements are aired and resolved.

Partners (Kagan) - The class is divided into teams of four. Partners move to one side of
the room. Half of each team receives an assignment to master to be able to teach the
other half. Partners work to learn and can consult with other partners working on the
same material. Teams go back together with each set of partners teaching the other
set. Partners quiz and tutor teammates. Team reviews how well they learned and
taught and how they might improve the process.

Structured problem solving- Groups are given a problem to solve within a specified
time. All members must agree and all must be able to explain the solution.

Send-a-problem- Several groups generate solutions to problems. Clip the problem to

the outside of a folder. Have all solutions from that group written down and placed
inside the folder. Then pass the folder to a different group who reads the problem but
not the solutions. They write their solutions and put them inside the folder. A third
group selects the two best solutions and amends them as necessary.

Drill review pairs- Groups of four split into pairs. The pairs are given two problems.
One member is the explainer and one is the accuracy checker. After one problem is
complete, they switch roles. When both problems are complete, the group of four
reforms. If they in agreement to the solution, they repeat the process with more
problems. If there is disagreement, review the problem and reach a consensus.
113. Coordinated School Health Programs A model developed by the Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion that consists of eight interactive components: health education, physical
education, health services, nutrition services, health promotion for staff, counseling
and psychological services, healthy school environment, and parent/community
involvement.
114. core curriculum The body of knowledge that all students are expected to learn. High schools often
require a core curriculum that may include, for example, four years of English, three
years of science and mathematics, two or three years of history, one or two years of a
foreign language, and one year of health studies. Electives are courses that are not
required.
115. covert Covert Activities, a form of Active Participation, are not seen or heard. Activities such
as thinking, considering, pondering, visualizing, and listening to the voice in your head
are covert.
116. creationism The view that human beings were specifically created by God and did not evolve from
other forms of animal life through the process of natural selection. Advocates of
scientific creationism believe that the creationist view should be taught alongside
evolution in science classes. Opponents argue that creationism is a religious, not a
scientific, position. They insist that the only ideas that should be taught in science
classes are those that are based on scientific evidence and that are subject to rigorous
scientific scrutiny.
117. criterion-referenced test A test that measures how well a student has learned a specific body of knowledge and
skills. The goal is typically to have every student attain a passing mark, not to compare
students to each other. (See norm-referenced assessment). (Ed Source)
118. critical attributes One of the variables of transfer, the critical attributes are the essential components of
something, the things that make it unique unto itself.
119. critical thinking Logical thinking based on sound evidence; the opposite of biased, sloppy thinking.
Some people take the word critical to mean negative and faultfinding, but
philosophers consider it to mean thinking that is skillful and responsible. A critical
thinker accurately and fairly explains a point of view that he does not agree with.
120. cultural literacy The idea of E. D. Hirsch, professor of English at the University of Virginia, that there is a
certain body of knowledge (core knowledge) that people must know to be well-
educated, well-rounded American citizens.
121. curricula plural of curriculum. May be Anglicized as curriculums.
122. curriculum The courses of study offered by a school or district. A set of standards that are
intended to guide instruction. The final decisions about school curriculum are usually
the responsibility of the local school board. (Ed Source)
123. cyber schools Educational institutions, many of them charter schools, which offer most or all of their
instruction by computer via the internet. More such schools are being established each
year.
124. data-based decision making Analyzing existing sources of information (class and school attendance, grades, test
scores) and other data (portfolios, surveys, interviews) to make decisions about the
school. The process involves organizing and interpreting the data and creating action
plans.
125. Debate* Debating is a structured contest of argumentation of opposing views between
individuals or teams. Debate involves 6 skills that students must learn to use and
deliver during the actual debate event: analysis, reasoning, evidence, organization,
refutation, and delivery. Debate participants must research the given topics and apply
the information and data found. Participants must learn to use their knowledge to
think critically and respond strategically to their opponents’ response. The structure of
the debate is governed by pre-determined rules. The debate is judged by an
independent panel who declares one individual or team a winner. The use of debate is
appropriate in middle school and above.
126. decentralization The deliberate reassignment of decision-making authority from states or districts to
local schools based on the beliefs that people who are closest to a situation make
better decisions and that people work hardest when implementing their own
decisions. The primary vehicle for school decentralization in recent decades has been
site-based management, under which decision-making authority has been delegated
to local schools, often accompanied by a requirement that schools establish
representative school councils.
127. degree of original learning One of the variables of retention and transfer that says that retention increases when
the student learns the material well the first time he/she learns it.
128. democratic education Advocates of democratic education believe that students, if they are to acquire the
skills, knowledge, and values they need to perform their roles as citizens in a
democracy, should receive a type of education that actively engages them as citizens in
their own schools and communities. For example, they believe that students should
participate in the governance of the school and engage in service-learning activities in
their local communities.
129. democratic purposes of education Historically, one of the primary missions of the public schools in the United States has
been to prepare children to perpetuate American democracy. Schools are expected to
ensure that all children, regardless of family economic status or future occupation,
acquire the skills, knowledge, and civic values they need to perform their roles as
citizens in a democracy.
130. de-tracking Reducing or eliminating grouping by ability, resulting in classes with students from
all ability levels. The result of de-tracking is also called heterogeneous rather than
homogeneous (or ability) grouping. Tracking refers to students being lumped into
groups for all their classes based on their general ability to learn. Grouping for
specific purposes, such as current knowledge of mathematics, is theoretically not
tracking, although opponents charge that the practice usually has the same results.
Advocates of de-tracking, also called un-tracking, point to research indicating that
when students are grouped by ability, those in lower tracks are usually taught poorly
and don't get exposed to "high-status" knowledge. They see de-tracking as part of a
broader restructuring of schools in which student differences are provided for within
each class. Opponents of de-tracking say ability grouping is easier for teachers and
better for students—those who are academically able and should not be held back,
and those who are slower and should have attention to their special needs.
131. developmental screening tests Used to identify students who may have disabilities, sensory impairments (e.g., near-
sightedness or reduced hearing), or behavioral and developmental disabilities.
132. developmentally appropriate Curriculum and instruction that is in accord with the physical and mental development
education of the student. Developmentally appropriate education is especially important for
young children because their physical and mental abilities change quickly and vary
greatly from child to child. For example, some 4-year-old children are able to sit quietly
through a group story time, while others become fidgety. This does not necessarily
mean that the more active children have ADHD; their neurological functions may
simply not have matured as quickly as others may in their age group.
133. Didactic Questions* Didactic questions are usually factual questions that begin with:
What ____________?
Where___________?
When____________?
How_____________?
They are convergent in nature, meaning that they tend to have a single answer that
demonstrates lower order thinking such as knowledge and comprehension.
134. differentiated instruction A form of instruction that seeks to "maximize each student's growth by meeting each
student where she/he is and helping the student to progress. In practice, it involves
 offering several different learning experiences in response to students' varied needs.
Learning activities and materials may be varied by difficulty to challenge students at
different readiness levels, by topic in response to students' interests, and by students'
preferred ways of learning or expressing themselves." (ASCD On Line Course)
135. direct instruction Instruction in which the teacher explains the intended purpose and presents the
content in a clear, orderly way. Contrasts with inductive, discovery, or constructive
teaching, in which students are led, by means of investigation or discussion, to develop
their own ideas
136. disaggregated data The presentation of data broken into segments of the student population instead of
the entire enrollment. Typical segments include students who are economically
disadvantaged, from racial or ethnic minority groups, have disabilities, or have limited
English fluency. Disaggregated data allows parents and teachers to see how each
student group is performing in a school. (Ed Source)
137. discovery learning Learning activities designed so that students discover facts and principles themselves
rather than having them explained by a textbook or a teacher. These activities are used
most often in science classes where, for example, students can directly observe effects
of various substances on other substances and infer possible reasons.
138. distance learning Taking classes in locations other than the classroom or places where teachers present
the lessons. Distance learning uses various forms of technology, especially television
and computers, to provide educational materials and experiences to students. Small
high schools may arrange for their students to take courses, such as those for
advanced foreign language instruction, by computer or television. Many colleges and
universities broadcast credit courses for students who live in isolated locations or who
for other reasons cannot attend classes on campus.
139. diversity In education, discussions about diversity involve recognizing a variety of student needs
including those of ethnicity, language, socioeconomic class, disabilities, and gender.
School reforms attempt to address these issues to help all students succeed. Schools
also respond to societal diversity by attempting to promote understanding and
acceptance of cultural and other differences.
140. Do Now See “Sponge Activity/Do Now
141. Drill & Practice* Drill and practice is a strategy teachers use to promote retention. A small amount of
selected material is presented for the practice session. Students must have an
understanding of the underlying concept being taught for the being practiced to have
meaning. This will allow the practice material to have a meaningful place in the larger
picture of the concept being taught. Use of drill and practice is most often see used to
learn mathematics facts, spelling words, vocabulary, scientific terms, symbols and
data.
142. dropouts Students who leave high school before receiving a diploma. Because it is difficult to
keep track of adolescents no longer in school, because students may re-enter schools
and drop out again more than once, and because many students eventually get the
equivalent of secondary education by means of GED tests, dropout rates are not
completely accurate. However, many observers believe that the dropout rate is much
higher than it ought to be.
143. dyslexia Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurological in origin. It is characterized
by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and
decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological
component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities
and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may
include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can
impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge
144. early childhood education The education of young children. Many educators think of early childhood education as
including children ages 3 through 7. Recent research information about the brain
development of infants is causing many specialists to think of this period of rapid
learning as beginning at birth.
145. effective schools Schools in which all students, especially those from families in poverty, learn at a
higher-than-expected level. The idea of effective schools was pioneered in the early
1980’s by the late Ronald Edmonds, who compared schools in which children in
poverty earned high test scores with other schools that had similar student
populations. He found that effective schools had strong principals who closely
monitored student achievement and created an orderly environment characterized by
high expectations.
146. English Language Arts (ELA) The literacy components of reading, writing, speaking and listening taught in an English
class.
147. Elementary and Secondary Education Known as ESEA, U.S. legislation passed in 1965, signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson,
 Act (ESEA) that provided large amounts of federal aid to states and local districts as part of the
larger “War on Poverty.” ESEA must be reauthorized every 5 years by the Congress.
The most well known provision of ESEA is Title I, which targets funding to schools with
high concentrations of economically disadvantaged children in order to improve their
educational opportunities.
The 2002 version called “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB) requires that states administer
annual tests in math and reading for all students in grades 3 through 8. Schools failing
to produce sufficient improvements in student test scores will be subject to sanctions.
Advocates of these testing provisions argue that they are necessary to ensure that all
children receive a quality education; others argue, however, that such tests are not an
accurate measure of educational quality and that the accountability provisions will
compel teachers to teach to the test, narrowing the curriculum and focusing on rote
learning.
148. emergency permit A one-year permit issued to people entering the teaching profession who have not
completed some of the legal requirements for a credential. Usually given when no
credentialed person is available to teach the specific content. Generally, the intent is
that the person will enroll in and complete an approved teacher preparation program.
(Ed Source)
149. English as a Second Language (ESL) Teaching English to non-English-speaking or limited-English-proficient (LEP) students to
help them learn and succeed in schools. ESOL (English for Speakers of Other
Languages) has generally the same meaning as ESL.
150. English language learner (ELL) A student whose first language is other than English and who is in a special program
for learning English (which may be bilingual education or English as a Second
Language).
151. English learner A student who is not proficient enough in the English language to succeed in the
school's regular instructional programs and who qualifies for extra help. (Formerly
referred to as Limited English Proficient/LEP student.) (Ed Source/Ed-data)
152. enrichment Topics and activities that are valuable and interesting to learn but are not basic
education—knowledge that is "nice to know" but not necessarily, what people need to
know. The term enrichment is also applied to efforts that parents make to supplement
their children's learning outside of school, such as trips to science and art museums,
classes in dance, art or sports, educational vacations, visits to local libraries, and
attendance at local theaters, orchestras, or ballets.
153. environmental education According to the Environmental Education and Training Partnership (EETAP),
environmental education "is a learning process that increases people's knowledge and
awareness about the environment and associated challenges, develops the necessary
skills and expertise to address the challenges, and fosters attitudes, motivations, and
commitments to make informed decisions and take responsible action." Although
some educators have long argued that environmental education should be an essential
part of the school curriculum, the movement to incorporate it has gained ground in
recent years as more and more schools have incorporated at least some of its
elements.
Source: http://eetap.org/definitionofee.html
154. equal access Refers to federal legislation that prohibits public school systems from discriminating
against student religious groups. If schools permit other non-curriculum-related
student groups, such as a chess club, to meet on school property, they must also
permit other voluntary student groups, such as prayer groups, to meet.
155. equity The goal of equity is to achieve a high-quality education for all students, regardless of
gender, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disabilities, or special needs. Studies
show widespread inequities in financial support, classroom expectations, texts and
technological resources, and quality of teaching, especially in inner cities and among
poor populations. Because needs are greater in some situations than others, equal
treatment is not necessarily equitable.
156. ESEA See Elementary and Secondary Education Act.
157. ESL See English as a Second Language
158. Essays* Distinguishing between types of essays is simply a matter of determining the writer’s
goal. Does the writer want to tell about a personal experience, describe something,
explain an issue, or convince the reader to accept a certain viewpoint? The four major
types of essays address these purposes:

1. Narrative Essays: Telling a Story

In a narrative essay, the writer tells a story about a real-life experience. While telling a
story may sound easy to do, the narrative essay challenges students to think and write
about themselves. When writing a narrative essay, writers should try to involve the
 reader by making the story as vivid as possible. The fact that narrative essays are
usually written in the first person helps engage the reader. “I” sentences give readers a
feeling of being part of the story. A well-crafted narrative essay will also build towards
drawing a conclusion or making a personal statement.

2. Descriptive Essays: Painting a Picture

A cousin of the narrative essay, a descriptive essay paints a picture with words. A
writer might describe a person, place, object, or even memory of special significance.
However, this type of essay is not description for description’s sake. The descriptive
essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning through the description. In a
descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell, using colorful words and sensory
details. The best descriptive essays appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result that
is highly evocative.

3. Expository Essays: Just the Facts

The expository essay is an informative piece of writing that presents a balanced
analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a topic, using
facts, statistics, and examples. Expository writing encompasses a wide range of essay
variations, such as the comparison and contrast essay, the cause and effect essay, and
the “how to” or process essay. Because expository essays are based on facts and not
personal feelings, writers don’t reveal their emotions or write in the first person

4. Argumentative Essay – Showing Both Sides / Debate

Argumentative requires the development of both sides of an issue, offering several
claims for one side while acknowledging that there are valid counterclaims from the
opposition. Argumentative writing is not about winning to "get" something, but rather
giving the reader another perspective to consider on a debatable topic.

