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INDIAN ART –
1. Performing Arts
2. Visual Arts
PERFORMING ARTS-
A) Dances of India
 Classical Dances
 Folk Dances
B) Music of India
 Hindustani Classical Music
 Carnatic Classical Music
C) Theatre forms in India
D) Indian Puppetry
E) UNESCO’S List of Intangible Cultural Heritage

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Visual Arts
A) Indian Architecture
B) Indian Sculpture
C) Indian Painting
D) UNESCO’S List of Tangible Heritage Sites in India

INDIAN Culture –
A) Religion in India
B) Indian literature
C) Philosophical school
D) Indian Cinema
E) Science and Technology through ages
F) Calendars in India
G) Some important Cultural Institutions

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 Dances of India

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• Dance is a form of art, where the body is used as a medium of
communication.
• The wall paintings of Ajanta and Ellora, the sculptures of Khajuraho
stand ample evidence for popularity of Indian dances from ancient
times.
• Nataraja, the dancing Lord Shiva, is the supreme manifestation of
Indian dance
• The common root of all Indian classical dance forms can be traced
to Bharata‟s Natyasastra.
• According to the Natyashastra, Brahma, the creator of the Universe,
created drama.
• He took the following components to create the fifth Veda called
Natyaveda:

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Pathya (words) form the Rigveda
Abhinaya (gesture) from the Yajurveda
Geet (music and chant) from Samaveda
Rasa (sentiment and emotional element) from
Atharvaveda

• The first and the oldest of evidences to date are the

discovery of the bronze figurine of a dancer from
the Indus Valley Civilization excavations at
Mohenjodaro.

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Two aspects of Dance
• As per Natyashashtra there re two basic aspects of classical dance:
 Lasya- It denotes grace, bhava, rasa etc It is symbolic of feminine
features
 Tandava- This is symbolic of male aspect like is heroic bold and
vigorous
• As per the ancient work, dance classification done on
basis of three elements:
 Natya : Which highlights the dramatic element and refers to the story
that is elaborated through dance.
 Nritya : refers to sentiments and emotions related through dance. It
includes different expressions and Mudras in the dance.
 Nritta : is pure and basic steps of Dance where body movements do not
express any mood and expression nor do they convey any meaning.

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Five classical dances
related to Panchtatva:
• The five classical dances of India are
considered to be the mystic
manifestation of the metaphysical
elements of nature ie. Panchatatva in
the human body are:
 Odissi - element of water
 Kuchipudi - element of earth
 Mohiniattam - element of air
 Bharatnatya - element of fire and
 Kathakali - element of sky.

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 8 Classical Dance Form
• There are eight classical dances recognized by the Sangeet Natak
Akademi and the Ministry of Culture
1. Bharatnatyam - Tamil Nadu
2. Kuchipudi- Andhra Pradesh
3. Kathak - Uttar Pradesh
4. Kathakali – Kerala
5. Manipuri – Manipur
6. Mohiniattam – Kerala
7. Odissi – Orissa
8. Sattriya - Assam

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 Bharatnatyam
• It originates in Tamil Nadu, South India.
• It is oldest of all classical dance.
• It consists of-
 Nritta– pure dance movements
 Abhinaya– dramatic art of storytelling
 Nritya– combination of nritta & abhinaya
• Performed on Carnatic music.
• Costume are made of silk saris with gold embroidery and
has a lot of pleats.
• It is also characterised as EKHARYA LASYAM style in
which one dancer plays many roles.
• Noted Exponents: Rukmini Devi Arundale, Mallika Sarabhai, Yamini
Krishnamurthy

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Important Elements of Bharatnatyam

1. Alarippu- Introduction part, meant to seek blessing of

god.
2. Jatiswaram- Pure form of dance including different
poses and movements
3. Shabdam- It is dramatic element which include
ABHINAYA in the song to praise god
4. Javali- short love lyrics performed at faster tempo
5. Thillana- Concluding stage of performance with pure
dance.

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 Kuchipudi
• It originated in a village named Kuchipudi in the Indian state of
Andhra pradesh.
• It begins with an invocation to Lord Ganesha followed by
nritta (non-narrative and abstract dancing); shabdam (narrative
dancing) and natya.
• The dance is accompanied by song which is Carnatic music.
• The singer is accompanied by mridangam, violin, flute and
the tambura.
• It is the use of speech that distinguishes Kuchipudi‟s
presentation as dance drama.
• It combines Lasya & Tandava elements, folk & classical shades.
• Noted Kuchipudi exponents are: Raja Reddy and Radha reddy,
Sonal Mansingh, Yamini Krishnamurthy

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• Tirtha Narayana Yati and his disciple Siddhendra Yogi organized
and founded the modern version of Kuchipudi.
• Kuchipudi gradually developed as a solo dance form and today we
can see both male and female performing it.
• Kuchipudi themes related to Vaishnavism, Lord Krishna, stories of
Bhagvat Purana with secular theme.
• Predominance of Shringar ras.
• Some popular solo elements in Kuchipudi are:
 Tarangam- in which the dancer performs on the top of the brass
plates.
 Manduk Shabdam- Tells the story of Frog
 Jala chitra nrityam- Dancer draws pictures on the floor with toes
while Dancing

