Academic Learning Time has been defined as time spent by a student engaged in a task in which few

errors are produced and where the task is directly relevant to an academic outcome. The concept of
ALT represents a considerable refinement over engaged time. ALT is positively correlated with
achievement, whereas time unsuccessfully engaged in academic tasks is negatively related to student
achievement.

In order to determine which tasks were directly relevant to an academic outcome, ALT researchers
emphasized correspondence between the tasks and the tests that would be used to measure student
achievement. The alignment among the teacher's instruction, student learning activities, the curriculum,
and tests of student outcomes is an important issue. ALT addresses one of these relationships–namely,
the alignment between the student learning activity and the test used to measure student outcomes.
Clearly, increasing academic learning time is a high priority for the teacher. The measurement of ALT
is complex, because one has to combine the assessment of the time-on-task with measures of success
and measures of the appropriateness of the learning tasks.

Academic learning time In one study that documented ALT in a large number of classrooms, it was noted that ALT varied from
(ALT) 4 to 52 minutes per day. The researchers commented on this finding as follows:

"It may appear that this range from 4 to 52 minutes per day is unrealistically large. However, these
times actually occurred in the classes in the study. Furthermore, it is easy to imagine how either 4 or
52 minutes per day of Academic Learning Time might come about. If 50 minutes of reading instruction
per day is allocated to a student who pays attention about a third of the time, and one-fourth of the
student's reading time is at a high level of success, the student will experience only about 4 minutes of
engaged reading at a high success level. Similarly, if 100 minutes per day is allocated to reading for a
student who pays attention 85 percent of the time at a high level of success for almost two-thirds of the
time, [he or she] will experience about 52 minutes of Academic Learning Time per day."

The ALT notion of success in the engaged tasks represents a major refinement of the concept of
engaged time.

Link: Research into Practice: Time Management

A system whereby school personnel are held responsible for the quality of the instruction and the
Accountability
progress of students.

Achievement Level of proficiency on a given set of standards.

Achievement test A standardized test designed to measure knowledge and skills already learned by students.

Active listening Mentally participating to the speaker.

ADD Attention Deficit Disorder is a condition that inhibits the ability of the student to concentrate.

Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder is a condition that not only inhibits the ability to concentrate
ADHD
but also causes the learner to be impulsive, easily distracted and overly active.
Advance organizers structures to help learners organize the new information.

Affective domain The feelings, emotions and attitudes of individuals.

Algorithm A rigid set of standards or rules for performing a task.

Alignment Matching what is taught and tested to learning goals or standards.

Allocated time is the amount of time assigned for instruction in a content area, without reference to the
quality of the activities being conducted during that time. In allocating time to a specific curriculum
area, one must consider how the time is allocated as well as total time set aside for the class. The
amount of time and the way it is distributed during the day, week, and school year are issues related to
allocated time. In an extensive multi-year study of teaching practices, the following findings on the
allocation of time were reported.

Within reading and mathematics, classes differed in the amount of time allocated to different skill
areas. For example, in one second-grade class, the average student received 9 minutes of instruction
over the whole school year in the arithmetic associated with the use of money. This figure can be
contrasted with classes where the average second grader was allocated 315 minutes per school year in
the curriculum content area of money. As another example, in the fifth grade some classes received less
than 1,000 minutes of instruction in reading comprehension for the second year (about 10 minutes per
day). This figure can be contrasted with classes where the average student was allocated almost 5,0000
Allocated time minutes of instruction related to comprehension during the school year (about 50 minutes per day).

 The assumption that the curriculum and associated time allocations are set by school boards
and administrators is only partly true. The final arbiter of what is taught is the classroom
teacher.
 The research has documented wide variations among teachers for both content and time
allocation decisions, even in the presence of clear and mandatory regulations detailing content
and time allocations.
 The empirical data relating content coverage, or content emphasis to achievement, is clear.
The opportunity to learn a content area is perhaps the most potent variable in accounting for
achievement in that area.