4. Persuasive Essays: Convince Me

While like an expository essay in its presentation of facts, the goal of the persuasive
essay is to convince the reader to accept the writer’s point of view or
recommendation. The writer must build a case using facts and logic, as well as
examples, expert opinion, and sound reasoning. The writer should present all sides of
the argument, but must be able to communicate clearly and without equivocation why
a certain position is correct.
159. Essential Elements of Instruction Madeline Cheek Hunter (1916–1994) was an American educator who developed a
model for teaching and learning that was widely adopted by schools during the last
quarter of the 20th century. Named one of the hundred most influential women of
the 20th century and one of the ten most influential in education by the Sierra
Research Institute and the National Women's Hall of Fame, her model called
Instructional Theory into Practice (ITIP) is based on the Essential Elements of
Instruction and is widely used in school districts around the country. Essential
Elements of Instruction include; Determining the Objective at the Correct Level of
Difficulty and Complexity, Teaching to the Objective, Monitoring the Learner and
Adjusting the Teaching and the Principles of Learning.
160. essential questions Basic questions, such as "What is distinctive about the American experience?" used to
provide focus for a course or a unit of study. Such questions need to be derived from
vitally important themes and topics whose answers cannot be summarized neatly and
concisely.
161. evolution Refers to the theory of natural selection, which is the basis for modern studies of
biology. Creationists oppose the teaching of natural selection in public schools,
especially if it is not accompanied by the idea of creationism as an alternative
explanation of biological differences.
162. exemplar An example chosen to illustrate characteristics of a concept. In schools, the term
exemplar sometimes refers to samples of student work used to show other students
what they are expected to do. An exemplar can also help teachers (and students
themselves) evaluate student work when it is completed. Exemplars are sometimes
called model papers.
163. experiential education Education that emphasizes personal experience of the learner rather than learning
from lectures, books, and other secondhand sources. Experiential education,
sometimes called experiential learning, may take the form of internships, service
learning, school-to-work programs, field studies, cross-cultural education, and
 leadership development.
164. Experiments* An experiment is a methodical procedure carried out with the goal of verifying,
falsifying, or establishing the validity of a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into
cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is
manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in their goal and scale, but always rely on
repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTS
CONTROLLED
A controlled experiment generally compares the results obtained from an
experimental sample against a control sample, which is practically identical to the
experimental sample except for the one aspect whose effect is being tested (the
independent variable).
NATURAL
The term "experiment" usually implies a controlled experiment, but sometimes-
controlled experiments are prohibitively difficult or impossible. In this case,
researchers resort to natural experiments or quasi-experiments. Natural experiments
rely solely on observations of the variables of the system under study, rather than
manipulation of just one or a few variables as occurs in controlled experiments.
FIELD
Field experiments are so named in order to draw a contrast with laboratory
experiments, which enforce scientific control by testing a hypothesis in the artificial
and highly controlled setting of a laboratory. Often used in the social sciences, and
especially in economic analyses of education and health interventions, field
experiments have the advantage that outcomes are observed in a natural setting
rather than in a contrived laboratory environment
165. Explicit Teaching* Explicit teaching focuses on specific learning outcomes. The content is divided into
objectives that teach specific sub-skills and includes providing information, modeling
and guided as well as independent practice. Modeling is an especially important
aspect in that the teacher demonstrates the thinking process involved the model by
performing a “Think aloud” while modeling. Topics and contents are broken down into
small parts and taught individually. It involves explanation, demonstration and
practice. Children are provided with guidance and structured frameworks. Topics are
taught in a logical order and directed by the teacher.
166. Extrinsic Motivation Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual for rewards such as money,
fame, grades or rewards or the avoidance of pain or punishment.
167. failing schools Schools, usually located in urban or low-income rural areas, in which an unacceptably
low proportion of students meet established standards, as indicated by test scores.
Also called low-performing schools.
168. family life education School programs that teach the knowledge and attitudes needed by young people to
become responsible members of healthy families, including essential attitudes and
knowledge about human sexuality. Family Life Education programs are often
controversial because one person's idea of an essential attitude may be completely
unacceptable to someone else.
169. family math A University of California at Berkeley program that teaches families how to enjoy doing
math together. Parents and children attend workshops or use the Family Math book to
learn how to use everyday materials to do fun math activities.
170. feedback Feedback gives information to students about how they are performing relative to
classroom learning goals. It is specific, usable and timely and is an important
component of the formative assessment process. Hattie and Timperley (2007) propose
a model of feedback that distinguishes four levels:
(1) feedback about the task (such as feedback about whether answers were right or
wrong or directions to get more information)
(2) feedback about the processing of the task (such as feedback about strategies used
or strategies that could be used
(3) feedback about self-regulation (such as feedback about student self-evaluation or
self-confidence)
(4) feedback about the student as a person (such as pronouncements that a student is
"good" or "smart").
The level at which the feedback is focused influences its effectiveness. Feedback about
the qualities of the work and feedback about the process or strategies used to do the
work are most helpful. Feedback that draws students' attention to their self-regulation
strategies or their abilities as learners can be effective if students hear it in a way that
makes them realize they will get the results they want if they expend effort and
attention. Personal comments ("Good girl!") do not draw students' attention to their
 learning.
171. feeling tone A variable of motivation, and retention, feeling tone is the learner’s perception of the
physical and emotional climate of the learning environment as either pleasant ,
negative and neutral
172. Field Trips* Any structured activity that takes students outside the classroom to a new location is a
field trip. Field trips offer students the opportunity to see an event, connect with an
authority of the subject being studied, view artifacts, or view a performance that is not
available in the classroom. A field trip takes a tremendous amount of planning and
additional work during the trip. Students must receive instruction to prepare them for
the event so that they understand the purpose, know what they should be observing
and lastly know what will be expected of them in regards to the learning when they
have returned to the classroom. Districts have many requirements that must be
fulfilled in order to gain permission to take a field trip.
173. Focused Imaging/Visualization* Focused Imaging/visualization is the process of creating a mental image or intention of
what you want to happen or feel. A form of covert active participation, it is a teaching
technique that teachers can use to promote learning and enhance creativity. Creating
a mental image is the first step in gaining an understanding of a person, place or
concept. Many athletes have used visualization techniques in order to learn how
perform a skill before they can actually do it. In teaching, it mentally focuses the
learner and actively involves the student. Some phrases that can be used to elicit a
visualization are;
“Think about. . . “
“Consider . . .”
“In your mind’s eye picture. . .”
174. formative assessment Any form of assessment used by an educator to evaluate students' knowledge and
understanding of particular content and then to adjust instructional practices
accordingly toward improving student achievement in that area. (Ed Source)
175. four by four (4×4) schedule A type of block, or alternative, scheduling used in some secondary schools in place of
the usual class periods of about 50 minutes. Students take four 90-minute classes a
day, with course changes every 45 days (four times a school year). Students and
teachers have fewer classes to prepare for and experience fewer interruptions in the
school day. Longer blocks of time allow for more complex learning activities, such as
complicated science experiments
176. Free/reduced-price meals A federal program that provides food for students from low-income families. (Ed-data).
The data from Free/reduced-price meals is frequently used to determine the poverty
level of a school which is therefore one of the factors used in determining if it is a
school at risk.
177. full inclusion The practice of educating all children in the same classroom, including children with
physical, mental, and developmental disabilities. Inclusion classes often require a
special assistant and/or teacher to the classroom teacher. In a fully inclusive school or
classroom, all of the children follow the same schedules; everyone is involved in the
same field trips, extracurricular activities, and assemblies.
The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) made inclusion a
controversial topic by requiring a free and appropriate education with related services
for each child in the least restrictive environment possible, and an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) for each qualifying child. In 1991 the bill was renamed the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the revision broadened the
definition of disabilities and added related services. One controversy involves
interpreting the phrase "least restrictive environment possible." Supporters of full
inclusion interpret the phrase to mean full provisions in the regular school; others
advocate case-by-case decisions, considering the individual student and available staff
and facilities. For example, some professionals and some parents of children with
learning disabilities believe that these children benefit from partial inclusion, with
some activities and learning experiences occurring in alternative facilities using
different teaching strategies.
178. functional illiteracy The inability to read or write well enough to perform many necessary tasks in life, such
as writing a check, filling out a job application, reading a classified advertisement, or
understanding a newspaper headline.
179. fuzzy math A term used by critics of mathematics instruction that emphasizes estimation, multiple
approaches to problem solving, and use of calculators, as recommended by the
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. The critics, including some professors of
mathematics, believe children should be expected to learn established mathematical
knowledge and procedures.
180. gender bias The idea that one gender or the other is “short-changed” by school practices and
 expectations. The term may refer to the difficulties boys tend to have in conforming to
classroom routines and learning to read and write, or it may refer to lower average
achievement by girls in science, mathematics, and technology. Bias is sometimes
suspected when test results consistently favor one gender or the other.
181. General Educational Development The GED exam is a high school equivalency test that was first developed in 1942. Each
(GED) exam year, approximately 800,000 adults receive a GED diploma—sometimes called an
equivalency certificate—certifying that they have skills and knowledge equivalent to
those of a high school graduate. The program is administered by the Center for Adult
Learning and Educational Credentials of The American Council on Education.
As of January 2002, the GED consists of five tests that cover language arts reading,
language arts writing, social studies, science, and mathematics. GED courses are often
available in evening adult education programs in local school districts. The tests are
given at 3,400 official GED testing centers across North America and elsewhere.
182. general fund Accounting term used by the state and school districts to differentiate general
revenues and expenditures from funds for specific uses, such as a Cafeteria Fund. (Ed-
data)
183. gifted and talented A program that offers supplemental, differentiated, challenging curriculum and
instruction for students identified as being intellectually gifted or talented. (Ed Source).
For example, a person may be exceptionally talented as an artist, a violinist, or a
physicist. Some districts have recently been questioning whether exceptionally
prepared students are truly gifted and talented.
184. Graphic Organizers* A graphic organizer is a visual representation visually representing the relationships
and patterns between the ideas and facts presented in a lesson. Story maps, advanced
organizers and webs are all forms of graphic organizers. They may be used before,
during and after the presentation of information. Before the lesson, they assist in
eliciting and assessing prior knowledge and/ or building background. During
instruction they assist the learning in organizing their thoughts and seeing
relationships and patterns. After instruction, they can be used to assist students in
summarizing what has been learned. As a scaffolding tool, they should be used to
insure initial understanding of the concept and then their use should fade, such that
the student is able to perform the skill or use the strategy without the assistance of the
physical organizer.
185. guided practice The opportunity to try out or experience a learning with the close assistance of
another person ,usually the teacher or a tutor. It usually occurs immediately following
instruction of content.
186. Guided Reading* Guided reading is a strategy in which teachers select small groups of students to teach
specific skills. Student groups are flexible, meaning that the member selection is
designated by the need to learn the specific skill being taught. The text used to
illustrate the skill/strategy being taught are called leveled readers, that is to say that
each students is given a book appropriated their instructional level. Book levels are
pre-determined and can be found on many web sites. Teachers use both observations
and a process called “Running Records” as tools to determine students’ instructional
needs. Running records are a one-on-one assessment of a child’s reading level by
assessing students decoding accuracy and the types of errors made while reading. For
additional information, see authors: Fountas and Pinnell.
187. habits of mind Mental attitudes and ways of behaving that contribute to success in life, such as being
able to make a plan and follow it or to make decisions based on sound information.
The habits of mind sought in the Dimensions of Learning program are grouped under
the headings of critical thinking, creative thinking, and self-regulated learning.
188. Head Start Established in 1965, Head Start is intended to foster healthy development of low-
income children to help them succeed in school. Head Start and Early Head Start are
federally sponsored, comprehensive child development programs that serve children
from birth to age 5 as well as pregnant women and their families. Head Start grantee
and delegate agencies offer a range of individualized services in the areas of education
and early childhood development; medical, dental, and mental health; nutrition; and
parent involvement.
189. health education A planned, sequential K-12 curriculum that addresses the physical, mental, emotional,
and social dimensions of health. The curriculum is designed to motivate and help
students maintain and improve their health, prevent disease, and reduce health-
related risk behaviors. It allows students to develop and demonstrate increasingly
sophisticated health-related knowledge, attitudes, skills, and practices. The
comprehensive curriculum includes a variety of topics such as personal health, family
health, community health, consumer health, environmental health, sexuality
education, mental and emotional health, injury prevention and safety, nutrition,
 prevention and control of disease, and substance use and abuse. Qualified, trained
teachers provide health education.

190. heterogeneous grouping Intentionally mixing students of varying talents and needs in the same classroom (the
opposite of homogeneous grouping). The success of this method, also called mixed-
ability grouping, depends on the teacher's skill in differentiating instruction so that all
students feel challenged and successful.
191. Harassment, Intimidation and Bullying On January 5, 2011, the Anti-Bullying Bill of Rights Act (P.L.2010, c.122,
Act (HIB) http://www.njleg.state.nj.us/2010/Bills/PL10/122_.PDF) was signed into law to
strengthen the standards and procedures for preventing, reporting, investigating and
responding to incidents of harassment, intimidation and bullying (HIB) of students that
occur on school grounds and off school grounds under specified circumstances.
The New Jersey Department of Education issued guidance for use by parents, students
and school staff in resolving complaints concerning HIB to explain the obligations of
school districts and charter schools, to provide information on best practices for the
prevention, intervention and remediation of HIB in schools, including methods for
identifying or assisting student populations at high risk for HIB. Additionally it includes
procedures for petitioning the Commissioner of Education to hear and decide disputes,
to explain the jurisdiction of the Division of Civil Rights, New Jersey Department of Law
and Public Safety in regard to specific types of HIB; and  To explain the process for
appealing final agency determinations to the Appellate Division of the Superior Court.
192. hidden curriculum The habits and values taught in schools that are not specified in the official written
curriculum. May refer to what critics see as an overemphasis on obedience,
dependence, and conformity.
193. High Priority Schools Grant Program A program created to provide funds for schools in the lower half of the state rankings
(HPSGP) (Deciles 1-5) based on the API. It focuses on schools with APIs that fall in the bottom
ten percent of all schools and replaces the II/USP.  Schools volunteer to be in this
program. (Ed Source)
194. higher-order thinking The kind of thinking needed when the path to finding a solution is not specified, and
that yields multiple solutions rather than one. Higher-order thinking requires mental
effort because it involves interpretation, self-regulation, and the use of multiple
criteria, which may be conflicting. Teachers who seek to develop students' higher-
order thinking abilities engage them in analyzing, comparing, contrasting, generalizing,
problem solving, investigating, experimenting, and creating, rather than only in
recalling information. Other terms used to refer to higher-order thinking include
critical thinking, complex reasoning, and thinking skills. (Lauren Resnick, University of
Pittsburg)
195. highly qualified teacher According to NCLB, a teacher who has obtained full state teacher certification or has
passed the state teacher licensing examination and holds a license to teach in the
state; holds a minimum of a bachelor’s degree; and has demonstrated subject area
competence in each of the academic subjects in which the teacher teaches. (Ed
Source)
196. high-stakes tests Tests used to determine which individual students get rewards, honors, or sanctions.
Low-stakes tests are used primarily to improve student learning. Tests with high stakes
attached include college entrance examinations and tests students must pass to be
promoted to the next grade. Tests affecting the status of schools, such as those on
which a given percentage of students must receive a passing grade, are also
considered high stakes.
197. holistic learning A theory of education that places importance on the complete experience of learning
and the ways in which the separate parts of the learning experience are interrelated.
Canadian scholar John Miller defines holistic learning as essentially concerned with
connections in human experience, such as the connections among mind and body,
rational thought and intuition, various subject matters, and the individual in society.
198. homeschooling Teaching children at home instead of sending them to public or private schools. Over
the past decade, the number of homeschooling families has grown dramatically. In the
mid-1980’s there were only about 15,000 home schools, but by 1994, the Department
of Education estimated the number at about 345,000. A federal report issued in 2001
estimated that in 1999, the most recent year studied, at least 850,000 students were
learning at home; some experts believe the figure may now be more like 1.5 million. If
so, homeschooled children would be about 4 percent of the total K-12 population.
State laws on the subject vary, but laws are changing rapidly in response to changing
conditions. At one time many families chose homeschooling for religious reasons, but
more are doing so now because of apparent dissatisfaction with the quality of public
education. Families are beginning to network their homeschooling efforts with other
 families, and in some places, home schools and public schools are working together to
benefit all the students.
199. homogeneous grouping Assigning students to separate classes according to their apparent abilities. Placing
students in groups for all their classes based supposedly on their general learning
ability has been called tracking. For example, college-bound students might have all of
their classes together while vocational students and special education students would
attend other classes. In its extreme form, tracking has been declared illegal by the U.S.
Supreme Court and is considered a violation of students' civil rights.
200. High School Proficiency Assessment The High School Proficiency Assessment is used to determine student achievement in
(HSPA) reading, writing, and mathematics as specified in the New Jersey Core Curriculum
Content Standards. First-time eleventh grade students who fail the HSPA in March of
their junior year will have an opportunity to retest in October and March of their
senior year.
201. illiteracy Lack of the skills needed in a literate society.

202. immersion As used in bilingual education programs, immersion means having students learn a
second language by speaking, hearing, and reading it all day (or part of the day),
including being taught several subjects in that language. If all students speak the same
language, as they usually do in bilingual programs for Spanish-speaking students, the
lessons are constructed around the students' language competencies, and the
instructor is fluent in both the students' language and the language being learned.
Immersion programs in the United States are usually for non-English speakers, but
some enrichment immersion programs are designed for English speakers to learn a
second language.
203. inclusion The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) made inclusion a
controversial topic by requiring a free and appropriate education with related services
for each child in the least restrictive environment possible, and an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) for each qualifying child. In 1991 the bill was renamed the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the revision broadened the
definition of disabilities and added related services. One controversy involves
interpreting the phrase "least restrictive environment possible." Supporters of full
inclusion interpret the phrase to mean full provisions in the regular school; others
advocate case-by-case decisions, considering the individual student and available staff
and facilities. Inclusion is the practice of educating all children in the same classroom,
including children with physical, mental, and developmental disabilities. Inclusion
classes often require a special assistant and/or a special education certified teacher in
addition to the regular classroom teacher. In a fully inclusive school or classroom, all of
the children follow the same schedules; everyone is involved in the same field trips,
extracurricular activities, and assemblies.
204. Independent practice The opportunity to try out or experience a learning without the assistance of another
person, many time, but not all ways referring to homework.
205. independent study Specially designed instruction in courses taught through a variety of delivery methods
that complement traditional high school curricula and provide an accredited diploma.
206. indicator A statistic, such as the percentage of students attending school daily, used as evidence
of success in accomplishing an abstract goal, such as student interest in learning. The
long-term results of education are difficult to measure, so people use measurable
indicators—such as dropout rates, honors won, and test scores—to help judge school
quality.
207. Individualized Education Program (IEP) Students with certain special needs, as specified by the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), have a legal right to a special plan written by a multidisciplinary
team. After a series of tests and observations, determine the child's need for an IEP, a
team (generally including a special education teacher, a classroom teacher, a building
principal, a psychologist, and the child's parents or guardians) designs a program of
services to blend the best methods of teaching with the most conducive learning
environment for the child. The process of creating the IEP allows the parties to discuss
and resolve any differences of opinions and needs. The document specifies the
decisions and anticipated outcomes, and it includes the child's current level of
educational performance, specific services to be provided, who will provide those
services and when, the amount of time the child will be in regular and special
classrooms, and short and long-term goals. The IEP objectives are used to determine
the child's progress toward the goals. A well-written, carefully developed IEP protects
the child because schools are legally responsible for implementing it. It is review once
a year.
208. Individuals with Disabilities Education A revision of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, the IDEA is a federal law
 Act (IDEA) passed in 1991 and amended in 1997 that guarantees a free appropriate public
education for eligible children and youth with disabilities. According to the law, a child
with a disability means a child with mental retardation, hearing impairments (including
deafness), speech or language impairments, visual impairments (including blindness),
serious emotional disturbance, orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic brain injury,
other health impairments, or specific learning disabilities.
209. In-service The continuing education needed by people in most professions when they have
completed their pre-service training and are employed. In education, in-service
training or education is now usually called staff development or professional
development.
210. instructional minutes Refers to the amount of time the state requires teachers to spend providing
instruction in each subject area.
211. Instructional Objective An instructional objective describes a learning that is specific and can be accomplished
by students in one learning episode. It describes a performance that the learner will
be able to exhibit to be considered competent and is the intended result of instruction,
not the process of instruction itself. The objective must be specific and measurable
with all parts being at a congruent level of thinking. If the objective take longer than
one lesson, it is either sequentially inappropriate or it is too broad and needs to be
broken down into more manageable sub-skills or “chunks”. An Instructional Objective
contains the following components:
1. The Audience – Who is being taught – usually the students
2. The Learning – the specific, measurable skill, sub-skill, concept being
taught
3. Assessment – The student demonstration of the learning.
4. The Condition (As needed/Optional)
5. The Degree o Accuracy- the acceptable degree of
competency/proficiency
212. integrated curriculum Refers to the practice of using a single theme to teach a variety of subjects. It also
refers to a interdisciplinary curriculum, which combines several school subjects into
one project.
213. integrated language arts A way of teaching reading (including phonics), grammar, handwriting, spelling, and
other language skills together rather than as separate subjects. Students spend their
instructional time reading, writing, listening, and speaking; teachers teach skills, as
they are needed. Critics contend that students may miss important information and
skills without systematic instruction. Proponents of integrated language arts say that
teaching skills in context is more interesting and meaningful to students and therefore
more effective.
214. integrated learning systems Computer-based systems that provide interactive instruction to individual students
and maintain records of each student's progress. Sophisticated systems adapt the level
of instruction to the student's achievement, giving slower students additional help and
moving successful students to more challenging levels.
215. Interdisciplinary Approach/ An interdisciplinary approach to teaching involves the application of more than one
Curriculum* academic discipline/subject to a central theme, issue, question, problem, or topic. It
creates connections between the disciplines so that the learner acquires knowledge
and connects that knowledge across a broad range of contents. It creates learning
across the curriculum and integrates a variety of opportunities for critical thinking.
Develop a plan and use the Interdisciplinary Concept Model (Jacobs and Borland 1986)
as a guide.
1. Choose a topic-concepts such as observations, patterns, light, revolution,
humor, flight, pioneers, the future, and world hunger have proven highly
effective (Jacobs).
2. Brainstorm for ideas that can be organized onto an interdisciplinary concept
model. This model has the theme in the center and the subject areas are
explored in relation to the theme.
3. Guiding questions are developed to serve as scope and sequence. The
questions are general and should transcend discipline lines (Jacobs p. 60).
After the questions have been developed, the activities that explore the
questions can be developed. Hayes Jacobs (1989) recommends that Bloom's
Taxonomy can be used to develop a matrix that ensures higher-level thought
processes.
4. Plans are included to develop activities. For example: An interdisciplinary
plan on the Habitats of Birds includes:
 Unit: Habitat: 1. Do birds come to our park? (Social Studies)
 Knowledge: Identify birds in our park (Science)
  Comprehension: Observe and describe bird behavior (Literacy)
 Application: Chart the species (Mathematics)
 Analysis: Compare and Contrast the behavior in an essay (Science
& Literacy
 Synthesis: Build a birdfeeder that is Squirrel Proof (Science)
 Evaluation: Appraise its effect in a commercial (Literacy, Science)
216. Interest A variable of motivation, interest is the conscious choice of strategies to attract the
learner’s mind to the content through the use of humor, striking examples, suspense,
exaggeration, etc. It increases the learners desire to learn and attention. The two
variables of interest are:
Novel: different, unusual, unexpected
Vivid: clear, precise, obvious
One must be careful not to use a strategy that is too novel or vivid or else the critical
attribute of the learning will be lost. E.g., “Don’t bring in an elephant to teach the
color gray.”
217. international baccalaureate (IB) International baccalaureate, a rigorous, pre-university course of study that leads to
examinations accepted by more than 100 countries for university admission. In the
Diploma Programme, candidates for IB diplomas study languages, sciences,
mathematics, and humanities in the final two years of secondary schooling. The
International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) now also offers the Middle Years
Programme for students ages 11–16 and the Primary Years Programme for students
ages 3–12. The headquarters of the International Baccalaureate Organization is in
Geneva, Switzerland, but the IBO also maintains regional offices around the world.
The idea for an IB grew from concerns of schools that had to prepare students to take
university entrance exams in different countries. In 1962, the International Schools
Association began to explore the creation of an international standard examination,
and by 1970, the first exam was offered to 20 schools. The IB is now offered by more
than 1,000 schools. Schools must meet certain criteria to offer IB curriculum and to
administer the examination. Students can take the IB exam only if they are enrolled in
an authorized school.
218. intervention The term refers to funds that schools get for students who are not learning at grade
level. They can be used to fund before-school or afterschool programs or to pay for
materials and instructors.
219. Intrinsic Motivation Internal desires to perform a particular task, people do specific activities without
outside rewards because it gives them pleasure, develops a particular skill, or it is
morally the right thing to do.
220. invented spelling The way young children write some words when they have not yet mastered all the
conventions of English spelling. Most children, if encouraged to write when they do
not yet know how to spell every word, will try to use simple phonetic principles. For
example, they might write "muthr" for "mother" or "reed" for "read." Some language
arts specialists say invented spelling is a natural, positive way for children to learn to
write. Critics think children should be expected to spell correctly from the beginning.
221. IQ – INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT Intelligence quotient—a number derived by dividing a child's "mental age" (derived
from her score on an intelligence test) by her actual age. IQ is based on the principle
that children who score well on intelligence tests have mental ability comparable to
older children who are only average. A child whose performance would be expected
for his age has an IQ of 100. A child with mental ability considerably higher than his
actual age might have an IQ of 130. The term "IQ" is no longer used as frequently as it
used to be, but intelligence tests continue to be scored using the familiar scale.
222. Jigsaw* In its simplest form, the Jigsaw instructional strategy is when:
 Each student receives a portion of the materials to be introduced;
 Students leave their "home" groups and meet in "expert" groups;
 Expert groups discuss the material and brainstorm ways in which to present
their understandings to the other members of their “home” group;
 The experts return to their “home” groups to teach their portion of the
materials and to learn from the other members of their “home” group in
more detail, and written from a teacher’s perspective, to conduct a Jigsaw in
your classroom:
 Assign students to “home” teams of 4 or 5 students (generally
their regular cooperative learning teams). Have students
number off within their teams.
 Assign study topics to “home” team members by giving them an
assignment sheet or by listing their numbers and corresponding
roles on the board.
  Have students move to “expert” groups where everyone in the
group has the same topic as themselves.
 Students work with members of their “expert” group to read
about and/or research their topic. They prepare a short
presentation and decide how they will teach their topic to their
“home” team. You may want students to prepare mini-posters
while in their “expert” Groups. These posters can contain
important facts, information, and diagrams related to the study
topic.
 Students return to their “home” teams and take turns teaching
their team members the material. I find it helpful to have team
members take notes or record the information in their journals
in some way. You may want them to complete a graphic
organizer or chart with the new information.
 Involve the class in a whole-group review of all the content you
expect them to master on the assessment. Administer an
individual assessment to arrive at individual grades.
223. job shadowing A program that takes students into the workplace to learn about careers through one-
day orientations or more extensive internships to see how the skills learned in school
relate to the workplace.
224. joint school districts School districts with boundaries that cross county lines. (Ed Source)
225. Journal Writing* Journals can be used throughout the day, at different times of the day and for different
purposes.
1. Decide what type of journal you want to use in your classroom. Think about
the purpose of the journal and how will you use it.
2. Prepare materials. Your students' journals may be loose-leaf notebooks or
folders. Individual pages should be contained in some way so that they are
not lost over time.
3. Model initial entries. Using an overhead projector or classroom chart, work
together to write a sample response. Students can copy the class response in
their own journal or write one of their own.
4. Schedule time for regular journal use. Students are all engaged in the act of
writing and this enables individuals to generate ideas, observations and
emotions.
While you should not grade or correct the writing in journals – only finished pieces
should be used for grading – you can comment on your students' writing. Offer
suggestions, constructive remarks, questions, and encouragement whenever possible.
Sometimes students will respond to the teacher's comments.
One of the biggest problems with writing journals is that some students use them
simply as a way to record the day's events. They slip into the routine of writing diary
entries without reflection or real purpose. You can reduce this by encouraging your
students to write about a variety of topics and take what they feel are the better
entries and develop them into finished pieces.
226. knowledge of results Rather than just praise which is an expression of approval (Good!, Right!, Excellent!)
and is subjective, knowledge of results is specific and immediate feedback that is
always constructive and sometimes instructive. It describes to the learner what is
correct about their response/work and what can be changed or considered to improve
their work.
227. KWL* On the chalkboard, on an overhead, on a handout, or on students' individual clean
sheets, three columns should be drawn.
 COLUMN 1 - K
Before reading a text or beginning a lesson have students fill in the “Know”
column with everything they already know about the topic. This assist the
teacher in eliciting prior knowledge and understanding what background
needs to be developed.