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 Difference between Bharatnatyam and Kuchipudi

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 Kathak
• Kathak dance is a combination of music, dance
and narrative.
• Name is derived from Katha (story) and Katthaka
(who tells stories).
• It originates from North India.
• There are three main gharanas or schools:
 Lucknow
 Jaipur
 Benares
• Dance progresses from slow to fast pieces and has
Footwork & spins and includes abhinaya-
expression.
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 Continue..
• Performed on Hindusthani music provided by Tabla, Sitar,
Santoor.
• Costume includes;
 Ghungroos or bells on the ankles
 Female- lehenga choli or chudidaar kameez
 Male- Dhoti or kurta churidar
 Noted Kathak exponents are: Shambhu Maharaj, Sitara
Devi, Pandit Birju Maharaj

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 Kathakali
• It originates from Kerala state.
• „Katha‟= Story or tale, „Kali‟= Performance and Art.
• It represents conflict between good and evil
• It is basically a Dance-Drama.
• Kathakali was traditionally a male-dominated dance and now
females are too welcomed in this dance form.
• Performance is a combination of five elements:
 Natyam (expression)
 Nritham (dance- Focus on rhythm)
 Nrithyam (enactment- Focus on Mudra)
 Geetham (vocal)
 Vadyam (instruments)
 Noted Kathakali exponents are: Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair,
Kalamandalam Gopi, Madavoor Vasudevan Nair
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• Elaborate makeup is used: The colors are made in rice paste with
vegetable colors and applied on the face.
 Green face color- noble characters (Pacha)
 Green with red streaks- characters with evil streaks
 Red face color- excessively evil characters
 Women have yellow face color
 Kari (black) for hunters and monsters.
• Theme- Mythological themes include Ramayan, Mahabharat,
Bhagvat Purana, etc.

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 Manipuri
• It originates from Manipur state.
• It was traditionally performed as a dance – drama
on devotional songs.
• The Manipuri dance form is categorized as Tandav
or Lasya but more emphasis on Lasya.
 Tandav Manipuri depicts themes of Shiv, Shakti or
Krishna as warrior.
 Lasya theme includes Love inspired stories of
Radha-Krishna like Rasleela is reoccurring theme
of Manipuri dance

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• Uniqueness of this dance form is that,
while Ghunghroos (Bells) glorify the
classical dances of India, they are not worn
in Manipuri.
• Mostly influenced by Hindu Vaishnavism
themes.
• It also includes themes related to Shaivism
and Shaktism and regional deities.
• Music is provided by a singer, Pung„ (drum),
cymbals and flute.
• The composition used in Manipuri are from
the poetry of Jayadev, Vidyapti, Chandidas,
Govindadas and Gyandas.

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 Mohiniattam
• Its name is derived from: Mohini- beautiful women and Attam-
dance.
• It is a dance that originated in Kerala.
• Lasya aspect is dominant in Mohiniattam.
• It„s a graceful dance performed only by women.
• It has influences from Bharatanatyam and Kathakali.
• Usually the Theme of the Dance is Shringar or Love
• Music includes Vocal (called chollu), Veena, flute, Maddalam &
Idakka.
• Costume includes white or cream sari with gold border and is
profusely pleated.
• Mainly gold ornaments are used as jewelry.
• Noted exponents of Mohiniyattam are: T. Chinnammu Amma,
Kalamandalam Sugandhi

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 Oddisi
• It originates from Orissa.
• Consists of three schools:
 Mahari,(Devadasis or Temple Girls).
 Nartaki (took place in the royal courts)
 Gotipua( Performed by Boys dressed
as women)
Main feautres of performance are:
 Tribhangi- independent movement of head, chest and pelvis
 Chauka- basic square stance.
• Odissi music is used.
• It has a combination of Lasya and Tandav.
• Noted Odissi exponents are: Kelucharan Mohapatra, Sonal
Mansingh
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 Sattariya
• It originated in Assam state.
• Sattriya dance of Assam developed in the 15th century
A.D by the great Vaishnava saint and
reformer, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva.
• The Sattras are „Vaishnava maths‟ or monasteries and
due to its religious character and association with the
„Sattras‟, this style of dancing has been aptly named
„Sattriya‟.
• Performances are based on mythological stories and is
performed by both men and women.
• It is recognized as one of the classical dance forms of
India in 2000.
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• Devotional songs called borgeets are used.
• Instruments used are khols (drums), taals (cymbals)
and flute.
• Costume are made of pat (type of silk).
• Noted Sattriya exponents are: Indira PP Bora,
Maniram Datta Moktar

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Efforts from the government of India to revive Indian
Classical Dances:
 The government of India puts continuous efforts in preserving, promoting the
Indian classical dances in India and abroad as well.
 The establishment of Sangeet Natak Akademi, Delhi and its allied centers
and constituent bodies boosted the development of these classical dances.
 The grand Classical dance festivals like Khajuraho, Konark, Dhauli Kalinga,
Kalidas, Mukteshwar, Soorya, Ellora, Nishagandhi etc., displays the
beautiful representation of Indian Classical Dances.
 The classical dances flourished and developed further with the establishment
of Music and Dance Universities like Indira Kala Sangeet
Vishwavidyalaya, Khairagarh, Raja Mansingh Tomar University, Gwalior
etc. and the various Institutions like Akhil Bharatiya Gandharva
Mahavidyalaya Mandal, Prayag Sangeet Samiti.