Link: Research Into Practice: Time Management

Link: California Reading/Language Arts Framework: Goals and Key Components (PDF) page 4

Alternative (or authentic)

Assessment of student’s knowledge and performance in a real-world context.
assessment

Application Moving learning from knowledge to the ability to use the information.

Aptitude test A standardized test that is designed to predict future performance levels in a given subject.

ASL American Sign Language used by the hearing impaired.

Assertive discipline Classroom management in which rules are given and applied consistently but without hostility.

Assessment A measure of what students know (declarative information) and are able to do (procedures).

Assimilation Fitting new knowledge into existing processes.

Students at risk of dropping out or of failure due to factors such as low socioeconomic status,
At risk
pregnancy, prior failures and so forth. These students are deemed to need intervention in.

This is the time available for all school activities. The available time is limited by the number of days
in a school year (approximately 180 days) and the number of hours in a school day (approximately six
hours, including one hour of break time). Available time will be divided among all the diverse functions
of a school, including the recreational, social, and academic goals that form the mandated and the
hidden curriculum present in every school district.

Available time Schools vary only slightly in the number of school days in a school year, but there is considerably more
variability in the hours assigned per day and in the average daily attendance. Variations of up to two
hours per day among school districts have been noted. The data on average daily attendance has shown
that some schools within the same district provided 50 percent more schooling than other schools
because of variations in average daily attendance.

Link: Research Into Practice: Time Management

Basic skills Foundation skills such as reading and mathematics that form the basis for other skills.

Behavior disorder Socially unacceptable behavior.

Behavior modification Changing an undesirable behavior through a prescribed learning theory.

Behavioral objectives The goals of the learning stated as observable behavior.

Benchmark A baseline of data usually grade and/or subject specific.

Bilingual The ability to use two languages although sometimes with differing skill levels.

Brain-based learning Learning based on how the brain works.

A teaching strategy in which students generate many ideas without concern about quality. The
Brainstorming
emphasis on getting a quantity of ideas on the table.
 Federal program in which money is given to districts that have a high number of disadvantaged
Chapter/Title I
students.

The place in the lesson where the teacher makes sure that students have mastered the learning before
Checking for mastery
moving to the next step in the lesson.

The place in the lesson where the teacher checks to make sure that students understand before moving
Checking for understanding
on in the teaching process.

Chronological age Age in terms of calendar years.

The mood of the classroom including teacher-student interactions, student-student interactions, and the
Classroom climate
belief system in the classroom.

Classroom control The process of managing student behavior in the classroom.

Classroom management The classroom climate as well as the teacher’s ability to manage behavior and the tasks of the class.

Closure The part of the lesson in which the teacher summarizes the learning.

Coaching Teaching that includes modeling, observation of student behaviors and immediate feedback.

Cognition The mental operations of thinking.

Cognitive development Thought and reasoning usually divided into two categories: knowledge or factual and Processes.

Cognitive objectives Objectives that measure knowledge and/or processes demonstrated by the student.

Cohesiveness The collective feelings or emotions of a group.

Compensatory education Federal program in which funding is given to school to help disadvantaged students.

A test to measure the ability of students to meet a given set of objectives usually state or national
Competency test
objectives.

Concept map A graphic representation of relationships between and among a given set of criteria.
 A learner centered approach based on the idea that students construct knowledge for themselves based
Constructivism
on what they already know and by interactions with new information.

Convergent questioning Questioning in which the number of possible answers is very limited, usually to one possible answer.

Cooperative learning A teaching strategy in which students work together in groups toward a common goal.

Core curriculum The required curriculum for all students.

Creative thinking Thinking that leads to new ideas or ways of looking at things.

A standardized test designed to measure a student’s level of mastery of a given set of standards, goals
Criterion-referenced test
or objectives.

Occurs when all elements of society are valued and the language and traditions of the groups are
Cultural pluralism
maintained.

Decision making The ability to make decisions from a set of choices.

Deductive learning Learning that moves from general concepts to specific concepts.

Deductive reasoning Reasoning that moves from general ideas to a specific conclusion.

Deficiency needs Maslow used this term to describe the basic needs of survival, safety, belonging and self-esteem.