 COLUMN 2 - W
 Have students list a series of questions the at ask what they want to learn
about the topic in the second column.

 COLUMN 3 - L
 After completion of the lesson have students list what they learned and draw
connecting lines to the questions that were posed in column 2
  ALTERNATIVE – Add a 4th column when beginning labeled H for How – How
would the student find additional information needed for unanswered
questions.

228. language arts literacy The literacy skills of reading, speaking, listening, and writing skills taught across all
curriculums. Not all teachers are teachers of English or Reading but all are teachers of
literacy.
229. lead teachers In schools without department chairpersons, (especially in grades P-8), teachers who
have broader responsibilities and usually higher salaries than other teachers do but
who continue to work with students as regular classroom teachers, at least part time.
The idea for lead teachers was proposed as a way to improve the quality of schooling
in 1986 in the report A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century from a task
force that included leaders of the National Education Association, the American
Federation of Teachers, and leaders in business and government. The task force noted
that education is different from most professions in that opportunities for career
advancement are relatively limited. Despite various efforts to improve the status and
rewards of teaching, few of today's teachers hold positions that could be considered
lead teacher roles.
230. Learning Centers/Stations* Learning centers are designated activities that provide an engaging way for students to
work independently of the teacher in small groups, pairs, or individually to reinforce
and extend classroom learning. Learning centers for middle school students are
designed with the middle-level student in mind.
TYPES OF STATIONS (can use combinations of these)
• Rotating (rotate students through activities, or rotate activities through groups of
students)
• Individualized Stations (students/groups only use the stations they need or to which
they are assigned)
• Sequential Learning Stations (students must work through the activities in a
particular order and proceed with mastery)
• Thematic Stations (all activities set up to support a specific unit of study)
 Enrichment Stations (stations that can be selected after assigned stations are
completed)
HOW OFTEN:
 Daily (1-2 stations a day)
• Once a week (“Fun Fridays”)
• 2 times a week
• 3 times a week
• Every three weeks
• Once a reporting period (six/nine weeks)
• At the end of a unit of study
 Sample Schedules (FA, ML, Stations, Wrap-up)
HOW TO GROUP STUDENTS:
 group by need/skill
• group by activity
• group by literature
• group by interest
• group by learning styles
• random grouping (# drawn, students wearing red, etc.)
• self-selected grouping (students select their own groups)
• flexible grouping (change groups as needed for any/all of the above)
TYPES OF ACTIVITIES
• file folder games/activities
 • envelope games/activities
• magnetic games/activities
• interactive bulletin boards
• box games/activities
• gift bag games/activities
• computer games/activities
• listening center activities
• self-correcting activities
• activity menus
• tiered assignments
4 Copyright © 2007 by Blevins Enterprises.
• commercial learning centers/activities (see bibliography)
• commercial ELA games (QUIET: Scrabble™, Upwords™, Wordigo™, Word Sweep™,
Word
Thief™, Quiddler™, Words Galore™, Boggle™, NOISY:
IDEAS FOR DECORATING ACTIVITIES/STATIONS
• computer, clipart, shapes, etc.
• stickers
• cartoons
• teen magazine pictures
• candy wrappers
• fast food wrappers
• advertisement pictures
• scrapbook paper
• die-cut shapes
• wrapping paper
• student artBlurt, Buzz Word™,
Scattorgories™, Outburst Jr. ™, Word Sense™, Nameits™, Smart Mouth™, A-Z Game™,
231. Learning Contracts* Learning contracts provide a method of individualizing instruction and developing
student responsibility. They permit individual pacing so that students may learn at the
rate at which they are able to master the material. Learning contracts can be designed
so that students function at the academic levels most suitable to them and work with
resource materials containing concepts and knowledge that are appropriate to their
abilities and experiences. Although this method focuses on the individual, learning
contracts also provide an opportunity for students to work in small groups. The
teacher may select this approach for some students to support them as they learn to
work independently.
When a student is first beginning to use learning contracts, the teacher provides
learning objectives, identifies a choice of resources, and sets some basic time
parameters for the project. As students become more experienced with learning
contracts, the teacher may choose to involve them in setting the learning objectives.
Learning contracts usually require that students demonstrate the new learning in some
meaningful way, but students are provided choice in the selection of a method or
activity.
Learning contracts can be highly motivating for students. As they become skillful in
making appropriate choices and as they begin to assume more responsibility for their
own learning, they become increasingly independent, learn to use resources to their
advantage, and take pride in their ability to teach themselves and share their new
learning with others.
232. learning disability A condition that interferes with a student's ability to learn. The Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act amended in 1997 defines a specific learning disability as "a
disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding
or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in
imperfect ability to listen, think, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.
Such term may include such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal
brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia." Children not included under
this provision include those who have learning problems, which are "primarily the
result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional
disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage."
233. learning disorder Another term for learning disability, a condition that interferes with a student's ability
to learn. For example, some people have dyslexia, which simply means reading
disability. People with this condition have difficulty distinguishing among letters of the
alphabet and translating words on paper into meaningful language.
234. Learning Logs* There is some overlap between portfolios and learning logs, in fact, both journals and
learning logs frequently provide artifacts for the student portfolio. The most valuable
result of learning logs is that as students write to learn, they also learn to recognize
their own and other’s good work. Both learning logs and journals assist the learning
process. Journals are free flowing , subjective relying on opinion and personal
experience. Learning logs are concise, objective factual and impersonal in tone. Logs
can include problem-solving entries from mathematics or science, observations; from
lab experiments; questions about lectures or readings; lists of books students have
read or would like to read and homework assignments.

The following questions could be used to guide students in making thoughtful entries
in their learning logs:

 What did I do in class today?

 What did I learn?
 What did I find interesting?
 What questions do I have about what I learned?
 What was the point of today's lesson?
 What connections did I make to previous ideas of lessons?

How can I adapt it?

 Writing about Mathematics
Students write an explanation to another student of how to do a math
problem. They should include the why of the solution as well as the how.
 Writing about History
Students place themselves in a historical period or event and write about it
from the point of view of someone who is there. In their responses, students
focus on the what, where, why, how, when, and what if. Alternatively,
students write a dialogue between themselves and a historical personage,
focusing on the same details.
 Focused Writing
Focused writing is an excellent way to begin a collaborative session. Students
write non-stop for five minutes on a specific topic they are studying. The
purpose is for students to find out what they know about the topic, to
explore new ideas, and to find out what they need to learn about the topic.
235. learning styles Differences in the way students learn more readily. Scholars have devised numerous
ways of classifying style differences, including cognitive style (the way a person tends
to think about a learning situation), tendency to use particular senses (seeing, hearing,
touching), and other characteristics, such as whether the person prefers to work
independently or with others. Advocates interpret research as showing that teaching
underachievers in ways that complement their strengths can significantly increase
their scores on standardized tests. For example, strongly auditory students learn and
recall information when they hear it, whereas kinesthetic youngsters learn best
through activities such as role-playing or floor games.
236. least restrictive environment A phrase used in the Individuals with Disability Education Act (IDEA) to describe the
type of setting schools should provide for students with disabilities. The phrase is
generally understood to mean that such children should be assigned to regular, rather
than special, classrooms to the extent that they can profit from being there and do not
interfere too much with the education of others. Opinions differ greatly over what this
should mean for particular children, as well as for such children in general.
237. LEP students See limited English proficient (LEP) students.
238. Level of Concern One of the variables of motivation, feeling tone is a productive level of tension that
leads to optimal performance. The level of productive tension is different for every
person and the teacher therefore must identify that level in students and continually
evaluate and adjust. If the level of concern is too high, the student becomes anxious
and will not learn. If too the student become indifferent and will not learn
239. lifelong learning The idea that, because people in the modern world must continue learning all their
lives, schools should teach children how to learn rather than (or in addition to)
teaching them fundamental knowledge and skills. Also refers to changing the mission
of public schools from teaching only children through age 18 to providing educational
opportunities to people of all ages.
240. limited-English-proficient (LEP) Students who are reasonably fluent in another language but who have not yet
students achieved comparable mastery in reading, writing, listening, or speaking English. LEP
students are often assigned to bilingual education or English-as-a-second-language
 (ESL) classes.
241. Literature Circles* 1. Select members for the Literature Circles (discussion groups).
2. Assign roles for the members of each circle.
3. Assign reading to be completed by the circles inside or outside of class.
4. Select circle meeting dates.
5. Help students prepare for their roles in their circle.
6. Act as a facilitator for the circles.
Some roles may be:
 Discussion director - develops questions for the group to discuss
 Passage picker or literary luminary - chooses a selection that the group
rereads and discusses because it is interesting, informative, the climax, well
written....
 Vocabulary enricher - chooses words that are difficult or used in an
unfamiliar way
 Connector - finds a connection between the story and another book, event in
their personal life or the outside world
 Illustrator - draws a picture related to the reading
 Summarizer - prepares a brief summary of the passage read that day
 Travel tracer - tracks the movement when the characters move a lot
 Investigator - looks up background information related to the book
The teacher will determine what roles should be used depending upon the age and
ability of the students as well as the reading selections.
How can I adapt it?
 Writing about Mathematics
Students write an explanation to another student of how to do a math
problem. They should include the why of the solution as well as the how.
 Writing about History
Students place themselves in a historical period or event and write about it
from the point of view of someone who is there. In their responses, students
focus on the what, where, why, how, when, and what if. Alternatively,
students write a dialogue between themselves and a historical personage,
focusing on the same details.
 Focused Writing
Focused writing is an excellent way to begin a collaborative session. Students
write non-stop for five minutes on a specific topic they are studying. The
purpose is for students to find out what they know about the topic, to
explore new ideas, and to find out what they need to learn about the topic.
242. looping An informal term for assigning students to the same teacher for more than one school
year. Rather than teaching a new group of students at the same grade level each year,
teachers stay with the same group of students as they move from grade to grade. The
practice is rare in the United States, but has been common for years in some parts of
Europe and is now being tried in some schools in the United States. Advocates say it
provides for learning that is more continuous because teachers do not have to take
time to learn about an entirely new group of students each year.
243. low-performing schools Schools, usually located in urban or low-income rural areas, in which an unacceptably
low proportion of students meet established standards, as indicated by test scores.
Also called failing schools. Some observers believe it is unfair to call such schools
failing because, they say, the real failure is society's for allowing the social conditions
that hamper student learning. Others point out that some schools, called effective
schools, succeed in teaching low-income children, so others could do it too.
Policies increasingly focus on such schools, and because test scores usually vary from
year to year, rather than going steadily up or down, state and national officials have
devoted considerable attention to procedures for deciding which schools should be
declared low performing.
244. magnet schools Alternative public schools, most of which focus on a particular area of study, such as
performing arts or science and technology but also offer regular school subjects.
Students from any part of a public school district may apply and the schools often have
waiting lists. Most magnet schools were originally established by large urban school
districts to help achieve racial desegregation, so they have entrance requirements
intended to maintain racial balance. Some magnet schools have other entry
requirements, such as achievement in the school's area of concentration, but others
do not.
245. mainstreaming The practice of placing students with disabilities into regular classrooms. The students
usually also receive some assistance and instruction in separate classrooms, often
 called resource rooms. (Programs in which students with disabilities spend all or nearly
all of their time in regular classrooms are called inclusion or full inclusion programs.
Mainstreaming is also known as partial inclusion.) Successful mainstreaming requires
regular communication and cooperation among teachers, students, and parents.
Individualized Education Programs need to be jointly developed, thoroughly
understood, and carefully followed. The classroom teacher may need special training
and assistance from the special education staff. Mainstreaming is also more effective
when regular students are given information about their peers with special needs.
246. manipulatives Three-dimensional teaching aids and visuals that teachers use to help students with
math concepts. Typical tools include counting beads or bars, base ten blocks, shapes,
fraction parts, and rulers.
247. mastery learning A way of organizing instruction that tries to ensure that students have mastered each
increment of a subject before going on to the next. The idea assumes that a subject is
into sequential steps organized hierarchically. The classic mastery-learning model
formulated by psychologist Benjamin Bloom calls for teachers to teach a unit of work
and give a formative test. Students who do not master the material study it in a
different way while the mastery students do enrichment work. Then all students take a
summative test, which nearly all students should pass.
248. meaning A variable of retention, meaning refers to the connections made by the learner
between experiences and/or prior knowledge and new instructional objective.
249. measurement error The calculated amount by which a test score may vary from the student's theoretical
"true" score (no test can be exact in measuring a student's ability).
250. mediation This term has at least two quite different meanings. One refers to the recourse taken
by school boards when teacher contract negotiations halt. Mediation over contract
specifications is binding arbitration in some states, meaning that the board and union
must accept the terms negotiated. In other situations involving conflict resolution, a
mediator is a neutral party who works between the two conflicting parties and
attempts to arrive at a satisfactory compromise
251. mentor A role model who offers support to another person. A mentor has knowledge and
experience in an area and shares it with the person being mentored. For example, an
experienced teacher might mentor a student teacher or beginning teacher.
Some student mentoring programs are designed to help at-risk students succeed in
school. Acting as role models, mentors spend time with individual students once or
twice a week—encouraging, listening, making suggestions, and taking the student to
events, activities, or the mentor's place of employment to help the student learn about
a career and consider further education.
252. merit pay A system that recognizes teachers or principals who are especially capable by paying
them higher salaries. Conventional merit pay, based on judgments made by
supervisors or peers, is controversial because the grounds for awarding it are
necessarily subjective. Students learn in different ways and teachers and principals
have different styles, with that knowledge, some people believe it is unfair to regard
one competent teacher or principal as better than another. Most current versions of
merit pay, known as pay for performance, are tied to student achievement.
Merit pay is uncommon even though many non-educators argue for it. Many
educators believe it encourages competition rather than cooperation among teachers
and principals and tends to reward a few teachers and principals at the expense of
others.
253. meta-cognition The ability to be conscious of and to some degree, control one's own thinking.
Educators have come to use the prefix "meta" to refer to the application of a process
to the process itself. (For example, meta-analysis is analysis of a large number of
research studies on a particular topic.) In this case, cognition is thinking, so meta-
cognition means thinking about one's own thinking. You are using meta-cognition
when you can track your progress in solving a multistep problem or when you realize
that you have been looking at a page in a book without following the meaning and
backtrack until you find the place where your mind began to wander.
254. middle schools Schools for students in the early adolescent years between elementary school and high
school. Most middle schools include grades 5 through 8 or 6 through 8. Middle school
advocates say that young adolescents have special needs because of their rapid
growth and change. They say middle schools should have team teaching,
interdisciplinary curriculum, advisory systems, and other provisions for
personalization. Most junior high schools, which have traditionally included grades 7
through 9, do not have these features.
255. Mind Mapping* To make a mind map, start in the centre of the page with the main idea, and work
outward in all directions, producing a growing and organized structure composed of
 key words and key images. Key features are:
 Organization
 Key Words
 Association
 Clustering
 Visual Memory - Print the key words, use color, symbols, icons, 3-D-effects,
arrows and outlining groups of words
 Uniqueness - every Mind Map needs a distinctive centre
 Conscious involvement
Mind Maps help organize information. This can allow students to develop a strategy
for note-taking, creative writing, report writing, studying the easy way, studying as a
group, meetings, think tanks and can alleviate writer's block.
The Process
 Teacher models the process with prompted contributions e.g. a mind map
for 'Myself'
 Children extend their ability to make contributions
 Children begin to work through the process with increasing independence
perhaps with the support of the main/smaller branches
Improving Your Mind Maps
 Use single words or simple phrases for information
 Print words
 Use color to separate different ideas
 Use of symbols and images
 Use shapes, circles and boundaries to connect information
 Use arrows to show cause and effect
256. Mini Lessons* A mini lesson is a short lesson with a narrow focus that provides instruction in a skill or
concept that students will then relate to a larger lesson that follows. A mini lesson
typically precedes reading workshop or writing workshop, but it can serve as an
introduction to a social studies, science, or math lesson. Mini lessons can be used to
teach particular skills, extend previous learning, create interest in a topic and generate
questions, or introduce strategies.
WHEN IS IT TAUGHT?
The mini lesson serves as a lead-in to a larger lesson in just about any subject area and
can be as short as 5 minutes or as long as 15 minutes.
WHAT DOES IT LOOK LIKE?
The mini lesson is taught to a whole class, a selected small group, or individual
students. The mini lesson should be short and focused on one strategy, skill, or
concept. Teachers introduce the topic; demonstrate the strategy, skill, or concept;
guide student practice; discuss the topic; volunteer more examples; and talk about
what was taught. At the end of the mini lesson, teachers should give directions for the
next activity, the literacy centers, or independent assignments.
257. minimum competency tests Tests created by a school district or state that students must pass before graduating. In
the 1970’s some states devised minimum competency tests intended to ensure that
high school graduates had achieved minimal proficiency in basic skills. In recent years,
states have often replaced minimum competency tests with more demanding tests
aligned with adopted curriculum standards.
258. mixed-ability grouping Intentionally mixing students of varying talents and needs in the same classroom. The
success of this method, also called heterogeneous grouping, depends on the teacher's
skill in differentiating instruction so that all students feel challenged and successful.
259. Modeling* It is important that the visual input of modeling be accompanied by the verbal & visual
input of labeling the critical attributes of what the makes the model correct. When
modeling always tell what it is and what it is not.
STEPS TO GOOD MODELING
1. The teacher models and labels the critical attributes.
2. The teacher models and the student assist.
3. The student’s model and the teacher assist (guided practice).
4. The students create a model of their own (independent practice)
260. Monitor the Learning and Adjust the Activities pursued by teachers to assess student’s learning as significant points in a
Teaching lesson for purposes of making instructional decisions based on student progress of the
learning. Typical activities include sampling students’ responses to questions, asking
the class/group of students to signal responses, assessing using the strength of a
choral response, observation of students written work while circulating the room. The
decision making process involves: continuing with the lesson, re-teaching the segment
just taught, guided practice, abandoning the lesson and teaching a new lesson that
 provides the necessary sub-learnings.
261. Motivation Any phenomena that affects the strength and the persistence of a person’s behavior.
It increases retention, focus and the rate and degree of learning
TWO TYPES OF MOTIVATION
 Intrinsic motivation - internally motivated to do something because it either
brings the person pleasure, they think it is important, or they feel that what
they are learning is significant.
 Extrinsic motivation external factors such as rewards, money, honors, etc.
that cause a person to do something
Six Variables of Motivation
 Feeling
 Level of Concern
 Rewards
 Interest
 Knowledge of Results
 Success
262. multi-age grouping The practice of having children of different ages in the same classroom, rather than
assigning them to age-graded classrooms Multi-age grouping is practiced more often
in elementary schools than in secondary schools. A typical grouping is children ages 5–
7 as primary students and children ages 8–10 as intermediate students. The reason for
combining two or more grade levels is that students can be grouped with others who
are at the same developmental level regardless of age. In other words, they can learn
at a faster or slower pace without being made to feel abnormal.
263. multicultural education Schooling that helps students understand and relate to cultural, ethnic, and other
diversity, including religion, language, gender, age, and socioeconomic, mental, and
physical differences. Multiculturalism is intended to encourage people to work
together and to celebrate differences, not to be separated by them. However, the field
itself is controversial.
264. Multi-disciplinary curriculum In general, a multidisciplinary curriculum, also known as an interdisciplinary
curriculum, is one in which the same topic (e.g., harmony) is studied from the
viewpoint of more than one discipline (e.g., music, history, and literature). For
example, students may study weather using a variety of disciplines. They might study
the current science behind measuring air pressure, learn about the history of weather
prediction, and read and write poetry about weather.
265. multimedia presentations Presentations that use more than one medium to communicate information. For
example, a CD-ROM that combines text, pictures, sound, voice, animation, and video is
multimedia. Multimedia presentations may be used by teachers to cover new subject
matter or by students to present projects.
266. Multiple Intelligences* Dr. Howard Gardner, a psychologist and professor of neuroscience from Harvard
University, developed the theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI) in 1983. The theory
challenged traditional beliefs in the fields of education and cognitive science.
According to Howard Gardner, human beings have nine different kinds of intelligence
that reflect different ways of interacting with the world. Each person has a unique
combination, or profile. Although we each have all nine intelligences, no two
individuals have them in the same exact configuration -- similar to our fingerprints