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 Folk Dances of India

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 Folk Dances
 Indian culture includes a treasure of a variety of folk dances.
 The diversity in culture and tradition is reflected in the variety of Indian
folk dances.
 Indian folk dances are simple dances, and are performed to express joy
and happiness among themselves.
 Folk dances are performed for every possible occasion, to celebrate the
arrival of seasons, birth of a child, a wedding and festivals.
 The dances are extremely simple with minimum of steps or movement.
 Men and women perform some dances exclusively, while in some
performances men and women dance together.
 On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves, while being accompanied
by artists on the instruments.
 Each form of dance has a specific costume.

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Chhau Dance
• Chhau means a mask.
• It has origins in the eastern Indian states
of Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
• It is found in three styles named after the
location where they are performed, ie. the
Purulia Chau of Bengal, the Seraikella
Chau of Jharkhand, and the Mayurbhanj
Chau of Odisha.
• Chhau dance probably originated as a
martial art and performers, apart from
mask, hold swords and shields and
performing vigorous movements and
leaps.

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Chhau Dance
• The musical instruments used are the Dhol,
Nagara and Shehnai.
• It is a mask dance performed mostly by the
male dancers.
• The masks are made up from the clay and
paper.
• It is mythological, as it is mainly based on
various episodes of the epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata.
• In 2010 the Chhau dance was inscribed in
the UNESCO‟s Representative List of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity

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Bhangra, Punjab
• Performed during Baisakhi usually by the men in
Punjab.
• It includes tricks and acrobatic feats.
• The songs include recitation (सस्वर ऩाठ) of
meaningless 'bolis', words, such as hoay, hoay.
• Traditionally this dance is associated with the
harvesting season and performed on a full Moon day.
• The dance performed by the women folk of Punjab is
called the 'Gidha„.
• In the Gidha, at a time a woman or a pair of women
dance while the others clap in rhythm.

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Ghoomer, Rajasthan
 A community dance of women in
Rajasthan.
 It is performed on various auspicious
occasions like fairs & festivals.
 It is called as `Ghoomer`, from the
`ghoomna` of Ghaghra i.e. the flowing of
Ghaghra, a long skirt of the Rajasthani
women.
 While dancing, the dancers move in a
circular direction with clockwise and
anti-clockwise steps.
 It is characteristic dance of Bhils.

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Bihu, Assam
 The Bihu dance is performed in the
Bihu festival, celebrated for the arrival
of spring in the Assamese New Year.
 The dance is performed in an open
space during daytime.

Garba, Gujarat
 It is held at the time of Navratra.
 Garba refers to “Garbha deep”- an
earthern pot with holes, in which a lamp is
lit and Women dance arround it in a
circular movements with rhthmic
clapping.

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 Dandiya, Gujarat
 Also known as the `stick` dance.
 This dance is mostly performed in
Navratri Festival.
 It represents fight between goddess
Durga and Mahisasura

Jumari Dance, Bihar

 It is a folk dance of Mithilanchal of Bihar.
 It is somewhat similar to garba and only married
women perform it.
 It is usually performed in the beginning of karthik
month as per the Hindu calendar.

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Kalbelia, Rajasthan
 It is performed by the Women of the kalbelia
community of Rajasthan.
 In 2010, the Kalbelia dances of Rajasthan were
declared a part of its Intangible Heritage
List by the UNESCO.
 The costumes and dance movements are
similar to that of serpents.
 Been is the popular musical instrument of this
dance.

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Paika Dance, Bihar
 The word "paika” is believed to
derive from the Sanskrit word
'Padatika' which means the infantry.
 Therefore, the name of the dance is
Paika (battle) dance.
 The Paika dance is performed with
employing shield and sword.
 It is a dance of martial character.
 The dancer are armed with wooden
spears and shields.

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MATHURI (KOPPU), ANDHRA PRADESH
 This dance is performed by the inhabitants
of the Umji and Indravelli forest areas of
Andhra Pradesh.
 It is traditionally performed during Krishna
Janmashtami celebrations and the themes
are taken from the Mahabharata.
 Though both men and women perform this
dance, the pace is different.
 Women dance in slow rhythmic movements,
while the men dance at a more vigorous
pace.
 The Nagara is the main instrument used.