Diagnostic test A test designed to identify areas of strength and weakness in a student.

Discipline The control of student behavior in the classroom.

A teaching technique in which the following processes are followed: 1)identify the problem, 2)develop
Discovery learning
a hypotheses, 3)test the hypothesis, 4)arrive at a conclusion.

Distributed practice Practice that is repeated over time, usually at pre-set intervals.

Divergent thinking Thinking that leads to a conclusion or product that is unique to the individual.
Diversity Differences within a group.

Dyslexia A disorder in which the individual has difficulty learning to read, write and spell.

Early childhood Children from age 1 to 5.

Empathy The ability to understand the feelings and actions of others.

Empirical questions Questions that require a judgment be made.

Engaged time is the amount of time the student is actively involved in such learning tasks as writing,
listening, and responding to teacher questions. Engaged time does not include classroom tasks such as
Engaged time
handing in a paper or waiting for a teacher to pass out materials, or inappropriate activities such as
disruptive talking to another student or daydreaming.

Ethnicity The ethnic identity of an individual or group.

The intentional design and delivery of information by the teacher to the students. It begins with (1) the
teacher's modeling or demonstration of the skill or strategy; (2) a structured and substantial opportunity
for students to practice and apply newly taught skills and knowledge under the teacher's direction and
Explicit instruction guidance; and (3) an opportunity for feedback. (see teaching functions).

Link: Research Into Practice: Teaching Functions

Extrinsic motivation Motivation that is triggered by rewards outside the individual.

Factual questions Questions that require the recall of information.

FAPE Free Appropriate Public Education guaranteed by federal law to special education students.

The stage of the lesson in which the teacher gains the attention of the students to provide the lesson
Focus
objectives.

Formative assessment Assessment that takes place throughout the lesson.

Formative evaluation The gathering of data, during the time a program is being developed, to guide the development process.

Gender bias Favorable treatment of one sex over the other.

Graphic organizers structural organizers that visually help students to organize and see relationships in the learning.

A method of grouping in which students of varying abilities, interests, achievement levels and
Grouping, heterogeneous
backgrounds are grouped together.

A method of grouping in which students with the same abilities, interests, achievement levels or
Grouping, homogeneous
backgrounds are grouped together.

and independent practice represent different points on a different continuum, so no absolute dividing
point can be established to discriminate between the two related activities. Guided practice should be
conducted in small steps and should be intensely supervised. It should prevent the development of
consistent error patterns and inappropriate practices. This means that guided practice must be designed
and implemented so that errors are identified and reteaching conducted immediately.

Researchers have stressed the need for students to practice their new knowledge or skill under direct
teacher supervision. They note that New learning is like wet cement; it is easily damanged. An error at
the beginning of learning can be easily set so that it is harder to eradicate than had it been apprehended
immediately.

Guided practice
The research literature has consistently stressed the importance of appropriate amounts of guided
practice for all learners, but nowhere is this guided practice more important than with low achievers. It
has been noted that, The important element seems to be the provision of controlled practice with
positive teacher feedback. The fact that certain members of the class will require more guided practice
than others suggests that each lesson should contain a certain amount of time in which the higher-
achieving students are working on independent practice, while the teacher is working closely with low-
achieving students on guided practice.

The effectiveness of guided practice can be evaluated by measures of student success in independent
practice. If students are at least 80 percent successful when they begin the subsequent independent
practice, then guided practice has been appropriately conducted. (See scaffolding as a vehicle to
provide guided practice.

Guided student practice serves as a bridge between activities designed to present new material and
independent student practice. The guided student practice is integrated into activities designed to
present new material. In math instruction, for example, guided practice could involve having the
Guided student practice
student practice one or several steps in the algorithm used to solve a single calculation or problem. In
the more advanced stages of presenting new material, guided practice could involve the presentation of
several math problems and the associated feedback procedures.

Head start A federally funded program for preschoolers who are economically deprived.

Hypothesize Making an educated guess.

IDEA Individuals with Disabilities Education Act that provides special education and services for children
 with disabilities.

Illiterate Unable to read or write.

Impulsivity The tendency to respond without thinking or to give up easily.