1. Linguistic Intelligence: the capacity to use language to express what you are
thinking and to understand others. Any kind of writer, orator, speaker, lawyer, or
other person for whom language is an important stock in trade has great linguistic
intelligence.
2. Logical/Mathematical Intelligence: the capacity to understand the underlying
principles of some kind of causal system, the way a scientist or a logician does; or
to manipulate numbers, quantities, and operations, the way a mathematician
does.
3. Musical Rhythmic Intelligence: The capacities to think in music, to be able to
hear patterns, recognize them, and perhaps manipulate them. People who have
strong musical intelligence do not just remember music easily, they cannot get it
out of their minds, it is so omnipresent.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence: the capacity to use your whole body or parts of
your body (your hands, your fingers, your arms) to solve a problem, make
something, or put on some kind of production. The most evident examples are
people in athletics or the performing arts, particularly dancing or acting.
5. Spatial Intelligence: the ability to represent the spatial world internally in your
mind -- the way a sailor or airplane pilot navigates the large spatial world, or the
 way a chess player or sculptor represents a more circumscribed spatial world.
Spatial intelligence presents itself in the arts or in the sciences.
6. Naturalist Intelligence: the ability to discriminate among living things (plants,
animals) and sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock
configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as
hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as
botanist or chef.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence: having an understanding of yourself, knowing who
you are, what you can do, what you want to do, how you react to things, which
things to avoid, and towards which things to gravitate. We are drawn to people
who have a good understanding of themselves. They tend to know what they can
and cannot do, and to know where to go if they need help.
8. Interpersonal Intelligence: the ability to understand other people. It is an
ability need by all, but is especially important for those dealing with the public -
teachers, clinicians, salespersons, or politicians.
9. Existential Intelligence: the ability and proclivity to pose and ponder questions
about life, death, and ultimate realities.
He later suggested the existence of several others, including naturalist, spiritual, and
existential.
267. Narratives* Students can "tell what happened" by introducing the situation (who, where, and
when); relaying events in a logical order (firstly, after that, next, etc.); and concluding
by giving the last important event (e.g., at last …).
1. The story should have an introduction that clearly indicates what kind of
narrative essay it is. Is it an event or recurring activity, a personal experience,
or an observation? It should have a conclusion that makes a point.
2. You should describe the person, the scene, or the event in some detail. The
use of dialogue is fine as long as long as you avoid using too much.
3. The occasion or person described must be suggestive in that your description
and thoughts lead the reader to reflect on the human experience.
4. The point of view in narrative essays is usually first person. The use of "I"
invites your readers into the story.
5. The writing in your essay should be lively. Try to describe ideas and events in
new and different ways.
268. National Assessment of Educational NAEP (pronounced "nape"), is also known as The Nation's Report Card. It is a federally
Progress (NAEP) funded program (currently contracted to Educational Testing Service in Princeton, N.J.)
that provides information about the achievement of students nationally and state-by-
state. NAEP tests a representative sample of students in grades 4, 8, and 12 each year
and reports the results to the public.
269. National Blue Ribbon Award This award, presented by the United States Department of Education, honors public
and private K–12 schools that are academically superior or that demonstrate dramatic
gains in student achievement.
270. National Board for Professional Created in 1987 as recommended in a Carnegie Forum report called A Nation
Teaching Standards (NBPTS) Prepared, National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), an
independent, nonprofit organization has developed standards that describe
accomplished teaching in numerous subjects and at various levels, as well as multipart
performance-based assessments designed to measure the standards. NBTPS awards
national certification to teachers who successfully complete a set of rigorous
assessments. Teachers voluntarily apply for national certification, which complements,
but does not replace, state licensing. State licensing systems specify minimum
requirements, including entry-level standards for novice teachers. NBTPS certification
establishes advanced standards for experienced teachers. A majority of members of
the 63-member board are classroom teachers. There are currently about 10,000
National Board certified teachers in 50 states and the District of Columbia.
271. National Education Association (NEA) One of the two large teacher unions (the other is the American Federation of
Teachers). NEA describes itself as America's oldest and largest organization committed
to advancing the cause of public education. Founded in 1857 in Philadelphia and now
headquartered in Washington, D.C., NEA has more than 2.5 million members who
work at every level of education, from preschool to university graduate programs. It
also has affiliates in every state and in more than 13,000 local communities across the
United States.
272. national goals The first national goals for education established initially at a meeting of state
governors convened in 1989 by President George Bush and, with minor changes,
incorporated into legislation passed in 1994 under President Clinton. The eight goals,
none of which were (or could reasonably have been) accomplished, were that by the
year 2000. All children in the United States will start school ready to learn.
 1. The high school graduation rate will increase to at least 90 percent.
2. All students will leave grades 4, 8, and 12 having demonstrated competence
in challenging subject matter, including English, mathematics, science, foreign
languages, civics and government, economics, the arts, history, and geography.
Every school in the United States will ensure that all students learn to use their
minds well so they may be prepared for responsible citizenship, further learning,
and productive employment in the modern economy.
3. students will be the first in the world in mathematics and science
achievement.
4. Every adult citizen will be literate and will possess the knowledge and skills
necessary to compete in a global economy and exercise the rights and
responsibilities of citizenship.
5. Every school in the United States will be free of drugs, violence, and the
unauthorized presence of firearms and alcohol, and all will offer a disciplined
learning environment conducive to learning.
6. The teaching force will have access to programs for the continued
improvement of their professional skills and the opportunity to acquire the
knowledge and skills needed to instruct and prepare all students for the next
century.
Every school will promote partnerships that will increase parent involvement and
participation in promoting the social, emotional, and academic growth of children.
273. NCLB See No Child Left Behind
274. National Council of Teachers of A description of what students are to learn in mathematics classes published originally
Mathematics (NCTM) Standards in 1989 by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The mathematics
standards became the model for other subject matter organizations that developed
standards in the early 1990’s. The federal government did not adopt those standards,
so instead they are primarily for reference rather than for official purposes. Many of
standards adopted by most states, in the mid and later 1990, resulted from the
national standards.
275. neighborhood schools The idea that children should be able to attend the public schools nearest their homes.
School districts draw boundaries to provide for this, although choice plans allow
parents to decide which schools their children will attend.
The U.S. Supreme Court decision in 1956 outlawing segregated schools, courts ordered
many public school systems, especially those in large northern cities, to implement
desegregation plans under which some children were bused to schools away from
their homes. Opponents of such plans called for neighborhood schools instead.
276. New Jersey Assessment of Skills and With the enactment of the NCLB Act, federal legislation requires the administration of
Knowledge (NJASK) annual standards-based assessment of all children in grade 3 through 8. The
expectation is that each the test will be based on the state’s content standards for
English Language Arts/language arts literacy, mathematics and science. The NJASK is
administered to students in grades 3 through 8.
277. New Jersey Common Core Curriculum In June 2010, the New Jersey State Board of Education (NJBOE) and the New Jersey
Standards (NJCCCS) Department of Education (NJDOE) adopted the New Jersey Common Core State
Standards (NJCCSS). The standards developed in collaboration with teachers, school
administrators, and experts, sought to provide a clear and consistent framework to
prepare our children for college and the workforce.
278. NJQSAC The New Jersey Quality Single Accountability Continuum (NJQSAC), as required by
N.J.S.A. 18A:7A-3 et seq., is a system whereby all public school districts in the State are
monitored and evaluated. NJQSAC is a single, comprehensive accountability system
that consolidates and incorporates the monitoring requirements of applicable State
and Federal programs. Under NJQSAC, public school districts are evaluated in five key
component areas of school district effectiveness—instruction and program, personnel,
fiscal management, operations and governance—to determine the extent to which
public school districts are providing a thorough and efficient education. The standards
and criteria by which public school districts will assess actual achievement, progress
toward proficiency, local capacity to operate without State intervention, and the need
for support and assistance provided by the State.
279. No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act into law by
President Bush in 2002, created No Child Left Behind, which stressed standards,
assessment and accountability. It set performance guidelines for all schools and
stipulates what must be included in accountability reports to parents. It mandates
annual student testing, includes guidelines for underperforming schools, and requires
states to train all teachers and assistants to be "highly qualified".
280. Non-graded school A way of organizing schools that uses individual student progress to determine when
students move from one level of schooling to another. In a non-graded (also called
 ungraded) primary school, some students take longer than other students do to move
into 4th grade from a primary-level multi-age classroom (kindergarten through 3rd
grade). Students are not classified by grade levels and not evaluated using traditional
letter grades (A, B, C, D, F), but their achievement is carefully monitored.
281. norm-referenced tests Standardized tests designed to measure how a student's performance compares with
that of other students. Most standardized achievement tests are norm-referenced,
comparing a student's performance to the performances of students in a norming
group. Scores on norm-referenced tests are frequently reported in terms of grade-
level equivalencies or percentiles derived from the scores of the original students.
282. Oratory/Pubic Speaking and Speech Begin by brainstorming with students the reasons for writing and practicing formal
Writing* speech. The easiest and perhaps most effective way to do this is to have them
brainstorm or list on paper five occasions to give a speech.
Another great warm-up activity called Table Topics is an impromptu opportunity for
students to choose from random topics placed on small pieces of paper in a box.
Students in turn choose a topic from the box and then speak on the topic for one
minute. Teachers time the speeches and when the time reached, the timer lets the
speaker know that the time is up by starting the audience clapping. Now that you have
warmed students up to the need for preparing a speech, it is time begin the actual task
of writing a speech.
PLANNING AND WRITING THE SPEECH
When students have given careful thought to their subject, their audience, their own
personality, and the occasion, they are ready to plan and write the speech itself.
 PURPOSE - With their general purpose in mind, they should prepare a brief
statement of their specific purpose
o Students should first select their general purpose.
o Do they wish to present information only, or to inform?
o Do they wish to change beliefs or actions, or persuade?
o Do they wish to amuse, or to entertain? The main ideas - The next
step should be to select the main ideas, or main divisions, of the
subject as stated in the specific purpose. In informative speeches,
the main ideas should define the specific purpose by answering the
questions who? what? where? when? why? and how? In
persuasive speeches, the main ideas ought to be the principal
reasons for the desired belief or action. In entertaining speeches,
the main ideas should be the divisions of the subject that can be
amusing to the audience.
SUPPORTING MATERIAL
After selecting the main ideas, they should choose supporting material.
This includes such things as:
 description, narration, comparisons, examples, testimony, statistics, visual
aids (charts, diagrams, demonstrations, slides, maps, motion pictures,
photographs, samples, or working models), and repetition (restatement of
important ideas to increase the chance that they will be remembered).
WRITING THE SPEECH
INTRODUCTION
Students should next plan the introduction. This usually has two parts, the opening
and the statement of the specific purpose.
 The opening catch the attention of their audience and arouse interest in
their subject. They can do this by telling a joke or story, or by providing a fact
or statistic. They may refer to an event, or to the present occasion, place, or
audience (with humor or congratulations). They may quote something or ask
a question.
 In their statement of specific purpose, they tell the audience precisely what
they intend to do in their speech and what value this topic has for the
audience.
BODY OF THE SPEECH
 The main ideas and supporting material composes the body of the speech.
 Narrow the main points of the issue to three
 Support each point.
o Begin with the strongest point.
o Put your weakest argument in the middle. This is sandwiching and
this point is in this position to make it the most forgettable.
o End with your second strongest argument. Most people remember
what is said first and last
  Make clear and sensible transitions – a speech is one cohesive work, not a
series of independent points
o Transitions belong between all points of change in the speech,
from the introduction to the body, at each point in the body and
from the body into the conclusion.
o Avoid leaps of logic, made by unclear places, times or changes of
ideas.
o Use phrases like: An example of this; We can see...;This brings us
back to the larger problem of..., etc.
Conclusion
 In informative speeches, this part should be a summary of the main ideas
and specific purpose.
 In persuasive speeches, the conclusion should combine a summary with a
final appeal to the audience to accept the arguments offered.
 Entertaining speeches usually end on a point of great amusement, without
any type of formal conclusion.
DELIVERING THE SPEECH
If students are properly prepared, they should feel at ease in front of an audience.
They should relax and speak in a natural voice. They should stand erect, make eye
contact with individuals in the audience, and speak loudly enough to be heard easily.
In addition, speakers should vary the pitch and volume of their voice and their rate of
speech to avoid being singsong or dull. Skilled speakers usually prefer to speak from
the outline or index cards, without writing the whole speech down.
 Outline - After preparation of the speech, the students should prepare an
outline. An outline is simply a listing of the ideas elaborated upon in the
order in which they will occur.
 Index Cards - Instead of an outline, index cards with key words attached to
the outline topic and sub-topics may be used.
283. outcomes Intended results of schooling: What students are supposed to know and be able to do.
Educators and others may use the term outcomes to mean roughly the same as goals,
objectives, or standards; however, the word "outcomes" is associated with the idea of
outcome-based education, which was controversial in the 1990’s and is therefore
avoided by most school systems today.
284. Overt behavior A form of active participation in which the behavior can be observed directly - visually
by the eye or auditory by the ear.
285. PARCC The Partnership for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers (PARCC) is a
consortium of 19 states plus the District of Columbia and the U.S. Virgin Islands
working together to develop a common set of K-12 assessments in English and math
anchored in what it takes to be ready for college and careers. These new K-12
assessments will build a pathway to college and career readiness by the end of high
school, mark students’ progress toward this goal from 3rd grade up, and provide
teachers with timely information to inform instruction and provide student support.
The PARCC assessments will be ready for states to administer during the 2014-15
school year. PARCC received a $186 million grant through the U.S. Department of
Education's Race to the Top assessment competition to support the development and
design of the next-generation assessment system.
286. Parent Teacher Association (PTA) National PTA (also known as Parent Teacher Association) has approximately 6.5 million
members and is a nonprofit organization of parents, teachers, students, and others
that encourages parental and public involvement in the schools, advocates for
children, and assists parents in developing parenting skills.
287. pedagogy The art and science of teaching—especially the conscious application of theory into
practice. If a teacher uses a discovery approach rather than direct instruction, for
example, she is using a different pedagogy.
288. Peer Assistance and Review Program A program that encourages designated consulting teachers to assist other teachers
(PAR) who need help in developing their subject matter knowledge, teaching strategies, or
both. They also help teachers to meet the standards for proficient teaching.
289. peer mediation Programs in which students assist other students to work through problems without
resorting to violence. In such programs, selected students—or sometimes all the
students—learn conflict resolution skills: how to negotiate problems in a nonviolent
way. Designated mediators may then patrol school grounds, especially playgrounds,
and intervene when they see a conflict or the threat of a conflict.
290. Peer Partner Learning* Students work together as partners, one functioning as a "doer" and the other as a
"helper". The doer performs a task or answers questions; the helper observes and
provides feedback and helping information. The doer is the student and the helper
 takes on the role of teacher. Later, the partners reverse roles.
291. peer resource program A program that trains students to provide their peers with counseling, education, and
support on issues such as prejudice, drugs, violence, child abuse, dropping out, AIDS,
and peer pressure. Students are also trained to provide tutoring and conflict mediation
292. percentile ranks A percentile rank is the proportion of scores in a distribution that a specific score is
greater than or equal to. For instance, if you received a score of 95 on a math test and
this score is greater than or equal to the scores of 88% of the students taking the test,
then your percentile rank would be 88. You would be in the 88th percentile.
293. performance assessment A form of assessment that designed to assess what students know through their ability
to perform certain tasks. For example, a performance assessment might require a
student to serve a volleyball, solve a particular type of mathematics problem, or write
a short business letter to inquire about a product as a way of demonstrating that they
have acquired new knowledge and skills. Evaluating students through task
performance can be more time-consuming and therefore more expensive. Most large-
scale assessments (such as state testing programs) use this form of assessment
sparingly, if at all. However, many educators believe it is worth the extra cost because
it provides a more accurate and realistic picture of student learning.
294. performance tasks Activities, exercises, or problems that require students to show what they can do.
Some performance tasks assess a skill, such as solving a particular type of mathematics
problem, others, to have students demonstrate their understanding by applying
knowledge. For example, students might are given a current political map of Africa
showing the names and locations of countries and a similar map from 1945 and be
asked to explain the differences and similarities. To be more authentic (more like what
someone do in the adult world), the task might be to prepare a newspaper article
explaining the changes. Performance tasks often have more than one acceptable
solution. They may call for a student to create a response to a problem and then
explain or defend it. Performance tasks are considered a type of assessment (used
instead of, or in addition to, conventional tests), but they may also be used as learning
activities.
295. personalization Schooling that emphasizes the needs of students as individual human beings. To
personalize learning, teachers must be able to adapt to students' particular interests
and styles, so they must know students well. The term contrasts personalization with
individualized instruction, which is more technical and procedural. Some of the ways
schools may try to achieve personalization include small classes, advisory systems,
independent study, and student-parent-teacher conferences
296. phonics The relationship between the basic sounds of a language (phonemes) and the way
those sounds are represented by symbols (letters of the alphabet). Many people see
phonics as a method of teaching reading that begins with the study of individual letter
sounds (44 basic sounds in English), progressing to words that contain those sounds,
and only then to reading the words in stories. This approach, which might be described
as systematic phonics, is opposite in theory and technique from the whole-language
approach, which involves learning skills in the context of meaningful reading and
writing. Most reading programs are a compromise between these extremes. Teachers
teach sound-letter correspondences but also have students spend part of their time on
related reading and writing activities.
297. physical education (PE) Activities focused on developing physical and motor fitness; fundamental motor skills
and patterns; and skills in aquatics, dance, individual and group games, and sports
(including intramural and lifetime sports). The term includes special PE, adaptive PE,
movement education, and motor development.
298. Picture Books and Illustrator Studies* BEFORE INSTRUCTION
1. Consider the developmental stage of the students. What do they
already know and do as viewers? What do they not know or do as
viewers? What is their background knowledge?
2. Based on knowledge of the students, and skills they need to develop,
what criteria and guidelines will help students focus their learning?
What key information or concepts do students need to know and fully
participate in this activity? What mini-lesson(s) might be needed for
students to prepare for this activity?
3. Clearly identify the task; and select, read and pre-review the key
resources. What is the task? (For example, do you want the students to
focus on one key page or image, or all the images in a book? Will
students focus on color, shape, or texture?) What strategies will
students need to use to participate in a meaningful, purposeful way?
What supports should be offered to students throughout the process?
What guiding questions would direct, re-focus, and support children
 through this process?
DURING INSTRUCTION
 State the purpose so students pay attention to the images as you read the
book aloud. Identify viewing targets before reading the book. You may wish
to post them to reinforce them and orient students to view for particular
purposes.
 Find examples of viewing targets before reading the story. Discuss the style,
the elements, and the effects achieved by the visual elements.
 Identify the author's written content, use of language, textual form (rhyme,
poetry, patterned language, narrative, expository, etc.), literary devices (i.e.
alliteration, simile, metaphor, etc.), aspects of plot, characters and setting.
Which aspects define this writing style
 Inter-textual Links:
Discuss how the words mesh with the images. You may choose to re-read
the book, or re-read and re-view key pages to clarify understandings.