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JHIJHIA, BIHAR
 Jhijhia is usually
performed by a group of
young women dancers
and portrays the offering
of prayers to please the
King of Gods-Lord Indra-
for a good monsoon and a
rich harvest.

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KAKSAR, CHHATTISGARH
 Kaksar is performed by the
Abhuj Maria tribes in
Chhattisgarh to seek the
blessings of the village deity
Kaksar for a good harvest.
 By a group of young boys
and girls dressed in their
best, this dance also
provides a platform to young
people for choosing their life
partners.

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 GAUR MADIA, CHHATTISGARH
 Basically performed on the occasion
of marriage and is called Gaur after
Bison.
 It may appear to be a hunt-dance
with only the imitation of the
frisking, jerking movements of the
animals.
 However, a sense of ritual and deep
sanctity underlies the perfect
synchronization of the dance.

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CHHOLIYA, UTTARAKHAND
 Prevalent in the Kumaun region
of Uttarakhand, the Chholiya
dance has elements of martial
craft and is associated with the
Kirji Kumbh celebrations; Kirji
Kumbh is a poisonous flower
which blossoms every 12 years.
 Villagers march in a procession
to destroy the flower before it
sheds its poison into the
mountain streams.

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SAMAI, GOA
 The metal lamps are
traditional handicrafts of Goa
and the Samai dance is
performed with these
traditional metallic lamps or
deepaks.
 The men and women balance
the samai on their heads and
perform various movements.
 During religious gatherings
the dance is performed to the
accompaniment of slow
singing.
JABRO, JAMMU & KASHMIR
 Jabro is a community dance of the
nomadic people of Tibetan origin
living in Ladakh.
 Jabro is performed by both men
and women during Losar- the
Tibetan new year celebrations-
and also on other festive
occasions.
 Because of the extreme cold, the
dancers wear heavy gowns made
of sheep skin, lamb skin caps and
long leather shoes.

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SIDDHI DHAMAL, GUJARAT
 The Siddhies migrated to India from Africa
about 750 years ago.
 They settled in the coastal parts of Gujarat
like Bharuch, Bhavnagar, Junagarh and Surat.
 They follow Muslim religion and dance to the
beat of drum on the eve of the Urs of their
Prophet Baba Gaur.
 The dancers gradually pick up tempo and get
into trance breaking tossed coconut on their
heads.
 Just like their ancestors from Africa, Siddhies
are master of rhythm dancing to the tune of
huge drums.

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LEZIM, MAHARASHTRA
 The traditional Lezim dance is performed by
the artists on religious and social events.
Specially it is having base in a Akhada
(Martial Art) tradition of Maharashtra.
 It is performed in every corner of
Maharashtra.
 This Lezim Dance includes Ghuti Lezim,
Ghoongroo Lezim, Dakhani Lezim and Palita
Lezim.
 This dance is occasionally performed in Lezim
Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat also.
 The instruments used in this dance are
dhol, tasha and jhanj etc.

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DHOLU KUNITHA, KARNATAKA
 Dholu Kunitha is a drum dance performed
by the men folk of the shepherd community
known as Kurubas.
 This dance is noted for its powerful
drumming and vigorous dancing which is
replete with acrobatic elements.
 The dancers during the course of
performance make attractive formations of
all sorts.
 The high pitch of tala, tappadi, trumpets,
gong and flute reinforce the rich vibrations
of dholu.
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Cheraw or Bamboo (Mizoram)
 Also known as the Bamboo Dance, as
bamboo forms an integral part of this folk
form
 Two long bamboo staves are kept crosswise
and horizontally, parallel to ground
 Male dancers clap the staves, resultantly
producing a sharp sound setting the rhythm
for the dance.
 The female dancers, attired in colourful
traditional costumes step in and out
between bamboos with precise skills
 In addition to the musical pattern created
by the clapping of bamboo staves, drums
and gongs are also used for effect.

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Dhol or Pung Cholom (Manipur)
 Performed usually on religious
occasions to the accompaniment of
songs and dhol (large drum).
 Usually performed during the
Yaoshand festival (or the festival of
colours).
Expresses love and creativity, with
an intricate interplay of dhols and
fireplay.
 Dhol Cholom belongs to the Manipur
Sankirtana traditions.

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Mayilattam (Tamilnadu)
 It is an artistic and religious form
of dance performed in
the Hindu temples of Tamil
Nadu and Kerala in reverence
to Lord Subrahmanya.
 Dancers wear peacock dress.
 The performer dances not on his
bare foot but on a tall piece of
wood attached at the end of his
feet.

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 StepUp IAS
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PSS
AC3

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 Music of India

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 Origin of Indian Music
 Indian Music Origin comes from Samveda.
 Gandharva Veda which means Science of Music is
Upveda of Samveda
 Narada was the first sage to whom the laws of
music were revealed.
 Veena is the oldest music instrument, which was
invented by Narada.
 Tumburu was the first singer.
 Saraswati is the goddess of music and learning; and
Bharata was the first to draw up rules for theatre,
of which music was a major and integral part.