The phase of instruction that occurs after skills and strategies have been explicitly taught and practiced
under teacher direction or supervision. Independent practice involves the application of newly taught
skills in familiar formats or tasks and reinforces skill acquisition.
Independent practice

Link: Research into Practice: Teaching Functions

An instructional strategy in which students are allowed to pursue a topic on their own usually with a
Independent study
product as the end result.

Indirect teaching A teaching strategy in which the student learns through discovery.

Inductive reasoning Making a general conclusion based on several examples.

Inquiry Asking questions to obtain information.

Instructional strategy The teaching method or plan.

Interdiscipinary instruction Instruction based on themes that crosses disciplines and grade levels.

Internalization The learning, idea or process becomes a part of the learner so that it is second nature.

Intrinsic motivation Motivation triggered from within usually from a perceived need or goal.

Inventory questions Questions that require the student to provide his or her feelings and thoughts.

Knowledge questions Questions that require the student to recall factual information.

Labeling Assigning a category to an individual.

Learned helplessness The belief that the individual has no control over his or her circumstances. This belief has been created
 over time.

A location within a classroom in which students are presented with instructional materials, specific
directions, clearly defined objectives, and opportunities for self-evaluation.
Learning center or station

Link: Research into Practice: Teaching Functions

Learning style How a student approaches learning tasks and takes in information to the brain.

Long-term memory Storage systems in the brain that hold information over time.

Massed practice Repeating the practice over and over in a short span of time.

The estimate of mental development derived by a formula using the IQ of the individual and the
Mental age
chronological age.

Metacognition The process of thinking about our thinking and how we learned information.

Direct instruction on specific topics or skills. This direct and explicit instruction can also be conducted
to benefit students who need more information or further clarification of skills or topics already taught.
Minilesson The lessons, or series of lessons, are connected to the broader goal of getting students to become
independent readers and writers. They are presented briefly and succinctly on the assumption that such
information will be added to the set of ideas, strategies, and skills to be drawn upon as needed.

Mnemonic A teaching method that helps aid a student’s ability to store and retrieve factual information.

Modality The way that an individual takes in information through the senses (see, hear, smell, touch, taste).

Communicating a message without words through body language such as eye contact or facial
Nonverbal cues
expressions.

Norm-referenced test A test designed to compare a student’s score with the average score of a specified (norm) group.

Norms Rules that apply to everyone.

Objective A description of the desired result of the learning.

On-task behavior Behavior that is appropriate to the learning situation.

 Pacing has two related dimensions. One dimension, curriculum pacing, is concerned with the rate at
which progress is made through the curriculum. The second dimension, lesson pacing, is concerned
with the pace at which a teacher conducts individual lessons. One team of researchers summed up the
importance of pacing as follows:

". . . researchers have shown that most students, including low-achieving students, learn more when
their lessons are conducted at a brisk pace, because a reasonably fast pace serves to stimulate student
attentiveness and participation, and because more content gets covered by students. This assumes, of
course, that the lesson is at a level of difficulty that permits a high rate of student success; material that
is too difficult or presented poorly cannot be learned at any instructional pace."

Pacing
Thus, pacing, like many other characteristics of effective instruction, shows considerable variability
among teachers and has a pronounced effect on student achievement.

In comparing effective and less effective teachers, researchers noted that less effective teachers covered
37 percent less when measured on a daily rate. Less effective teachers tended to try and catch up late in
the course and then provided too much material without any distributed practice to consolidate and
review the content. Clearly, the amount of content covered daily relates to other skills and should be
viewed as both a symptom and a cause.

Link: Research Into Practice: Time Management (PDF) page 6

Pedagogy The science of teaching.

The score at or which the scores fall. For example, 50th percentile means that 50% of the scores fall at
Percentile
or below 50.

Performance based
See authentic assessment.
assessment

Phonics approach An instructional practice in which words are sounded out.