Ideas for viewing targets listed below.

Suggested Terms
Style:
 realistic (depicts life closely, as a photograph)
 representational (uses stylized images to stand for characters and story
elements)
Visual Elements:
 Line (straight, curvy, diagonal, repeated—patterns)
 Shape (curved or straight-edged, repeated-- patterns)
 color (hue, tint, shade, combinations, intensity)
 Textures (soft, hard, sharp, etc.)
 Scale (the size of images, and of particular shapes within the image)
 Composition (foreground, background -- How are the pieces related?)
 Medium (What materials and techniques were used to produce the
image?)
Visual Effects:
 What mood is created in this/these image (s)?
 What elements produced these effects? (Find proof in the images)
 Which elements work together?
 What elements did this illustrator predominantly use?
 What aspects are unique to this illustrator?
KEY QUESTIONS TO SUMMARIZE:
What are the major attributes of the visual text? (Main idea?)
What are the major attributes of the written text? (Main idea?)
What does the visual text contain that is not present in the written text?
What does the written text contain that is not present in the visual text?
What aspects correlate, are similar or overlap between the written and visual texts?
How do the two meaning systems work together?
What aspects differ greatly between written and visual texts?
What is the combined effect of the visual and written texts?
(Option: Consider the alignment of visual and written texts in different genre-- for
example, fiction versus non-fiction material.)
AFTER INSTRUCTION:
Extensions:
Offer students opportunities to read and view other works by the same (or different)
illustrators. You may wish to post key terms that emerged during the lesson, to assist
individual students to read and view independently. Offer a variety of viewing
engagements in the classroom, both guided and independent. Invite students to bring
other illustrated books that employ similar or different styles, and share them with the
class.
299. portable classroom A term commonly used to describe single-unit, re-locatable buildings. A portable
building is movable from one site when no longer needed
300. portfolio A collection of student work chosen to exemplify and document a student's learning
progress over time. There are three types of portfolios:
WORKING PORTFOLIOS
A working portfolio, contains completed of student work and incomplete pieces of
student work that students may want to come back to complete. A working portfolio
 is different from a work folder, which is simply a receptacle for all work, with no
purpose to the collection. A working portfolio is an intentional collection of work
guided by learning objectives and contains “works in progress”. The pieces in this
portfolio may b move to an assessment portfolio or a display portfolio, or go home
with the student. Items in the working portfolio can assist in diagnosing student needs
and serve as evidence of student strengths and challenges in achieving learning
objectives. Its diagnostic nature makes the primary audience the student and the
teacher while additionally assisting in providing information during parent/teacher
conferences.
SHOWCASE PORTFOLIOS
The display portfolio demonstrates the highest level of achievement attained by a
student. The audience for a display portfolio is usually parents, siblings, school
administration teachers and any other important individuals a student would like to
have view their work such as colleges, scholarship committees, etc. Both the teacher
and the student select pieces.
ASSESSMENT PORTFOLIOS
An assessment portfolio contains evaluation tools that document what a student has
learned. These documents can contain documents with grades and/or comments. The
documents included in the portfolio should demonstrate the sub- skills needed to
master the terminal objective. It should include the rubrics used to measure student
learning outcomes. The audience for this portfolio is anyone who needs
documentation of a student’s proficiency in the given content for the need of
promoting the student to the next grade level, to support admission into selected
classes, to receive a diploma, to be entered into a gifted and talented program, and to
support the need for special education programs or IEP requirements,
301. practice A variable of retention, practice is the time given in a lesson or outside of the
classroom to allow students the opportunity to try out or experience the learning; the
opportunity to apply what they understand. The two types of practice include guided
practice and independent practice, with guided practice usually coming first. The
sequence of practice usually begins with massed practice (intense and closely paced)
and then moves to massed practice (intense but shorter in sessions and paced further
apart). Important questions for the teacher to ask her/himself are: How much? How
long? How often? How well?
302. primary language A primary language is student's first language or the language spoken at home.
303. privatized schools Public schools run by a for-profit company, usually under contract with the local board
of education or some other government agency.
304. Probable Passage*  Choose eight to fourteen words or phrases from the story and write them on
an overhead or the chalkboard. The words should include ones that reflect
the characters, setting, problem, and outcomes, as well as some unknown
words that are critical to the theme of the selection.
 Divide class into groups of three and present the students in each group with
a Probable Passage worksheet that includes boxes that are labeled
"Characters," "Setting," "Problem," "Outcomes," and "Unknown Words." In
addition to these boxes, there are lines designated for writing a prediction
statement. A "Question" section encourages the group to write down what
they hope to find out during the reading.
 Working as a group, the students discuss all of the words and phrases and
decide into which box to put each one. Students should use as many of these
as possible, but it is not necessary to place all of them in a box. It is
important to remind the class that the "Unknown Words" are ones for which
the meanings are not known, not just those that the group cannot decide
into which box they should go.
 Students are to complete the prediction statement, as well as the questions
section.
 When the worksheets are finished, each group shares the results and reads
their prediction statement aloud.
 Brainstorm as a class what they want to discover when reading the selection.
 Read the text.
 After reading, compare the Probable Passages and discuss into what
categories the author would have placed the words. Also, students can
reflect how using this strategy helped in understanding the text
305. Problem Solving* Reflective Problem Solving follows a series of tasks. Once you have broken the
students into groups, the students define the problem, analyze the problem, establish
the criteria for evaluating solutions, propose solutions and take action.
 Define the Problem: List all the characteristics of the problem by focusing on the
symptoms, things affected, and resources or people related to defining the problem. In
the end, simplify the thinking to a clear definition of the problem students are to solve.
Analyze the Problem: Use the evidence you collected in step one to decide why the
problem exists. This step is separate from defining the problem because when
completed together it is possible to prejudge the cause.
Establish Criteria: Set a clear objective for the solution. If the problem is too hard,
break the objectives into two categories – musts and wants. Do not discuss solutions at
this point; only discuss what criteria a solution must meet.
Propose Solutions: Brainstorm as many different solutions as possible. Select the one
that best meets the objectives you stated as a part of the criteria for a solution.
Take action: Write a plan for what to do including all resources you will need to
complete the plan. If possible, implement the plan.
Creative Problem Solving The focus is on creating ideas rather than solving a clear
existing problem. Sometimes the problem is pre-defined, and the group must focus on
understanding the definition rather than creating it.
Orientation: Similar to defining the problem, orientation also focuses on being sure the
group is prepared to work together. The group might take the time to agree upon
behaviors or ways of saying things in addition to setting the context and symptoms of
the issues. The group generates a series of headings that group the topics they must
address.
Preparation and Analysis: Decide which headings are relevant or irrelevant. The group
focuses on similarities and differences between ideas and works on grouping them into
like categories. The group asks how and why a lot, and focuses on the root cause of the
problem in a way that is similar to analyzing the problem.
Brainstorm: The group generates as many potential solutions as possible. At this point,
all ideas are considered good ones.
Incubation: Before deciding which solution is the best, the group should leave the
problem for as much time as reasonable. Often several days or a week is ideal
depending on the ages of the students. Leave enough time to develop distance but not
long enough for students to lose the gist of their earlier work.
Synthesis and Verification: Start by establishing the criteria for a good solution, then
look at all the brainstormed solutions and try to combine them to create the solution
with the greatest numbers of positives and the smallest numbers of negatives.
306. problem-based learning An approach to curriculum and teaching that involves students in solution of real-life
problems rather than conventional study of terms and information. Developed in
leading medical schools, problem-based learning begins with a real problem that
connects to the student's world, such as how to upgrade a local waste treatment plant.
Student teams organize their methods and procedures around specifics of the
problem, not around subject matter as such. Students explore various avenues before
arriving at a solution to present to the class. Teachers report that students using
problem-based learning become more interested in their studies, more motivated to
explore in-depth, and more likely to see the value of the lesson.
Choose problems that are appropriateness and illuminate core concepts They must
ensure that students learn the intended content.
307. professional development Also known as staff development, this term refers to experiences, such as attending
conferences and workshops that help teachers and administrators build knowledge
and skills. Job embedded professional development refers to professional learning,
grounded in day-to-day teaching practice, and designed to enhance teachers’ content-
specific instructional practices. It is school or classroom based and integrated into the
workday.
308. Professional Learning Community An institutionally expectedandsanctionedpracticewhere educators regularly work
collaboratively under the assumption that the key to improved learning for students is
continuous job-embedded professional development.
309. proficiency A degree of learning that assures mastery or the ability to do something at grade level.

310. Program Improvement (PI) A multistep plan formulated to improve the performance of students in schools that
did not make adequate yearly progress under No Child Left Behind for two years in a
row. Only schools that receive federal Title I funds enter in Program Improvement. The
steps in PI can include a revised school plan, professional development, tutoring for
some students, transfer to another school with free transportation, and, at the end of
five years, significant restructuring. (Ed-data)
311. pull-out programs Students receive instruction in small groups outside of the classroom during the
regular school day.
312. pupil-teacher ratio The total student enrollment divided by the number of full-time equivalent teachers.
The pupil-teacher ratio is the most common statistic for comparing data across states;
it is usually smaller than average class size because some teachers work outside the
classroom. (Ed-data)
313. Pygmalion effect The effect of teacher expectations related to student performance. The term refers to
a Greek myth that was the forerunner of the musical My Fair Lady, in which a teacher
transforms an uneducated person into a proper “lady”. Extensive research has
documented that student achievement can be affected by what students' teachers
think they can do.
314. QAR* The question–answer relationship (QAR) strategy helps students understand the
different types of questions. By learning that the answers to some questions are "Right
There" in the text, that some answers require a reader to "Think and Search," and that
some answers can only be answered "On My Own," students recognize that they must
first consider the question before developing an answer.
How to use question–answer relationship
1. Explain the four types of questions students will encounter. Define each type
of question and give an example.
Four types of questions are examined in the QAR:
o “Right There Questions”: Answers found in the text with the
words used in the question the same words as found in the text.
o Think and Search Questions: Answers gathered from several parts
of the text and put together to make meaning.
o Author and You: Questions based on information provided in the
text but the student is required to relate it to their own
experience. Although the answer does not lie directly in the text,
the student must have read it in order to answer the question.
o On My Own: These questions do not require the student to have
read the passage but he/she must use their background or prior
knowledge to answer the question.
2. Read a short passage aloud to your students.
3. Have predetermined questions you will ask after you stop reading. When you
have finished reading, read the questions aloud to students and model how
the strategy you use to answer the question by doing a think aloud, showing
students how find information to answer the question (i.e., in the text, from
your own experiences, using prior knowledge, etc.).
315. qualitative research Research that uses methods adapted from anthropology and other social sciences,
including systematic observation and interviews. Until recently, most educational
research was quantitative. Some researchers are now using qualitative methods
because they think statistical processes will not produce the understandings they seek.
For example, a researcher might spend an entire year visiting a particular school;
observing classes, meetings, and conversations; and seeking to identify the decision
making process and the roles played by various staff members.
316. quantitative research Research conducted in a traditional scientific manner using statistical procedures to
compare the effects of one treatment with another. For example, a researcher might
compare test scores of students taught using an experimental method with the scores
of students taught in a more conventional way. Some researchers now see this
approach as limited, so make greater use of qualitative research methods. 
317. RAFT* The RAFT’s Technique (Santa, 1988) is a system to help students understand their role
as a writer, the audience they will address, the varied formats for writing, and the
expected content. It is an acronym that stands for:
 Role of the Writer - Who are you as the writer? Are you Sir John A.
Macdonald? A warrior? A homeless person? An auto mechanic? The
endangered snail darter?
 Audience - To whom are you writing? Is your audience the Canadian people?
A friend? Your teacher? Readers of a newspaper? A local bank?
 Format - What form will the writing take? Is it a letter? A classified ad? A
speech? A poem?
 Topic + strong Verb – What is the subject or the point of this piece? Is it to
persuade a goddess to spare your life? To plead for a re-test? To call for
stricter regulations on logging?
Almost all RAFT’s writing assignments are written from a viewpoint different from the
student's, to another audience rather than the teacher, and in a form different from
the ordinary theme. Therefore, students are encouraged to use creative thinking and
response as they connect their imagination to newly learned information.
 How Can I Do It?
Step one: Explain to the students how all writers have to consider various aspects
before every writing assignment including role, audience, format, and topic. Tell them
that they are going to structure their writing around these elements. (It may be helpful
to display the elements on chart paper or a bulletin board for future reference).
Step two: Display a completed RAFT’s example on the overhead, and discuss the key
elements as a class.
Step three: Then, demonstrate, model, and "think aloud" another sample RAFT’s
exercise with the aid of the class. Brainstorm additional topic ideas, and write down
the suggestions listing roles, audiences, formats, and strong verbs associated with each
topic.
Step four: Assign students to small, heterogeneous groups of four or five or pairs and
have them "put their heads together" to write about a chosen topic with one RAFT’s
assignment between them.
Step five: Circulate among the groups to provide assistance as needed. Then have the
groups share their completed assignments with the class.
Step six: After students become more proficient in developing this style of writing,
have them generate RAFT’s assignments of their own based on current topics studied
in class.
318. Read & Paraphrase* Paraphrasing while reading is critical for every kind of reading. Paraphrasing acts as a
comprehension check. If you can paraphrase what you have read, you have
understood the material (2nd level of Bloom’s –Comprehension/Understanding).
A student needs to know that while reading, so he/she can
1. re-read the passage more slowly
2. mark it for a later re-reading or
3. request help understanding the author’s words.
Equally, important paraphrasing gives the brain a chance to store what it has learned
from the reading in long-term memory. While looking for word substitutes that allows
the student to paraphrase, the brain is re-processing what it have just read.
It is the double processing of new information that makes paraphrasing a useful
learning strategy with three important benefits:
1. It forces the learner to re-think and, therefore, better understand the
material.
2. It tells the learner when the text is not understood.
3. It acts as a memory booster, giving the brain the time to store new
information in long-term memory.
An accurate paraphrase has to change the words, but it can't alter the meaning
319. Read Aloud* Read-Aloud is an instructional practice where teachers, parents, and caregivers read
texts aloud to children. The reader incorporates variations in pitch, tone, pace, volume,
pauses, eye contact, questions, and comments to produce a fluent and enjoyable
delivery. Reading texts aloud is the single most important activity for building the
knowledge required for successful reading (McCormick, 1977).
Read-Alouds can introduce a unit, or lesson objective; can give meaning to a specific
point in a lesson or to assist in providing a thinking point for lesson closure. Teachers
can use the text to make reading connections that students might have otherwise
missed. A list of recommended books by age can be found at:
http://www.readaloudamerica.org/pdfs/2012%20READING%20LIST.pdf
320. Read, Pause & Reflect* As students read, ask them to evaluate their own understanding of the text and to
connect the new knowledge to what they already know. In addition, students ask them
to summarize the information several times. This process allows them to know exactly
where their comprehension is breaking down – because if they cannot summarize a
portion of the text, they probably did not understand it.
How to use:
• Divide the reading into logical but relatively equal segments.
Give each student a sheet that delineates the following for each segment.
1. The Starting and stopping points for each segment
Example:

Read from pages __ to pages ___

Summarize the main What questions do you What connections can

idea have? you make?
(text to self/
text to text/test to
world)
 2. Instruct students to stop at the end of each section and develop a statement
that summarizes the main point of that section. (Clarifying the main idea of the
reading)
3. After determining the main point, students are to generate a question
suggested by the reading or their own interest. (Asking questions of the text,
author, etc)
4. Lastly, have students make a connection between something they already
know and the new information contained in the reading. (Making a connection
– text to self, text to text, or text to world)
5. Tell students to move to the next segment of the reading after they have
completed the main point, question, and connection for the current section of
the reading.