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Later Development of Indian Music
 The Gupta period is known for the excellence in all
fields of Indian art and culture.
 Music in Gupta period comes from the works of
Kalidasa and Vatsyayana .
 Vatsyayana has listed 64 Kalas or arts in his
Kamasutra, wherein he includes the singing, dance
and playing of musical instruments.
 Fa-hien, who visited during Gupta period, has noted
that music was remarkably prevalent in Indian
society.
 After Guptas, in times of Harsha music glorified, who
himself was a singer and His plays 'Nagananda',
'Ratnavali' and 'Priyadarshika' discuss the making of
music.
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Brihaddeshi
 Brihaddeshi is composed by Matanga Muni.
 Brihaddeshi is the first text that speaks about raga and distinguishes
the music genres into Classical Music and Folk Music.
 Brihaddeshi was based upon the Natyashashtra.

Influence of Islam
 The Sufi mystics are known for their great love for music and
acceptance of many indigenous.
 Amir Khusrau,( Parrot of India) is the "father of qawwali"
enriched Indian Classical Music by introducing Persian and
Arabic elements in it and he was originator of Kayla and
Tarana style of classical music.
 On the other hand, Man Singh Tomar consolidated Dhrupad
style of vocal classical music.

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Pillars of Indian Music
1) Swara- Refers to Sound of a Note & The
seven basic notes are shadja, rishabh,gandhar, madhyam,
pancham, dhaivat and nishad, shortened to Sa, Ri, Ca, Ma,
Pa, Dha, and Ni and series of the seven notes is also
known as Saptak.
Shruti- Refers to Musical pitch
2) Tala (beats)- Rhythmic cycles ranging from
3 to 108 beats.
3) Raga- A set of Rules building a melody. Or
When 7 notes combine to form different
combinations.

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Combination of Swara to form Raga

• ODAV RAGA- 5 Swara

• SHADAV RAGA- 6 Swara
• SAMPURNA RAGA- 7 swara
 Minimum 5 swara (notes) is required to form Raga
 Raga are named after the emotions they evoke.
 Ragas are sung and hence they need to be
melodious.
A typical rendition (प्रस्तुतीकरण) of Hindustani raga involves
two stages:
 ALAP- there is chance of improvisation on the rules of
raga
 BANDISH- Fixed melodic composition set in specific Raga

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 Six Main Raga
Raga Time Season Mood
Deepak Night Summer Compassion
Hindol Dawn Spring Young couple
Love
Megh Midday/ Rainy Courage
Afternoon
Shri Evening Winter Gladness
Malkaun Midnight Winter Youthful Love
Bhairav Morning Autumn Peace

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Indian classical Music

Hindustani Music Carnatic Music

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Hindustani Music
 Historical roots found in Bharata‟s Natyashashtra
 Influenced by some features of the music of the Persian
and Arabic musicians.
 Hindustani branch of music focuses more on the musical
structure and possibilities of improvisation
 Hindustani music prevalent in North India.
 Traced back to Delhi Sultanate → Amir Khusrau (AD
1253-1325)
• invented sitar and tabla
• invented new Ragas like ghora & Sanam
• Evolved Qawwali mixing Indian & Iranian music
 Prominent Sub Styles of Hindustani music→ Dhrupad,
Dhamar-Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar,
Tarana, Sargam, Thumri & Ghazal.
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 Important Musical Instruments of Hindustani Music

Sitar Harmonium
Tabla

sarangi
Santoor
sehnai
Phakhwaj
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Major Sub styles of Hindustani Music
1) Dhrupad-
• Oldest and perhaps the grandest form of Hindustani vocal music
• Traditionally performed by male singers.
• Popularized by Man Singh Tomar, Akbar through his musical masters like Haridas,
Tansen, Baiju Bawra etc
• It is performed with a tambura and a pakhawaj as instrumental accompaniments.
2) Khayal-
• Literally means „thought‟or „an imagination‟ – adopted from medieval Persian
music.
• Origin of this Style is attributed to Amir khusrau
• Most prominent genre of Hindustani vocal music depicting a romantic style of
singing
• There are six main gharanas in khayal - Delhi, Patiala, Agra, Gwalior, Kirana and
Atrauli-Jaipur
• Gwalior Gharana is the oldest and is considered the mother of all other gharanas.

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3) Thumri-
• It is based on Mixed ragas.
• Originated in Eastern Uttar Pradesh, mainly in Lucknow & Benares, around
18th century
• Light, religious or romantic style of singing and also called “the lyric of Indian
classical music”
• Compositions are mostly on love, separation and devotion.
• Usually sung by Women.
• It is of two type- Purvi Thumri which is sung slow and Punjabi Thumri which is
sung fast.
4) Dhamar-Hori
• Compositions are similar to Dhrupad but theme is associated with Holi &
Janmashthami.
• The compositions describe the spring season.
• These compositions are mainly based on the love of Radha-Krishna.