One of the characteristics of a master teacher is the appropriate treatment of prerequisite skills. The
master teacher knows what new material is likely to be difficult for students and which prerequisite
skills are important for the successful introduction of new material. Rather than place students in
remedial situations, the master teacher will try to prevent errors and misconcepts by making sure that
Prerequisite skills the new material is introduced in small steps and that students demonstrate mastery of the critical
prerequisite skills before starting the sequence of small steps.

Link: Research Into Practice: Teaching Functions

Probing questions Questions that require the student to think about their answers and to answer in a more complex or
 complete manner than their initial response.

Reciprocal teaching An instructional approach in which students learn to ask teacher-type probing questions.

A teacher who consistently thinks about his or her performance in the classroom and makes changes as
Reflective practitioner
needed.

The temporary support, guidance, or assistance provided to a student on a new or complex task. For
example, students work in partnership with a more advanced peer or adult who scaffolds the task by
engaging in appropriate instructional interactions designed to model, assist, or provide necessary
Scaffolding information. The interactions should eventually lead to independence. (See guided instruction.)

Link: Resarch Into Practice: Teaching Functions (PDF) page 6.

Schema Our mental pictures that guide our behavior.

Self-concept How a person sees himself or herself. (Based on feelings).

The belief in oneself that he or she can do something. Self-efficacy is based on prior experience.
Self-efficacy
(Based on facts).

An enactment that represents real life to the extent possible. Simulation is limited in its ability to
Simulation
include the risks and complex factors of real-life situations.

Socioeconomic status (SES) The ability of an individual or group to obtain resources needed for success.

A phase of instruction that occurs after the teacher explicitly models, demonstrates, or introduces a skill
or strategy. In this phase students practice newly learned skills or strategies under teacher supervision
and receive feedback on performance. This critical interactive phase involves teachers and students.
Structured/guided practice

Link: Research into Practice: Teaching Functions

The assessment that comes at the end of a body of learning and is usually used to determine success or
Summative assessment
failure.

Summative evaluation An overall assessment or decision regarding a program.

Systematic instruction The strategic design and delivery of instruction that examines the nature of the objective to be learned
and selects and sequences the essential skills, examples, and strategies necessary to achieve the
objective by (1) allocating sufficient time to essential skills; (2) scheduling information to minimize
 confusion on the part of the learner; (3) introducing information in manageable and sequential units; (4)
identifying prerequisite skills and building on prior knowledge of the learner; (5) reviewing previously
taught skills; (6) strategically integrating old knowledge with new knowledge; and (7) progressing from
skills in easier, manageable contexts to more complex contexts. (See teaching functions.)

The term teaching functions refers to classroom experiences that serve to move students from a lack of
mastery to mastery in an academic content area. A synthesis of the research provides the following
summary statement on teaching functions:

In general, researchers have found that when effective teachers teach well structured subjects, they

1. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous prerequisite learning.

2. Begin a lesson with a short statement of goals.
3. Present new material in small steps, with student practice after each step.
4. Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
5. Provide a high level of active practice for all students.
Teaching functions 6. Ask a large number of questions, check for student understanding, and obtain responses from
all students.
7. Guide students during initial practice.
8. Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
9. Provide explicit instruction and practice for seatwork exercises and, where necessary, monitor
students during seatwork.

The major components in systematic teaching include teaching in small steps (with student practice
after each step), guiding students during initial practice, and providing all students with a high level of
successful practice. Of course, all teachers use some of these behaviors some of the time, but the most
effective teachers use most of them almost all the time.

Link: Research into Practice: Teaching Functions

Transfer The ability to apply knowledge and processes in a new situation.

Transition time For transitions to occur quickly and smoothly,

 The teacher must have materials ready and demonstrate confidence in closing one activity and
initiating the next.
 The teacher must exercise increased vigilance during the transition period.
 The student must enter the next activity with interest and the expectation of success.

The skillful management of transitions does far more than save time. Misbehavior is most likely to
occur when there is a lag in the continuity of a lesson. Teachers deal with more deviant behaviors
during transitions than during any other time. The management of transitions is one of the most critical
management tasks faced by teachers.
 Link: Research into Practice: Time Management

The amount of time a teacher waits for a student to respond to a question before moving on to another
Wait time
student.