321. Readers’ Theater* What is Readers' Theatre?

Readers’ theatre is a joint dramatic reading from a text, usually with no memorization,
no movement and a minimum of props. It involves children in oral reading through
reading parts in scripts. Unlike traditional theatre, the emphasis in on oral expression
of the part - rather than on acting and costumes.
What is its purpose?
Readers' Theatre provides a real context for reading and has benefits for students by
increasing their skills as readers, writers, listeners and speakers. Readers' theatre can
introduce longer texts that students may then go on to read. It enables students to
bring a text to life and create powerful interpretations. It offers less confident readers
support from peers and provides a social purpose for attentive reading. It also provides
students with models for creating 'the voice behind the page' in their own silent
reading.
How can I do it?
First, select an appropriate text . Many narrative texts can be adapted for readers’
theatre. Picture books are a good source of text for readers’ theater. Choose several
students to act as narrators for longer texts, characters are assigned to students who
with longer descriptive passages that do not suit dramatic reading omitted. Sometimes
scripts based on a story students have read are prepared specifically for readers'
theatre. The teacher can start by reading the text through and then have students join
in with the dialogue. Sometimes you may want to include costume suggestions, music
and other props.
322. Readers’ Workshop* Reader's Workshop uses several consistent components but there is a wide variety of
implementation.
• Mini-lessons on some aspect of literature or a reading strategy.
• Independent Reading Time, where students keep a journal and respond to the
literature in terms of what they think or how they feel about what they are reading.
• Sharing Time where students share with another person their journal entries and the
other person gives feedback.
During Independent Reading Time, the teacher engages in student conferences on an
individual or group basis. Teachers can also engage in guided reading with groups of
students who need additional support.
323. readiness The basic background and knowledge that children are to have upon entering
kindergarten. Some educators believe that school readiness skills should include
 Recognition of colors and basic shapes.
 Gross motor coordination that enables children to catch a ball.
 Fine motor coordination that enables them to hold a crayon or pencil.
 The ability to sort objects (e.g., beans or coins)
 Knowing their first and last names and home address.
In addition, school readiness usually includes good nutrition, inoculations, and safety.
Some programs, including Head Start, attempt to boost the preschool development of
children from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
324. Reading Recovery Reading Recovery created by Dr. Marie Clay of New Zealand is an early intervention
program that works with first graders lacking in English Language Literacy skills to
reduce the gap before it widens in upper grade. Certified Reading Recovery teachers
 learn to administer, score and interpret an observational survey of students’ reading
and writing behaviors and select specific strategies to assist students in learning how
to read and write through one-to-one instruction.
325. Reading Connections* Explain to students that you are going to show them a strategy that good readers use
to help them understand stories they read or listen to.
Modeling text-to-self connections:
 Explain to students that they are making text-to-self connection when
something from the text they are reading can connect to something from
their own lives.
 Selected a book to exemplify this and prepare a guided discussion.
 Gather students in a large group and tell them to watch and listen as you
read aloud and make text-to-self connections.
 Read aloud, model, and verbalize the connections you are making.
 Be sure to stop frequently to share your connections.
 Be sure to use strategy-related language, for example, "This part where
(refer to what happened) reminded me of…."
 Give students a turn and record their responses on large chart paper.
Modeling text-to-text connections:
 Tell students that they are making text-to-text connections when something
from the text they are reading and can relate to something they have read in
another text.
 Tell students that you are going to show them another way to make
connections to help them become better readers and listeners.
 Conduct the activity by selecting two books that offer similar elements as
this will help to make the process explicit for students.
 Read aloud the selected texts on consecutive days.
 Model connections you are making between one book and the one you
already read.
 Be sure you have pre-read and made notes on the sections of the text to
which you want to refer.
 Be sure to use strategy-related language, for example, "When I read this part
of the story where (refer to the part), I thought about…," "This part is just
like…," or "This is similar to…."
 Give students a turn, and record their responses on large chart paper.
Modeling text-to-world connections:
 Tell students that they are making text-to-world connections when
something in the book makes them think about something that is happening
or has happened in their neighborhood, community, country, or the world.
 Model the process as outlined for making text-to-self and text-to-text
connections.
 Give students a turn and record their responses on large chart paper.
326. Reciprocal Reading* Reciprocal teaching refers to an instructional activity in which students become the
teacher in small group reading sessions. The teacher models, then help students learn
to guide group discussions using four strategies: summarizing, question generating,
clarifying, and predicting. Once students have learned the strategies, they take turns
assuming the role of teacher in leading a dialogue about the text.
Before students use Reciprocal Teaching successfully, they need to learn and practice
the four strategies used in reciprocal teaching -summarizing, questioning, predicting,
and clarifying.
One way to prepared students to use reciprocal teaching: (from Donna Dyer of the
North West Regional Education Service Agency in North Carolina)
1. Arrange students in groups of four.
2. Distribute one note card to each member of the group identifying each
person's unique role:
o Summarizer
o Questioner
o Clarifier
o Predictor
3. Have students read a few paragraphs of the assigned text selection.
Encourage them to use note-taking strategies such as selective underlining
or sticky-notes to help them prepare for their role in the discussion.
4. At the given stop point, the Summarizer will highlight the key ideas up to this
point in the reading.
5. The Questioner will then pose questions about the selection:
 o Unclear parts
o Puzzling information
o Connections to other concepts already learned
6. The Clarifier will address confusing parts and attempt to answer the
questions that were posed.
7. The Predictor can offer predictions about what the author will tell the group
next or, if it is a literary selection, the predictor might suggest what the next
events in the story will be.
8. The roles in the group then switch one person to the right, and students read
the next selection. Students repeat the process using their new roles. This
continues until the entire selection is completed. (Source: ReadingQuest)
9. Throughout the process, the teacher's role is to guide and nurture the
students' ability to use the four strategies successfully within the small
group. The teacher's role lessens as students develop skill.
327. reconstituting schools Renewing schools with excessively low student achievement by replacing the
administrators and most or all teachers. School officials and legislators have begun to
use this strategy, usually in large urban school systems, when it appears that other
approaches to school improvement are not having an effect. Teacher unions often
oppose reconstitution because it suggests that staff members, rather than social
conditions, are primarily to blame for low-performing schools. The strategy has
sometimes been successful, but only when the school system has been able to recruit
a strong new leader and unusually capable teachers. Under most circumstances, this is
often very difficult.
328. Reflective Discussion*  Pose an initial question to initiate discussion.
 The question should be an inferential or open-ended question to which there
is no single correct answer.
 The question should require students to make an inference or assumption,
or to interpret what they have observed, heard or read.
 This first question should reveal students' understanding of the main theme,
message or purpose of the selection.
 Additional questions posed by teacher and students should serve to clarify
and extend personal interpretations.
 Discussions should encourage students to relate events and characters to
other selections and to life experiences.
 Resolve resulting questions, concerns, or issues, by rereading passages or
viewing films a second time.
329. Regional Occupational Programs (ROP) State funded programs for job training, jobs-related counseling, and skills upgrades for
students ages 16 to 18. Students often take ROP classes in high school to start learning
a trade.
330. Reinforcement the maintaining, increasing or eliminating of a behavior during a lesson and/or in the
environment.
 Positive reinforcement is the introduction of something wanted, needed, or
desired either physically or psychologically. It may maintain or strengthen
behavior.
 Negative reinforcement is the introduction of something not wanted, taking
away something good. It may suppress or alternate behavior, the results are
unpredictable.
 Extinction a total absence of response. Behavior may wither and die if not
already an ingrained behavior.
331. reliability In testing, an estimate of how closely the results of a test would match if the test were
given repeatedly to the same student under the same conditions (and there was no
practice effect).
332. remedial education Education intended to remedy a situation; that is, to teach students what they should
already have learned. For example, reading classes at the high school or college level
are remedial because most students learn to read in elementary school. The success of
remedial education depends on several factors, including the teacher's approach and
expectations, the instructional materials used, and the students' motivation to learn.
333. Research Projects* Determining the Purpose and Topic:
 Using procedures such as discussing, mapping or webbing, to determine
students' interests and awareness levels about a topic of study.
 List what students know and questions students have about the topic.
 Categorize these questions and ideas.
 Examine each category to determine subtopics and possible directions for
research.
  Considering individuals' needs and interests, divide research topics or
questions among class members.
 Groups, pairs or individuals could undertake research topics.
 Brainstorm the sources of information available in the school and in the
community.
Gathering the Information:
 Students gather information using a variety of reference material such as
information books, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedia, atlases, filmstrips,
films or video tapes.
 As students initiate their research, the teacher may identify the need for
specific instruction on topics such as:
o determining main ideas
o locating specific facts and details
o interpreting information conveyed in resources such as pictures,
charts, maps and graphs
o detecting opinions and bias
o summarizing and paraphrasing information in their own words
o recording main ideas and interesting details.
 Students could record the information in various ways including using sub-
headings or initial questions to categorize information or by recording key
words or phrases.
 Sources and page numbers are noted by students to assist in the
development of a bibliography at appropriate grade levels.
Organizing the Information:
 Students review the gathered information to ensure that questions are
answered.
 Students consider how they will sequence the information.
Sharing Knowledge:
 Students consider potential audiences and how they will share is learned.
 Suggestions for sharing knowledge include oral or written reports, displays,
creating books and charts, or presentations including visual art, music, dance
or drama.
 Audiences may include other research groups, the class or younger students.
334. resource room A special education classroom where students can go for additional help mastering
academic skills. Some schools offer this resource to any student who desires help in a
given subject area, but usually students with learning disabilities or other special needs
are assigned to the resource room for a certain number of hours each week.
335. resource teacher A teacher who instructs children with various learning differences. Most often, these
teachers use small group and individual instruction. Children are assigned to resource
teachers after undergoing testing and receiving an IEP. 
336. Response Journals* Response Journals record student feelings, responses, and reactions to reading texts.
This strategy encourages students to think deeply about the materials they read and to
relate this information to their prior knowledge and experiences. This interaction
between reader and text extends the reading experience into the "real life" application
of information.
Response Journals allow students to reflect on and raise questions about a text. These
journals are especially valuable for promoting opinion making, value judgments, and
critical thinking.
How can I do it?
1. Explain the functions of the response journal to students. Stress that the
journal is personal—a place to express ideas, feelings, questions, and
opinions. Point out that there are no "right answers" in response journals.
Successful journals capture high-quality student-text interaction.
2. Provide a model journal for students. Make sure that this model includes
observations, questions, critical judgments, opinions, and feelings. Explain
that while all of these are appropriate, students should be able to distinguish
opinion from observation and critical judgment from feelings.
3. Provide journal sheets or booklets with prompting questions that will help
structure student responses. Encourage students to record as many
observations as they can.
4. From time to time, organize the class into small groups and allow students to
share their journal responses with their peers. Stress again the functions of
the journal and the fact that there are no "right" or "wrong" answers.
337. restructuring The implementation of new organizational patterns or styles of leadership and
 management to bring about renewed, schools that are more effective. The term
restructuring was widely used by educators and reformers in the early 1990’s but is
less common now. It can mean reorganizing the school day or year and changing
conventional practices, such as grouping students by age for an entire school year or
giving competitive grades. Or it may refer to changing the roles of teachers and
administrators, allocating more decision-making power to teachers, and involving
parents in decisions.
338. Retention Retention- the act or power of remembering things. The variables of retention are:
 Understanding- translation of ideas
 Practice- massed and distributed practice
 Modeling – clear and concise exemplars that are given both ver
 Feeling Tone- Pleasant tone adds positively to memory, unpleasant, will add
negatively to the memory and neutral is not related to memory.

339. Review Too many times teachers write or use the word review when writing lesson plans or
talking about teaching. In many of these cases, there is a lack of understanding of the
purpose of review. Therefore consider the purpose of the activity planned and instead
of the word review use one of the following:
If your purpose is to: Instead of “review” your purpose is
Find out what students already know Elicit prior knowledge

Begin the lesson by bring forward Anticipatory Set

previously learned knowledge so as to
get students ready for the new lesson
Give students a opportunity to apply Practice
the new learning
Give students an opportunity to apply Practice
previously learned strategy
To see if they understand what has just Check for understanding
been taught
Wrap up the lesson and have students Closure
“go over” what the just learned
340. rewards A form of extrinsic motivation whereby teachers use tangible (such as stickers, grades,
free time, bonus points, certificates), non-tangible rewards (praise, lunch with the
teacher, be the first in line, pick out a story to be read, and punishments (such as loss
of recess, detention, lowering a grade). When using this form of extrinsic motivation
the motivation to perform can disappear when the reward disappears. Therefore,
teachers should use extrinsic rewards sparingly having it lead to intrinsic motivation,
gradually decreasing extrinsic motivation as intrinsic motivation increases (Example:
giving an extrinsic motivation for reading independently, then when a child begins to
enjoy reading for its intrinsic value the extrinsic reward is diminished and fades)
341. rigor Academically challenging

342. Role Playing* Role-playing allows students to take risk-free positions by acting out characters in
hypothetical situations. It can help them understand the range of concerns, values, and
positions held by other people. Role-playing is an enlightening and interesting way to
help students see a problem from another perspective.
343. rubric
Specific descriptions of performance of a given task at several different levels of
quality. Teachers use rubrics to evaluate student performance on performance
tasks. Students receive the rubric prior to the assignment, or may even help develop
it, so they know in advance, what they are expected to accomplish.
A rubric has two components:
1. The levels of quality for each of the criteria. These levels of performance
may be written as different ratings (e.g., Excellent, Good, Needs
Improvement) or as numerical scores (e.g., 4, 3, 2, 1) or both.
2. the criteria to be included in a specific performance task - a full description
for the criteria under each level of quality may be given

For example, the content of an oral presentation might be evaluated using the
following rubric:

1 2 3 4
 NOT SOMEWHAT ADEQUATELY WELL
DEVELOPED DEVELOPED DEVELOPED DEVELOPED
Main Idea The topic is The topic is The topic is The topic is
not supported reasonably thoroughly
developed or with a few clear but not developed
supported details but is totally and
with any unclear, complete. supported
details and shows no Supporting with
contains logical details are Important
many progression adequate and details and
inaccuracies and is relevant, anecdotes
incomplete information that is
Some is accurate relevant and
information accurate
is inaccurate.

344. Running Records Developed by Marie Clay, as part of Reading Recovery. Running Records use standard
recording and scoring procedures to accurately and to objectively record, what a
young reader said and did while orally reading continuous text. A Running Record is a
tool for coding, scoring and analyzing a child’s precise reading behaviors. (Fountas &
Pinnell, Guided Reading p 89)
Running Records can be use with any text as a child orally reads. When used
appropriately, and taken on an on-going basis, they provide informative records, which
enable teachers to:
• determine what students are doing as they are reading
• observe the strategies students use while they are problem-solving
• make informed teaching decisions
• observe changes over time in a student’s learning
• report to parents.

Fountas & Pinnell, Guided Reading p 89

345. Safe harbor An alternate method for a school to meet Annual Measurement Objectives (AMO) if it
shows progress in moving students from scoring at the "below proficient" level to the
"proficient" level or above. The state, school districts, and schools may still make
Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) if each subgroup that fails to reach its proficiency
performance targets reduces its percentage of students not meeting standards by 10
percent of the previous year's percentage, plus the subgroup must meet the
attendance rate or graduation rate targets.
346. sampling In testing programs, a way of estimating how a whole group would perform on a test
by testing representative members of the group or giving different portions of the test
to various subgroups (matrix sampling).
347. SAT (Standardized Achievement Test) Also known as the SAT Reasoning Test (formerly called Scholastic Aptitude Test), this
test is widely used as a college entrance examination. Scores are compared to state
and national averages of seniors graduating from any public or private school. (Ed-
data)
348. SAT II This was formerly the Achievement Tests and was renamed the SAT II: Subject Tests.
Administered by the College Board, they are widely used as a college entrance exam.
Students may take the test more than once, with only the highest score reported at
the year of graduation.
349. scaffolding The term scaffolding reminds researchers of the scaffolding that workers sometimes
place around buildings. As the students become more skillful, the teacher gives them
more responsibility, taking away the scaffolding when students no longer need it. This
gradual important withdrawal is "fading." Scaffolding has teachers provide support to
make sure students succeed at complex tasks they could not do otherwise. Most
teaching occurs as the students go about the task, rather than before they start. For
example, as a class of elementary students proceed to publish a student newspaper,
the teacher shows then how to conduct interviews, then how to write news stories,
and lastly how to prepare captions for photographs. The teacher supports the students
to make sure they do not fail in their effort.
350. Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT I) Formerly called the Scholastic Aptitude Test, the SAT introduced in the 1950’s and
renamed in 1994. The SAT I is one of the two alternative standardized tests commonly
used by institutions of higher education as a primary basis for evaluating a student's
application for admission (the other is the ACT). According to The College Board, the
 name now accurately reflects what the exam does: It measures what a student has
learned, not what a student might hope to accomplish in life. The SAT I is taken each
year by 1.3 million students from a variety of cultures, economic conditions, regions,
and schools. Requiring three hours to take, the test has seven sections: three verbal,
three mathematics, and a non-scored "equating" section used either to try out new
questions or to set the scoring scale.
351. School Accountability Report Card An annual disclosure report for parents and the public produced by a school that
(SARC) presents student achievement, test scores, teacher credentials, dropout rates, class
sizes, resources, and more. State and federal law requires the SARC.
352. school choice The idea that families should have more than one alternative when enrolling their
children in school. The term employed by advocates of vouchers and tax credits as
though it refers only to a choice between public and nonpublic schools when actually,
some states and school districts offer numerous options—sometimes in the form of
charter or magnet schools, but also in comprehensive choice plans.
Some advocates of school choice argue that it encourages healthy competition among
schools for enrollment, thus raising the quality of all schools. Opponents contend that
advantaged parents are consistently able to exploit opportunities—for example, by
providing transportation to schools outside their neighborhoods—so choice
contributes to greater inequity.
353. school climate The sum of the values, cultures, safety practices, and organizational structures within a
school that cause it to function and react in particular ways. Some schools have a
nurturing environment that recognizes children and treats them as individuals; others
may have the feel of authoritarian structures where rules are strictly enforced and
hierarchical control is strong. Teaching practices, diversity, and the relationships
among administrators, teachers, parents, and students contribute to school climate.
Although the two terms can be interchangeable, school climate refers mostly to the
school's effects on students; whereas school culture refers more to the way, teachers
and other staff members work together.
354. School Improvement Program (SIP) A state-funded program for elementary, intermediate and secondary schools to
improve instruction, services, school environment and organization at school sites
according to plans developed by School Site Councils (see School Site Council).
355. school restructuring The implementation of new organizational patterns or styles of leadership and
management to bring about renewed and more effective schools. The term
restructuring was widely used by educators and reformers in the early 1990’s but is
less common now. It can mean reorganizing the school day or year and changing
conventional practices, such as grouping students by age for an entire school year or
giving competitive grades. It may also refer to changing the roles of teachers and
administrators, allocating more decision-making power to teachers, and involving
parents in decisions.
356. School Site Council (SSC) A group of teachers, parents, administrators, and interested community members who
work together to develop and monitor a school's improvement plan. It is a legally
required decision-making body for any school receiving federal funds (see School
Improvement Plan).
357. school-based management A system of school governance by which most decisions, including staffing and
spending decisions, are made at the level of the individual school, rather than at
district or other agency level. Also known as site-based management or decision-
making. (Schools or sites are not necessarily whole buildings. In some cases, a building
may house several schools.) School-based management is frequently confused with
participatory or shared decision-making. Participatory or shared decision-making
involves multiple stakeholders (generally teams composed of administrators, teachers,
and parents; some include student representatives, community members, and one or
more business partners) in decision-making processes at the school. School-based
management may make use of such teams; however, it might instead assign authority
to school principals. School-based management implies only that decisions are school
level; it does not imply who makes those decisions.
Some highly successful programs assign authority to school principals, who are
responsible for deciding how best to involve others. Shared decision-making tends to
be more successful when local administrators use it voluntarily.
358. school-to-work A movement, based on the belief that, students are inadequately prepared for careers
by the time they graduate from high school. Although a growing number of parents
believe their children must attend college and earn at least a bachelor's degree to
make a comfortable living, nearly three-quarters of U.S. citizens do not have a college
degree, indicating that high school graduates need preparation and training to succeed
in the work world.
 Depending on the nature of the program, preparation for employment may be called
several different things, including career education and, of course, vocational
education. The term school-to-work is associated with programs supported with
federal funds under the School-to-Work Opportunities Act, which was intended to
broaden educational, career, and economic opportunities for all students by creating
partnerships between schools and businesses, community organizations, and
government agencies. The act provides funds for a variety of programs, including
apprenticeships, tech-prep programs, and internships. Schools and businesses work
together to integrate learning and job-training skills.
359. School-wide programs Also called whole-school reform or comprehensive school reform, this term refers to
an approach to school improvement that involves adopting a design for organizing an
entire school. New American Schools, an organization that promotes comprehensive
school reform, sponsors several different designs, each featuring challenging academic
standards, strong professional development programs, meaningful parental and
community involvement, and a supportive school environment.
360. Science Fairs* A science fair is an exhibition of student science projects designed to highlight their
learning of science. The science projects are an investigation using the scientific
method to discover the answer to a scientific problem. Science Fairs are great activities
for students at all grade levels. At the younger grades, the teacher may choose to do
science fair projects as a class whereas at the older grade levels, individual projects are
encouraged.
What is its purpose?
The purposes of a science fair are many and varied. They are a great opportunity for
staff and students to work together on a school wide project and highlight their work
to parents and the community. In addition, they are great vehicles for teaching
cooperation (most students work with a partner) and the scientific method. Finally
they are an opportunity for students to hone both their writing and presentation skills
How can I do it?
Get together with your grade-alike teachers or with the school staff to plan for a
science fair. Decide on a common place, date, and time. In your planning, be sure to
include the school librarian, as the students will need to access resources.
Undoubtedly, the most difficult part for students when planning for a science fair is
choosing their topic. Perhaps the biggest mistake students make when they do a
science fair project is that they choose something they do not like! Because these
projects require a lot of effort, they should be encouraged to choose something they
are interested in! Finally, they should consult the library and the Internet to find
science fair books and project ideas.
Note: The YSF (Youth Science Foundation) is Canada’s promoter of Regional Science
Fairs and sponsors of the Canada Wide Science Fair. It does not allow the use of live
animals in science fair displays. Please make students aware of this fact before
planning begins.
All science fair topics are in the form of a question the student is trying to answer – i.e.
What is the best laundry detergent? Which metals conduct heat? How do you prevent
soil erosion? Students will require class time to research their projects, perform their
experiments, write their findings and construct their display. Since any one of these
can involve a great deal of time, students should be reminded that much of the work
will, by necessity have to be done at home.
On the day of the Science Fair, students should setup their display according to a
preset plan by the teachers. Other students and parents can view the science fair
displays during the daytime. Having the Science Fair in the evening can accommodate
more parents and community members.