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5) Tappa-
• Tappa literally means „jump‟ in Persian.
• It consist of Quick turn of phase.
• It is written in Punjabi but no singing in Punjabi.
6) Tarana
• Consist of few lines of poetry with mainly rhythmic melody
• Usually sung in faster tempo.
• Rhythm is more important and meaningful and text is not that much meaningful.
7) Ghazal
• Described as the “pride of Urdu poetry” – originated in Iran in the 10th Century.
• Never exceeds 12 shers (couplets) & on an average, usually have about 7 shers.
• Consists of Independent couplets on love and devotion.
• Even though ghazal began with Amir Khusro in northern India, Deccan in the south was
its home in the early stages.
• Evolved in the courts of Golconda & Bijapur under the patronage of Muslim rulers
• The 18th and 19th centuries are regarded as the golden period of the ghazal with
Delhi and Lucknow being its main centres.

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 GHARANAS and FOUNDER

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Carnatic Music
• Music of South India came to be known as Carnatic Music
• Purandar Dasa: Credited with having founded today‟s Carnatic music →
elevated Carnatic music from religious and devotional form to realm of
performing art.
• Musical Trinity – Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar & Syama Sastri (Tiruvarur
1750 – 1850 AD) ushered(शुरुआत) in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic
music.
• The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music; and even when played
on instruments, they are meant to be performed in gāyaki (singing) style.
• Carnatic music is based on KRITI (It is a highly evolved musical song set to a
certain rāga and fixed tala or rhythmic cycle.), A form of composition developed
between the 14th and 20th centuries by composers such as Purandara Dasa and
the Trinity of Carnatic music.
• Carnatic music is usually played with MRINDANGAM.

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 Important Musical Instruments of Carnatic Music

Violin

Flute
Veena

Mridangam

Morsing

Tambura Ghatam

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
Similarities and difference between the Hindustani and
Carnatic music

Similarities
 The basic elements of swara, raga and tala as foundation of
both Carnatic and Hindustani are same.
 Both are having great association with religion as Hindustani
music originated in the Vedic period, while Carnatic music
originated during the Bhakti movement.
 Both the music evolved with Sanskrit language scripts in itself
and through Vedic traditions.
 The central notions in both these system is that of a melodic
mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala.
Differences
 Origin of Hindustani music is earlier than Carnatic music.
 Hindustani music is influenced by Arab and Persian style whereas Carnatic is
Comparatively pure and indigenous.
 In Hindustani Music main focus is on instruments(Many instruments are
designed to accompany the singer) and music vocal- centric group whereas in
Carnatic music main focus is on vocal singing and gayaki style.
 The major vocal forms of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, khayal, Tarana,
Thumri, Dadra and Gazals.
 While Carnatic music embraces several varieties of improvisation consist of
Alpana, Niraval, kalpnaswaram and Ragam Thana pallavi.
 There is Gharana system in HM but No Gharana system in Carnatic
music.
 6 principle Raga in HM with proper TIME and SEASON of singing Whereas in
CM there is 72 Ragas with NO proper TIME and SEASON of
singing
 Folk Music
 While the classical music follow the rules
as laid in the Natyashashtrs; the folk
tradition is the music of the people and
has no hard and fast rules.
 They are based on diverse themes and
are full of musical rhythm.
 They are also set on beats so that they
can be dance oriented.
 There are several type of folk music
associated with a particular state.
Place Folk Music Feature
1) Kashmir Wanawan music On Marriage

2) Chhattisgarh Pandwani Mahabharata theme

3) MP Alha To praise local heroes

4) MP Pai song Sung on festivals during rainy season

5) Rajasthan Maand For glory of Rajput rulers

6) Rajasthan Paani Hari About women fetching water

7) Gujarat Dandiya Specifically On Navratri

8) Maharashtra & Goa Ovi By women during household work

10) Maharashtra Lavani Lavani dance is performed on this music

11) Bihar Sohar During birth of child

Place Folk Music Feature
12) Maharashtra Powada To praise local heroes

13) Maharashtra Bhagavati Theme on Nature , love ,Philosophy

& Karnataka
14) Manipur Khongjom Parva Narrates battle of khongjom
between British and Manipur in 1891
15) Assam Tikir About teachings of Islam

16) Arunachal Ja-jin-ja Sung during Marriages

Pradesh
17) Nagaland Hereileu War songs

18) Bengal Baul sangeet Represents preaching of Mysticism

 StepUp IAS
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AC4

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 Theatre forms in India

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 INTRODUCTION
 Bharata's Natyashastra was the earliest and most elaborate
treatise on dramaturgy written anywhere in the world.
 In ancient India play were generally of two types:
1. Lokadharmi (realistic), which involved the reproduction of
human behaviour on the stage and the realistic depictions of daily
life.
2. NatYadharmi (conventional), which is the presentation of a play
through the use of stylized gestures and symbolism and was
considered more artistic than realistic.
 Theatre in India has encompassed all the other forms of literature
and fine arts into its physical presentation: literature, mime,
music, dance, movement, painting, sculpture and architecture – all
mixed into one and being called 'Natya' or Theatre in English.