361. Science Olympics* What are the Science Olympics?

The Science Olympics are a series of problem solving events require students to apply
their knowledge of science in creative ways. Students work in teams rather than
individually.
What is its purpose?
The purpose is to promote science problem solving and teamwork among students.
You do not have to be a top student to be creative and have good problem solving
skills. The activities allow most students the opportunity to can get involved, be
successful, and have fun.
How can I do it?
1. Be aware that there are basically two kinds of Science Olympics events:
a) Pre-Planned Event(s):
Students have all the details about the event(s) before the day of competition. For
 example, the event might require one or all of the following: researching for a quiz or
the design and construction of a poster, a wooden bridge out of toothpicks, or a free-
falling egg drop.
b) Spontaneous Event(s):
The details of these events are only outlined on the day of competition, i.e. science
trivia
2. The events selected for the Olympics determine the level of organization that will be
necessary. Each event should clearly state its objective, as well as provide the judging
criteria, rules and regulations. Try to choose events that are well suited to the
participants. Science Olympics is designed to be challenging, educational, and above
all, - fun. Making the events too easy would offer little challenge. Difficult events will
cause most students to despair or simply to give up.
3. The location of the events is important to the organization of the Science Olympics.
Often, the location is dependent on the nature of the events. At the elementary level,
it is often easiest to hold the events in one or more classrooms, depending on the
number of participants. The teams simply rotate among the classrooms in a
predetermined route and time period.
4. The required materials for each event should be minimal so try to make use of
everyday household items whenever possible.
4. You may want to provide games, books, music, computers, etc. for any participants
who for any reason are unable to compete, for the day would become boring for them
after some time. Encourage them to act as an audience or as helpers for the teacher
(facilitator).
5. Finally, judging is often an integral part of Science Olympics. If each teacher
(facilitator) is responsible for the design, setup and execution of an event, then they
also could be responsible for providing the teams with their group score. As teams
rotate through the stations, they receive their team score at each event, written and
initialed by the teacher. At the conclusion of the Olympics, the teams may gather in
the gym or any other large area for presentation of awards. This does not have to be
done on the same day as the events. You may wish to save it for the next day, giving
you, the judges, and the teachers time to tally the points and be ready for the
presentation of winners. It is always a good idea to ask participants, judges and
spectators to contribute ideas to your next Olympics. Next year, you should eliminate
some events as you add new ones.

362. scientifically based research Research that involves the application of rigorous, systemic, and objective procedures
to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to educational activities and programs.
(Ed Source)
363. selected response Preferred by some testing specialists over the more common term "multiple choice"
because it is more specific and contrasts with "constructed response," meaning items
that require the student to provide an answer.
364. Self Monitoring Strategies* Self-monitoring strategies are plans used to increase independence in academic,
behavioral, self-help, and social areas.
What is its purpose?
In reading, the ability to self-monitor meaning enables students to select and use
strategies to improve comprehension. Readers who self-monitor know when their
reading makes sense and when it does not. If comprehension is blocked, they know
what strategies to use to repair it. Self-monitoring is a significant component of
comprehension.
365. service learning Provisions for making community service part of the school's educational program. At
the high school level, this means awarding school credit for such service. Students
usually work on site at such locations as soup kitchens, recycling centers, homeless
shelters, and community hospital fairs. Some high schools require that students earn a
certain number of credits in service learning in order to graduate.
366. sheltered instruction Teaching limited-English-speaking students by using simplified English that is relatively
easy to understand and learn.
367. similarities An attribute of transfer, similarities are the ability of the teacher to make decisions in
the lesson that point out and have students recognize the commonalities and
differences of what is being taught to prior learnings
368. Simulations* A simulation is a form of experiential learning. Simulations are instructional scenarios
where instruction occurs in a "world" defined by the teacher. They represent a reality
within which students interact. The teacher controls the parameters of this "world"
and uses it to achieve the desired instructional results. Simulations are in way, a lab
experiment where the students themselves are the test subjects. They experience the
reality of the scenario and gather meaning from it. The strategy that fits well with the
 principles of constructivism.
Simulations promote the use of critical and evaluative thinking. The open-ended
nature of a simulation encourages students to contemplate the implications of a
scenario. The situation feels real and thus leads to more engaging interaction by
learners. They are motivating activities enjoyed by students of all ages.
Simulations take a number of forms. They may contain elements of a game, a role-
play, or an activity that acts as a metaphor. The chief element is that they have
context. Board games such as Monopoly or Careers are a type of simulation. The
primary distinctions between a game and a simulation are the nonlinear nature and
the controlled ambiguity. Students must make decisions within its context. The
industry and commitment of the participants determines success. The goal is not to
win but to acquire knowledge and understanding.
Advantages
 Enjoyable, motivating activity
 Element of reality is compatible with principles of constructivism
 Enhances appreciation of the more subtle aspects of a concept/principle
 Promotes critical thinking
Disadvantages
 Preparation time
 Cost can be an issue
 Assessment is more complex than some traditional teaching methods
Guided by a set of parameters, students undertake to solve problems, adapt to issues
arising from their scenario, and gain an awareness of the unique circumstances that
exist within the confines of the simulation. Some simulations require one day, others
may take weeks to complete. Scope and content varies greatly. This being true, specific
guidelines change with the activity. Several principles however apply to all.
 Ensure that students understand the procedures before beginning. It
improves efficacy if the students can enjoy uninterrupted participation.
Frustration can arise with too many uncertainties. This will be
counterproductive.
 Try to anticipate questions before they asked. The pace of some simulations
is quick and the sense of reality is maintained with ready responses. Monitor
student progress.
 Know what you wish to accomplish. Many simulations can have more than
one instructional goal. Developing a rubric for evaluation is a worthwhile
step. If appropriate, students are made aware of the specific outcomes
expected of them.
369. single-subject credential A credential required to teach middle or high school in California. It authorizes a
teacher to teach in a single subject area such as English or a foreign language.
370. site-based decision-making A system of school governance by which most decisions, including staffing and
spending decisions, are made at the level of the individual school, rather than at
district or other agency level. Also known as school-based or site-based management.
(Schools or sites are not necessarily whole buildings. In some cases, a building may
house several schools.)
Site-based decision-making is frequently confused with participatory or shared
decision-making. Some schools have teams composed of administrators, teachers, and
parents; some include student representatives, community members, and one or more
business partners. Team members share responsibility for educational, leadership, and
administrative functions.
In fact, site-based decision-making does not depend on any particular arrangements
for governance at the school level. Some highly successful programs assign authority to
school principals, who are responsible for deciding how best to involve others. And
shared decision-making tends to be more successful when local administrators use it
voluntarily.
371. social promotion The practice of promoting students to the next grade whether or not they have
accomplished the goals of their current grade. Politicians, the public, and many
educators almost uniformly condemn social promotion. Opponents argue that
students who have not met minimum requirements are retained in grade. Otherwise,
they say, failing students will not have the prerequisite skills to continue learning and
will eventually become functionally illiterate graduates.
Some educators, familiar with the undesirable effects of repeated grade retention,
such as high dropout rates, prefer to approach the problem differently. They favor
adopting and monitoring standards and benchmarks, blurring grade lines (un-grading),
grouping students in mixed-ability groups or at their current level of achievement
 (alternative strategies), and focusing on individual progress. In other words, for young
children at least, they would eliminate social promotion by eliminating the concept of
promotion itself.
372. socioeconomically disadvantaged Students whose parents do not have a high school diploma or who participate in the
federally funded free/reduced price meal program because of low family income. (Ed
Source)
373. special day classes Full-day classes for students with learning disabilities, speech and/or language
impairments, serious emotional disturbances, cognitive delays, and a range of other
impairments. Certified special education teachers teach the classes. Some student
receive instruction in regular classroom as appropriate according to the student's IEP.
374. special education Educational programs for students who, because they have a disability of some kind,
require special instructional help to reach their potential. This may include specially
trained teachers, innovative technology or instructional materials, access to a resource
room, or even external placement. The term sometimes (but not usually) includes
programs for those considered gifted.
375. special-needs students Students who, because of physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional
disabilities, require special instructional help to reach their potential. This may include
specially trained teachers, innovative technology or instructional materials, access to a
resource room, or even external placement. The term sometimes (but not usually)
includes students classified as gifted and talented.
376. spiral curriculum An approach to curriculum design that provides for periodic revisiting of key topics
over a period of years, presenting them in greater depth each time, in contrasts with
mastery learning, which assumes that students master a topic before moving on to
something new.
377. Sponge Activity/Do Now Sponge activities” or a “Do Now”, an engaging and quick – 3 – 5 minutes activity that
needs little teacher direction and is easy to follow/understand is used to help “soak
up” valuable teaching and learning time. It provides students with a learning activity
while the teacher takes care of administrative type work like taking attendance, lunch
counts, collecting homework, etc. It promotes “bell to bell” instruction and eliminates
behavior problems by giving students something educational to do with their time. A
sponge activity has educational value - it can, but does not have to relate to the day’s
objective. It relates to the students’ schema and their prior level of knowledge, it gets
them thinking, but should not be too difficult or frustrating.
378. SQ3R* The SQ3R strategy (which stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review) was
developed by Robinson (1961) to provide a structured approach for students to use
when studying content material. This strategy has proven to be effective and versatile
and is easily integrated into many content areas and across grade levels. Students
develop effective study habits by engaging in the pre-reading, during-reading, and
post-reading steps of this strategy. The SQ3R literacy strategy helps enhance
comprehension and retention of information.
It is meta-cognitive in nature in that it is a self-monitoring process.
Five Steps to the SQ3R Literacy Strategy
1. Survey
By surveying the chapter titles, introductory paragraphs, bold face, italicized headings,
and summary paragraphs, the reader gets an overview of the material. Surveying also
gives enough information to generate individual purposes for reading the text.
2. Question
Provide purposed questions at the beginning of the chapter. If not, the reader can turn
section headings into questions. The main objective is to have questions with answers
found in the passage.
3. Read
The student is to read to answer the purpose questions formulated in Step 2,
Question.
4. Recite
Student should try to answer questions without referring to the text or notes. This step
helps in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory.
5. Review
Students review the material by rereading parts of the text or notes. Students verify
answers given during Step 4, Recite. This helps retain information better and gives
immediate feedback.
The SQ3R is a very versatile literacy strategy that involves the student in processing
information before, during, and after reading:
1. Prior to reading — preview text and establish purpose.
2. While reading — monitor one’s own comprehension.
3. After reading — summarize and review content.
 Many students do not know how to study, and this strategy is a perfect way to help
them.
It works well in many content areas with a variety of types of text.
379. staff development days Days set aside in the school calendar for teacher training. Students do not generally
attend school on these days.
380. standardized test A test that is in the same format for all who take it. It often relies on multiple-choice
questions and the testing conditions—including instructions, time limits, and scoring
rubrics—are the same for all students, although special education student receive time
limit and instruction accommodations. (Ed Source)
381. standards In current usage, the term usually refers to specific criteria for what students are
expected to learn and be able to do. These standards usually take two forms in the
curriculum:
1. Content standards (similar to what were formerly called goals and objectives),
which tell what students are expected to know and be able to do in various
subject areas, such as mathematics and science.
2. Performance standards specify the levels of learning, expected assess the
degree to which students meet the specific content standards. The term
"world-class standards" refers to the content and performances expected of
students in other industrialized countries. In recent years, standard also specify
what teachers should know and be able to do.
382. standards-based education Teaching directed toward student mastery of defined standards. As of 2013, all except
4 states have adopted curriculum standards, teachers are expected to teach in such a
way that students achieve the standards. Experts say this means that teachers must
have a clear idea what each standard means, its form of assessment, and how teachers
should monitor individual student achievement of each important standard.
383. standards-referenced tests Also known as standards-based assessments.
384. Story Mapping*  Introduce story mapping as a collaborative activity.
 Introduce this strategy using a story with an uncomplicated plot.
 Read the selection to students.
 Encourage students to visualize the characters, settings and events as they
listen.
 Discuss and chart the main characters and story events.
 Review the chart, focusing students' attention on the sequence of main
events.
 Emphasize what happened first, next, and then . . . .
 As students agree upon the order of listed events, number these in
sequence.
 Individuals or groups could each illustrate one story event.
 Display completed illustrations in sequence.
 This pattern or framework can be used for retelling the story.
 Students can retell the story for their own enjoyment, to a partner, to a small
group or to the class.
 Story illustrations can be displayed in a vertical or a horizontal sequence, in a
circular pattern or as a winding trail, which traces the movements of the
characters.
 Once students become familiar with this procedure, they can create a
sequence of illustrations that will provide an outline for storytelling or for
writing original stories.
385. Structured Controversy*  Choose a discussion topic that has at least two well documented positions.
 Prepare materials:
o Clear expectations for the group task.
o Define the positions to be advocated with a summary of the key
arguments supporting the positions.
o Provide reference materials including a bibliography that support
and elaborate the arguments for the positions to be advocated.
 Structure the controversy:
o Assign students to groups of four.
o Divide each group into dyads who are assigned opposing positions
on the topic.
o Require each group to reach consensus on the issue and turn in a
group report on which all members will be evaluated.
 Conduct the controversy:
o Plan positions.
 o Present positions.
o Argue the issue.
o Reverse positions and argue the issue from those perspectives.
o Reach a decision.
Details
 To avoid problems, clearly communicate to the students the debate rules
that will guide the interaction.
o Be critical of ideas, not people.
o Focus on the best decision, not on "winning."
o Encourage everyone's position, even if you do not agree.
o Use paraphrasing when you are not clear about what someone
said.
o Try to understand both sides of the issue.
386. Structured Overview* There are three main ways in which Structured overview is used.
 Verbal Summary At The Start Of A New Concept - The teacher starts by
highlighting the new ideas learned in a few simple sentences. Then discuss
the relationship between these ideas and the ones the students already
know. The structured overview takes the role of an advanced organizer.
 Written Summary - The approach is the same as the verbal summary, but
students have a written record of the ideas.
 Venn diagrams of concepts, semantic maps, semantic organizers, webs, and
charts are all methods visual Structured Overview. When accompanied by
explanation, visual overviews are often very effective at helping student
connect ideas.
Generally, a combination of verbal and written Structured Overview is more effective
than either type alone.
387. Student Study Team (also referred to as A team of educators that comes together at the request of a classroom teacher,
Student Success Team) parent, or counselor to design in-class intervention techniques to meet the needs of a
particular student.
388. student teacher A teacher in training who is in the last semester of a teacher education program.
Student teachers work with a regular/cooperating teacher who supervises their
practice teaching.
389. student-led conference A variation of the usual parent-teacher conference in which the student plays a major
part. The student prepares for the conference and leads it by showing the parents or
guardian samples of his/her work, often in the form of portfolios, and discussing areas
of strengths and weaknesses.
Proponents believe that having students analyze and explain samples of their own
work makes them feel more responsible. It also provides an opportunity for them to
practice presentation skills. If parents need a private talk with the teacher,
arrangements are made for a separate meeting.
390. success A variable of motivation, success refers to the learner’s perception that a task is
attainable when the learner puts forth a reasonable amount of effort. The teacher
therefore must consciously organizes the learning in chunks that are attainable so that
the learner can continually perceives progress toward the goal
391. summative assessment A test, or assessment, given to evaluate and document what students have learned.
The term is used to distinguish such tests from formative tests, which are used
primarily to diagnose what students have learned in order to plan further instruction
392. supervision The process by which one person, usually someone with greater authority, helps
another person improve his performance. A persistent issue in education is the
relationship between supervision and teacher evaluation. In education, supervision is
ideally a nonthreatening and helping relationship, and teacher evaluation is a formal
administrative responsibility. In practice, the school principal, who visits the teacher’s
classroom to observe and then meets with the teacher to discuss effectiveness of the
lesson, does most supervision. The process of observing and conferring is called clinical
supervision to distinguish it from the kind of employee supervision necessary in any
organization, such as making sure people get to work on time.
393. systemic reform Improvement of education by coordinating all aspects of the system, which in various
situations may be a state, a local district, or even a school. Recognizing that regulations
and traditions sometimes interfere with reform, policymakers talk about standards-
based systemic reform, which means establishing performance standards that
students are to meet (usually at the state level) and then aligning everything else—
curriculum, assessment, college entrance requirements, teacher education, teacher
certification, teacher professional development, and so on—with the expected
standards. If standards call for students to learn content they are not learning now, all
 parts of the system must work together: New instructional materials, new assessments
and professional development for teachers.
394. Task Analysis A task analysis is the process of breaking down complex learnings into simpler parts,
then sequencing those parts for more predictably efficient learning. When designing a
unit of study, the teacher must determine the skills or learnings the students must
acquire and be able to demonstrate in order to reach the terminal objective.
395. Teach to the Objective –T2O Teaching to the objective consists of a set of teacher actions that are relevant and
congruent to the Instructional Objective. The teacher does not “birdwalk” or get off
on a tangent that is not relevant to the objective. The Instructional Objective answers
the essential question: “What will students learn and how will you know that they
have learned?” The four (4) teacher actions, providing information, asking questions,
designing activities and responding to the efforts of the learner assist the learning
acquiring behaviors that promote acquisition of the new learning as described in the
Instructional Objective.
396. teacher certification Official recognition, ordinarily by the state, that a person is qualified to be a teacher. A
single certification used to last a lifetime, but many states now require certificate
renewal every few years, with evidence of the completion of university or district in-
service courses. Many teaching certificates are highly specialized by subject, grade
levels, or specifics such as counseling or the ability to teach students with disabilities.
Alternative certification is a way for persons without the standard qualifications to
teach while learning on the job (with continuing education and supervision).
In addition to required state certification, some highly accomplished teachers now
apply for and earn national certification by the National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards.
397. teaching for understanding Engaging students in learning activities intended to help them understand the
complexities of a topic. Teaching for understanding is different from teaching simply
for recall, which results in students being able to answer questions without knowing
what their answers really mean. Specialists advise that a good way to know whether
students understand is to ask them to perform a task that shows they can apply and
make use of what they have learned in a realistic setting. For example, students might
participate in a mock trial to demonstrate that they have developed their
understanding of the rights of the accused.
398. teaching to the test Preparing students for a test by concentrating on the particular things the test contains
rather than on the broader body of knowledge the test is intended to measure. An
extreme example would be drilling students on the 20 words the teacher knows will
appear on a spelling test rather than teaching the whole set of words students are
supposed to have learned to spell
399. team teaching An arrangement by which two or more teachers teach the same group of students.
Teachers may teach together in many different ways. They may teach a course, or a
combination of courses, for an entire school year, or they may plan and teach a
particular unit of study. They may present content from the same, or different, subject
areas. They may keep the students in a single large group or divide them up for some
purposes.
400. tenure A system of due process and employment guarantee for teachers. After serving a
probationary period determine by the state, teachers have continued employment
unless the school district implements carefully defined procedures for dismissal or
layoff. (Ed Source)
401. tenure The legal provision that people in certain positions are not fired without a proven
reason, in court. Teachers and professors receive tenure after a specified probationary
period. Once they have established their competence to teach and have tenure, they
may not be dismissed for improper reasons, such as teaching an unpopular idea or
belonging to the wrong political party. Opponents of tenure charge that the elaborate
procedures required to dismiss a tenured person, commonly known as "due process,"
are so onerous that they prevent school systems from discharging poor teachers.
402. thematic instruction Organizing all or part of the instruction of a particular group of students around a
theme, such as the Dependence and Independence. Advocates say it makes the
curriculum more coherent and helps students see relationships among things they are
learning.
403. thematic units A unit of study that has lessons focused on a specific theme, sometimes covering all
core subject areas. It is used as an alternative approach to teaching history or social
studies chronologically.
404. Think Alouds* Think-Alouds have been described as "eavesdropping on someone's thinking." With
this strategy, teachers verbalize aloud while reading a selection orally. Their
verbalizations include describing things they are doing as they read to monitor their
 comprehension. The purpose of the think-aloud strategy is to model for students how
skilled readers construct meaning from a text.
1. Begin by modeling this strategy. Model your thinking as you read. Do this at
points in the text that may be confusing for students (new vocabulary,
unusual sentence construction).
2. Introduce the assigned text and discuss the purpose of the Think-Aloud
strategy. Develop the set of questions to support thinking aloud (see
examples below).
o What do I know about this topic?
o What do I think I will learn about this topic?
o Do I understand what I just read?
o Do I have a clear picture in my head about this information?
o What more can I do to understand this?
o What were the most important points in this reading?
o What new information did I learn?
o How does it fit in with what I already know?
3. Give students opportunities to practice the technique, and offer structured
feedback to students.
4. Read the selected passage aloud as the students read the same text silently.
At certain points stop and "think aloud" the answers to some of the pre-
selected questions.
5. Demonstrate how good readers monitor their understanding by rereading a
sentence, reading ahead to clarify, and/or looking for context clues. Students
then learn to offer answers to the questions as the teacher leads the Think
Aloud.
405. Think-Pair-Share* Think-Pair-Share (TPS) is a collaborative learning strategy in which students work
together to solve a problem or answer a question about an assigned reading. This
technique requires students to (1) think individually about a topic or answer to a
question; and (2) share ideas with classmates. Discussing an answer with a partner
serves to maximize participation, focus attention and engage students in
comprehending the reading material.
 Decide upon the text to read and develop the set of questions or prompts
that target key content concepts.
 Describe the purpose of the strategy and provide guidelines for discussions.
 Model the procedure to ensure that students understand how to use the
strategy.
 Monitor and support students as they work through the following:

T : (Think) Teachers begin by asking a specific question about the text.