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 Continue…..
 Sariputraprakarana by Ashvaghosh, an eminent philosopher, is
considered the first example of classical Sanskrit drama.
 Another important playwright was Bhasa, who composed thirteen
plays in the period between 4*-5* century B.C.
Sudraka was the first to introduce the essence of conflict in his play
Mricchakatika.
 Kalidasa is the most popular among the Sanskrit playwrights and his
three works - Malvikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi and Shakuntalam -
are some of the finest example of classical Sanskrit drama.
 Some of the other examples of plays are Uttaramacharitra
Mahaviracharitra by Bhavabhuti, Mudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta
and Ratnavali by Harshavardhan.
 Koothiyattam (Kudiyattam) is India's oldest continuing form of
theatre that has survived since 10th century A.D. in Kerala.

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 Continue…..
 Theatre in India can be broadly divided into into three distinctive kinds -
1. Classical or the Sanskrit theater
2. Traditional or the folk theater
3. Modern theater
 Classical or the Sanskrit theater
 Traced to the 1st century AD
 An amalgamation of the religious, educational and entertaining
elements
 Traditional or the folk theater
 Mainly narrative or vocal without any complicated gestures or
movements and elements of dance
 Divided into Ritual Theater and Theater of Entertainment
 Modern theater
 Traced with the coming of British in India.
 They introduced their brand of theater in Bombay, Calcutta & Madras

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 Classification of Indian Theatre
Ritual Theatre Theatre of South Indian
Entertainment Theatre
1. Ankia Nat 1. Bhavai 8. Oja-pali 1. Yakshagana
2. Kala 2. Jatra 2. Burra Katha
3. Rasleela 3. Maach 3. Theyyam
4. Ramleela 4. Nautanki 4. Krishna attam
5. Ramman. 5. Powada 5. Mudiyettu
6. Swaang 6. Kudiyattam
7. Tamasha 7. Therukoothu

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 Ritual Theatre
1. Ankia Nat-
 It is the traditional one-act play of Assam.
 It was started by the famous Vaishnva saint Shankaradeva
and his disciple Mahadeva in the 16th century A.D.
 It depicts incidents from the life of Krishna.
 One of the unique features of this form of theatre is the use of
masks to depict special expressions.
2. Kala-
 Kala is an ancient folk theatre of the Vaishanvite tradition
 It is mainly based arround the life and incarnations of Vishnu.
 Some of the popular branches of Kala are: Dashvatara kala,
Gopal Kala and Gaulan Kala.

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3. Rasleela-
 Rasleela is a dance drama enactment of the adolescent love
stories of Krishna and Radha.
 believed that Nand Das wrote the initial plays based on the
life of Krishna.

4. Ramleela-
 Ramlila is a popular folk theatre in the region of Uttar
Pradesh
 It is an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances
and dialogues, mainly during the period before
Dussehra.
 It is generally performed by male actors, who done the
role of Sita as well.

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5. Ramman-
 Combining theatre, music, historical
reconstructions, and traditional oral and
written tales, the Ramman is a multiform
cultural event of Uttarakhand
 Celebrated every year in Baisakh month
(april) in the courtyard of the temple of
Bhumiyal Devta( a local diety) situated in
Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.
 Included in the UNESCO Representative list
of Intangible Cultural Heritage of
Humanity.

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 Theatre of Entertainment
1. Bhavai-
 Bhavai is a traditional theatre form of northern Gujarat and southern
Rajasthan.
 Important centres are Kutch and Kathiawar.
 Traditionally performed during Navratri before the shrine of Amba Mata.
 In Bhavai, there is a rare synthesis of devotional and romantic sentiments.
 The Sutradhara is known as Nayaka in Bhavai Theatre.

2. Jatra-
 Popular folk theatre of Eastern India.
 This dance-drama born and flourished in Bengal.
 Krishna Jatra became popular due to viashnava saint Chaitanya's
influence.

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 Maach Nautanki

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3. Maach-
 It is folk theatre of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh.
 Maach derives its name from the Hindi word manch which means a stage.
 While originally associated with the festival of Holi, it is now performed on many
occasions.
 Unique feature of this form is dialouges, which are delivered in the form of couplets
known as Rangat dohas.
 Mainly based on Mythological themes but later romantic folk tales were also included.
4. Nautanki-
 Most popular in North India and important centres are Kanpur, Lucknow and Haathras.
 Doha, Chaubola, Chhauppai is the main feature of Nautanki which are used in verses.
 Initially only men acted in Nautanki but nowadays, women have also started taking
part in the performances.
 The Storyline of traditional Nautankis range from mythological and folk tales to
stories of contemporary heroes.