Students "think" about what they know or have learned about the topic.
P : (Pair) Each student should be paired with another student or a small
group.
S : (Share) Students share their thinking with their partner. Teachers expand
the "share" into a whole-class discussion.

406. Title I Refers to Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, which
is intended to improve education in high-poverty communities by targeting extra
resources to schools and school districts with the highest concentrations of poverty, in
which academic performance tends to be low and the obstacles to raising performance
are the greatest.
First enacted as part of the War on Poverty, Title I previously known as Chapter I and
as part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must be periodically
re-authorized. The most recent reauthorized version of the law, named No Child Left
Behind, requires states to administer annual assessments in reading and math for all
students in grades 3–8. Schools must demonstrate that all students are making
adequate yearly progress in achieving proficiency on state standards, as measured by
test scores. Schools not making adequate yearly progress receive additional assistance
from the state. Schools continuing not achieve adequate yearly progress will be subject
to sanctions, including reconstitution of staff or conversion to a charter school.
407. tracking The practice of dividing students for instruction according to their perceived abilities.
Students placed on a particular track (college-bound, general, vocational, and
remedial) and given a curriculum that varies according to their perceived abilities and
future positions in life. At the elementary level, tracking is grouping. Advocates argue
that it makes instruction more efficient and provides students with instruction adapted
 to their abilities and previous knowledge. Critics argue that it deprives students of
equal opportunity, unfairly and inaccurately labels some students, and perpetuates
racial, ethnic, language, and social inequalities.
408. trade books Individual novels and storybooks that are available for purchase at most retail
bookstores. Some teachers incorporate trade books into their lessons, especially in
English and history, to create more varied and interesting units of study. Some
elementary reading programs depend almost entirely on trade books rather than basal
texts.
409. traditional calendar School starts in September and ends in June for a total of 180 days of instruction.
410. Transfer Teacher decisions that increase the probability that students can interrelate past
learning to new learning. The variables of transfer are, critical attributes, degree of
original learning, association and similarities.
411. ungraded school A way of organizing schools that uses individual student progress, rather than age or
grade level, to determine when students move from one stage of schooling to another.
In an ungraded (also called non-graded) primary school, some students take longer to
move into 4th grade from a primary-level multi-age classroom (kindergarten through
3rd grade). Students are not classified by grade levels and not evaluated using
traditional letter grades (A, B, C, D, F), but their achievement is carefully monitored.
412. unit of study A segment of instruction focused on a particular topic. School courses are frequently
divided into units lasting from one to six weeks. For example, an American history
course might include a four-week unit on the Westward Movement
413. un-tracking Reducing or eliminating grouping by ability, resulting in classes with students from all
ability levels. The result of un-tracking is mixed-ability grouping, also called
heterogeneous rather than homogeneous (or ability) grouping. Strictly speaking,
tracking refers to students being lumped into groups for all their classes based on their
general ability to learn. Grouping for specific purposes, such as current knowledge of
mathematics, is theoretically not tracking, although opponents charge that the
practice usually has the same results. Advocates of de-tracking, also called un-tracking,
point to research indicating that when students are grouped by ability, those in lower
tracks are usually taught poorly and don't get exposed to "high-status" knowledge.
They see un-tracking as part of a broader restructuring of schools in which student
differences are provided for within each class. Opponents say ability grouping is easier
for teachers and better for students—those who are academically able and should not
be held back, and those who are slower and should have attention to their special
needs.
414. validity In testing, validity means how well a test measures what it is intended to measure. For
example, a test in history may be so difficult for young students to read that it is more
of a reading test than a test of historical knowledge. That makes it invalid for its
intended purpose.
415. values education Teaching children about basic human values including honesty, kindness, generosity,
courage, freedom, equality, and respect. The goal is to raise children to become
morally responsible, self-disciplined citizens. Because some values are controversial
(such as attitudes toward homosexuality), parent groups have occasionally insisted
that schools should not attempt to teach values at all. Character education programs
frequently focus on a set of values arrived at by community consensus. These values
taught through telling stories, holding discussions, exemplify values when they occur.
Values clarification, a form of values education used in some schools in the 1960’s and
1970’s, has been strongly criticized as misguided and irresponsible. Proponents
advised that students should discuss complex value issues (such as who should be
thrown from an overloaded lifeboat) while teachers were to remain neutral. Even
some of the advocates now admit that, without reasonable adult guidance, values
clarification can be harmful. On the other hand, experienced parents and teachers
know that, although it is important for adults to be clear about where they stand,
students also benefit from opportunities to express their honest views as they think
things out for themselves.
416. Visual Imaging* The practice of imaging or mentally visualizing objects, events or situations is a
powerful process that assists students to construct meaning as they listen and read. As
students read and listen to others, they incorporate their knowledge and previous
experiences to form images of situations, settings, characters and events. These
images extend students' comprehension, enrich their personal interpretations and
stimulate unique ideas for writing. Imaging provides the opportunity for students to
experience vicariously what they hear, read and write.
What is its purpose?
 to provide opportunities for students to share personal interpretations of
 literary selections
 to develop students' ability to create images and ideas by relating their
previous knowledge and experiences to what is heard and read
 to develop students' ability to monitor for meaning as they read and write
How can I do it?
 Reading:
o When reading to students, periodically pause to share your
personal perceptions and images evoked by the author's language.
o Initially, encourage students to visualize the characters in stories.
o Gradually extend their visualizing experiences to include the setting
and story events.
o Discussing personal images and interpretations provides students'
with a deeper understanding of the text.
o Students may record or describe the images evoked by texts in
their reading logs and during conference
 Writing:
As a prewriting activity, teachers can guide students through an imaging
exercise.
o Have students concentrate on a situation, event or experience.
o Create a setting or situation with minimal description and
explanation such as the experience of walking through a forest in
late fall.
o Focus on using key words related to this experience that will elicit
sensory responses.
o Encourage students to share the images created and the feelings
aroused.
o Collaboratively determine and record the words or phrases that
evoke and describe the images.
o These words or phrases could be recorded under the categories of
sights, sounds, tastes, smells and feelings.
o Have students try to incorporate these words and phrases in their
writing efforts.
o Students should be encouraged to use imaging as a prewriting
activity for independent writing.
 Spelling:
Students can be taught to use imaging for remembering and recalling
spellings of words. A basic procedure for helping students visualize words of
current relevance to them and to the topic of study is as follows:
o have the students imagine that they are watching a large video
screen or computer monitor
o have them focus on a blank screen
o display a printed word and ask students to print that word on their
imaginary screens
o have students describe the colors and shapes of their letters, and
silently read the letters in order
o have students write the words on their papers from memory and
check what they have written
o have students verify spellings by comparing their words to the
displayed words
o if their spellings are incorrect, the imaging process are repeated.
 When students are comfortable with creating images of words, they can
apply this strategy independently to encode the spellings of words.
 To incorporate a new word into their writing vocabularies, students should
look at the word, cover the word, visualize it on their screen, then write the
word from memory and verify what they have written.
 If the word spelled incorrectly, the imaging process should be repeated.
When discussing spelling patterns and letter combinations, teachers should
encourage students to use imaging.
 When recalling the spelling of a word, students should say the word,
visualize it and then write the word.

417. visualization Consciously creating a picture of something in the mind. Teachers sometimes
encourage students to visualize situations to help them remember information or to
prepare them for creative activities such as writing stories. For example, a history
 teacher might ask students to imagine themselves at Gettysburg on the morning
before a day of heavy fighting, asking them to think about the sights, the sounds, and
the smells around them, and how they would be feeling. Then, still pretending to be
Civil War soldiers, the students might write a letter to a parent or friend about the
battle of Gettysburg.
418. vocational education Schooling at the high school level that allows students to spend a part of the school
day attending traditional classes and the rest of the day learning a trade, such as auto
repair or cosmetology. Vocational classes can be in the same school building as the
other classes or in a separate vocational-technical school. Students may also train at
real work sites.
419. voucher A certificate issued to parents used as full or partial payment of tuition for any
nonpublic school. Advocates of vouchers say low-income parents should be able to
choose the kind of school their children will attend and that competition will improve
the public schools. They argue that citizens should not have to pay both school taxes
and private school tuition. Opponents say that using government funds for private
religious schools violates the separation of church and state, and that vouchers reduce
the amount of funding available to public schools.
420. wait time Teachers typically give students less than one second to respond to a question,
allowing little to no time for students to fully comprehend the question and then
formulate an answer. Students therefore respond with low-level recall responses or
none at all. Research has shown that when students receive three to seven seconds
after asking a question their responses tend to reflect thinking that is more thoughtful,
fuller and deeper. This finding is consistent among all grade levels.
421. Webbing* Webbing is a method of visually representing relationships among ideas, concepts or
events. During this procedure, ideas and information are explored and organized. The
resulting web or pattern of relationships is determined by the participants' knowledge
and previous experiences, and by the purpose for webbing.
 Topics webbed must be relevant to classroom learning experiences and
students' interests.
 The topic or title is charted or displayed.
 Guide a brainstorming session during which students are encouraged to
verbalize ideas and understandings related to the topic.
 Record brainstormed ideas.
 Discuss the relationships among the various ideas and collaboratively
determine how the ideas could be organized or categorized.
 Record the ideas in clusters or categories around the displayed topic or title.
 As students become familiar with this strategy, they may create webs prior
to writing, or before and after they read, research or study.

422. WebQuest* Web Quests allow students to complete authentic projects and use technology to find
and present information and, at the same time, alleviate some of the barriers teachers
may find in their attempt to work in the confines of project-based learning. Generally,
Web Quests are cooperative activities where students assume different roles relative
to an authentic problem. The Internet is usually the main information resource,
although other more traditional resources, such as magazines and journals, can be
included. The Web Quest itself provides structure to the investigation of the authentic
topic, thereby increasing the ability of students to navigate a highly unstructured
environment such as the Internet. Students then develop a product, which
demonstrates their knowledge of the problem and its potential solutions.
Students enjoy Web Quests because they use the Internet to find and apply
information. The students may also learn to use presentation software, which allows
them to impart their information in a creative way while educating others.
Teachers benefit from Web Quests in a number of ways. For example, rubrics for each
project and Web resource addresses are provided, authentic learning occurs, ideas for
projects are supplies, and learning is fun for students while they integrate technology.
Teachers can modify WebQuest to fit the needs of the classroom.
How can I do it?
In planning for project learning, you should always start with the end in mind. A Web
Quest can provide you with the project for a unit of study. After reading through a
specific Web Quest, you can then begin to select the objectives for mastery. An
alternative way to start could be to select objectives and then find a Web Quest that
would help master those objectives. Subsequently, you can decide which enabling
activities are needed. Every Web Quest has an Introduction, a Task, Resources, a
Process, Evaluation (with a rubric), and a Conclusion.
 As you can imagine, having the students complete a Web Quest can be a wonderful
experience. Here are some tips to help you start and succeed with your first few.
1. Preview your Web Quest before you use it.
2. Change the Web Quest so that it will meet the needs of your class.
Sometimes you may have to alter the procedure to suit the one-computer
classroom or break up the steps.
3. It is helpful to perform the initial Web Quest as a group so that the students
may become familiar with the process and ask any questions as you proceed.
4. Remember to let the students explore and have fun. There will be times
when the Web Quest does not proceed the way you intended, but learning is
still taking place.

423. whole language A technique for teaching language arts that emphasizes the reading and writing of
whole texts (sometimes beginning with picture books) before analyzing words and
individual letter sounds. Advocates believe it instills a love of reading more than a
strictly phonetic approach, which begins with drilling and memorizing the basic vowel
and consonant sounds. Although some reading specialists are bitterly divided over the
merits of whole language versus systematic phonics, most schools offer a combination
of both—some putting more emphasis on reading for meaning, some on component
skills. Some programs differentiate instruction according to individual student needs.
Research studies indicate that whole-language practices work well with children who
are visual, holistic learners.
424. Word Walls* A word wall is an organized collection of words prominently displayed in a classroom.
This display is as an interactive tool for teaching reading and spelling to children. There
are many different types of word walls including high frequency words, word families,
names, and alphabet to name a few.
What is its purpose?
Word walls have many benefits. They teach children to recognize and spell high
frequency words; see patterns and relationship in words build phonemic awareness
skills and apply phonics rules. Word walls also provide referenc e support for children
during reading and writing activities. Children learn to be independent as they use the
word walls in daily activities.
Word walls can also be used:
 To support the teaching of important general principals about words and
how they work.
 To foster reading and writing.
 To promote independence on the part of young students as they work with
words in writing and reading.
 To provide a visual map to help children remember connections between
words and the characteristics that will help them form categories.
 To develop a growing core of words that become part of a reading and
writing vocabulary.
 To provide reference for children during their reading and writing.
How do I do it?
1. Make words accessible by putting them where every student can see them.
They are written in large black letters using a variety of background colors to
distinguish easily confused words.
2. Teachers should be selective about the words that go on the word wall. Try
to include words that children use most commonly in their writing. Words
are added gradually - a guideline is five words per week.
3. Use the word wall daily to practice words incorporating a variety of activities
such as chanting, snapping, cheering, clapping, tracing, word guessing games
as well as writing them.
4. Provide enough practice to read and spelled words automatically and make
sure that word walls are spelled correctly in the children's daily writing.
425. world-class standards Also refers to the movement in the United States to bring students' academic
achievement and knowledge on par with students' accomplishments in the other
industrialized countries where content and performance levels are defined.
In 1993, New Standards (a joint project of the National Center on Education and the
Economy and the Learning Research and Development Center) began to collect and
analyze tests and documents from other countries whose students performed well on
international tests and whose citizens perform well economically and tend to hold
skilled jobs. The project based on the view that educational systems are successful
when they set clear, consistent, demanding public standards that make sense in the
culture of the school and the country.
426. Writing to Inform*  Introduce expository structures to students by reading various resources in
all subject areas. When reading informative text, focus students' attention on
the structure and organization of ideas.
 A shared experience, students' interests, or a unit or topic of study in any
subject area should provide the topic for collaborative writing and reporting
activities.
 With students, determine an appropriate topic.
 Brainstorm, categorize and web what is known about the topic.
 Have students consider the audience to determine the appropriate content
and format of the report.
 Sequence main ideas and supporting details, incorporating sub-headings if
appropriate.
 Collaboratively prepare a draft by developing charted ideas into sentences
and paragraphs.
 Read the draft and discuss the clarity of the information conveyed.
 Revise the draft incorporating students' suggestions.
 Have students consider the audience and purpose of the writing as they
prepare the final draft or copy.
 Have students prepare any accompanying visuals.
 Share, display or present the final version to appropriate audiences.

427. year-round education A modified school calendar that gives students short breaks throughout the year,
instead of a traditional three-month summer break. Year-round calendars vary,
sometimes within the same school district. Some schools use the staggered schedule
to relieve overcrowding, while others believe the three-month break allows students
to forget much of the material covered in the previous year.
428. year-round schooling Replacing the conventional school year of 9–10 months and a long summer break with
a continuous school year with breaks at other times. Advocates say the traditional
school calendar reflects a society that needed children home in the summer to work
on farms. In today's society, children are left home alone in the summer with little to
do.
School systems have devised several different year-round models. In the single-track
approach, several shorter breaks that are scattered throughout the calendar year
replace the lengthy summer. In one such plan, known as 45-15, the school year
consists of four 45-day sessions separated by breaks of approximately 15 days each.
The advantage is that students retain more information than they would over a long
break and need less review, so can continue learning more readily. The breaks give
both students and teachers more opportunities to relax. Some schools offer mini-
courses and enrichment classes during breaks.
In a multi-track approach, most often used in rapidly growing communities, school is
always in session, but only a portion of the students attend at any one time so that
there is enough room to accommodate everyone. A school built to accommodate 750
students can be used to educate 1,000 students if, at any given time, 250 of them are
on vacation. The multi-track method saves money that would otherwise have to be
spent for school construction, although costs are incurred for the additional salaries,
maintenance, and air conditioning (as needed). Families often resist both single-track
and multi-track year-round schooling plans because they disrupt schedules and
interfere with vacation plans, at least initially. Breaks at nontraditional times of the
year, however, may allow families to enjoy less expensive, less crowded vacations.
A different version of year-round schooling, seldom used because it is expensive,
extends the school year from the conventional 180 days to as many as 247 school
days.
429. zero tolerance Provisions in legislation or official policies that require specified punishments for given
offenses, no matter how slight the offense. Zero tolerance rules are adopted to send a
message about unacceptable behavior, and adherents support them for that reason.
However, school administrators who are permitted no flexibility in enforcing such rules
are sometimes ridiculed in the press for their apparent poor judgment.
430. Zone of Proximal Development The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as "the distance between
the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the
level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Lev
Vygotsky views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and
strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less
competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of
 proximal development.
Vygotsky believed that when a student is at the ZPD for a particular task, providing the
appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a "boost" to achieve the task.
The ZPD has become synonymous in the literature with the term scaffolding. However,
it is important to note that Vygotksy never used this term in his writing but introduced
by Wood et al. (1976). Once the student, with the benefit of scaffolding, masters the
task, the scaffolding fades and the student will then be able to complete the task again
on his own.

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