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5) Powada-
 When Shivaji killed Afzal khan, a play was written on the
Heroics of Shivaji, which later came to be known as
Powada.
 The story is sung by the folk musicians known as
Gondhalis and Shahirs.
 It is popular mainly in the region of Maharashtra.
6) Swaang-
 It is a popular folk dance form in Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh and Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh
 Mainly music-based evolved in 18th century
 Two important styles are from Rohtak and Haathras and in the
style belonging to Rohtak, the language used is Haryanvi
(Bangru) and in Haathras, it is Brajbhasha
 Initially cast was all male but women have started
participating.

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7) Tamasha-
 It is form of Folk Theatre in the region of Maharashtra
known for its humour and erotic content .
 The Tamasha performances are generally accompanied by
Lavani songs.
 Evolved from the folk forms such as Gondhal, Jagran and
Kirtan.
 Female actress is the chief exponent of dance movements in
the play & is known as Murki . They also play the Male roles
8) Oja-pali-
 Oja-Pali is a unique narrative theatre form of
Assam, primarily associated with the festival of
Manasa or the serpent goddess.
 Oja is the main narrator and Palis are the members
of the chorus.

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 South Indian Theatre
1. Yakshagana-
 Yakshagana is the traditional theatre form of Karnataka.
 It is based on mythological stories and Puranas.
 The most popular episodes are from the Mahabharata i.e.
Draupadi swayamvar, Subhadra vivah, Abhimanyu vadh,
Karna-Arjun yuddh and from Ramayana i.e. Raajyaabhishek,
Lav-kush Yuddh, Baali-Sugreeva yuddha and Panchavati.

2) Burra Katha-
 Burra katha is theatre form of Andhra pradesh and Telangana.
 It is a narrative entertainment that consists of prayers, solo
drama, dance, songs, poems and jokes.
 The topic will be either a Hindu mythological story or a
contemporary social problem.
3) Theyyam-
 Theyyam is a traditional and extremely popular folk theatre form of
Kerala.
 Word 'Theyyam' is derived from 'Daivam' meaning God, Hence it is
called God's dance.
 Distinguishing features is the colourful costume and big headgears
(mudi) nearly 5 to 6 feet high made of arecanut splices, bamboos, leaf
sheaths of arecanut and wooden planks and dyed into different strong
colours using turmeric, wax etc.
 Face is always painted in an orange basecolour.
4) Krishna attam-
 It is folk theatre of Kerela and Came into existence in the middle of 17th
century A.D. under the patronage of King Manavada of Calicut.
 Krishnattam is a cycle of eight plays performed for eight consecutive
days.
 Episodes are based on the theme of Lord Krishna - his birth, childhood
pranks and various deeds depicting victory of good over evil.
5) Mudiyettu-
 Mudiyettu is a traditional ritual theatre and folk dance drama
from Kerala
 Performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala.
 Depicts the triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over the asura
Darika.
 In 2010 Mudiyettu was inscribed in the UNESCO's
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of
Humanity.
6) Kudiyattam-
 Kudiyattam is one of the oldest traditional theatre forms of
Kerala and is based on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
 The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar or actor,
Naambiyaar, the
instrumentalists and Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles.
 Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements makes this dance
and theatre form unique.
7) Therukoothu-
 Therukoothu, literally meaning
street play, is the most popular
form of folk drama of Tamil Nadu.
 Mostly performed at the time of
annual temple festivals of
Mariamman (Rain goddess) to
achieve rich harvest.
 Mostly performed on the theme of
Ramayana and Mahabhart
 Theme also includes a cycle of eight
plays based on the life of
Draupadi.
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 StepUp IAS
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AC5

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 Indian Puppetry

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 Puppetry
• Puppetry has long been of interest in India, both the entertainment and
educational purposes.
• The excavation sites at Harappa and MohenjoDaro have yielded Puppets with
sockets attached to them suggest them as an art form.
• Some references of marionette theatre have been found in the Around 500 BC.
• However, the oldest written reference to puppetry is found in the Tamil classic
shilpapadikaram, written around 1st and 2nd century BC.
• Apart from the art form, puppetry has been of philosophical importance in the
Indian culture.
• In the Bhagwat, God has been described as an puppeteer, controlling the
universe with the three strings Sata, Raja and Tama.
• Similarly, in the Indian theatre, the narrator was called sutradhar, or the holder
of Strings

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 Classification of Indian Puppetry
String Puppet Shadow puppet Rod puppet Glove puppet

Kathputli Tholu Puthul Naach Povakotthu

bommalata
Kundhei Togalu Orrisa Rod
Gombeyataa Puppet
Gombeyatta Rawanchhaya Yampuri

Bomalattam

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 STRING PUPPETS
• Marionettes having jointed limbs controlled by strings
• allow far greater flexibility
1. Kathputli, Rajasthan:
• Carved from a single piece of wood
• large dolls - colourfully dressed.
• Costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval
Rajasthani style of dress, which is prevalent even today.
• Accompanied by a highly dramatised version of the regional music.
• Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips - distinct
facial features.
• Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
• Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are
normally tied to their fingers and not to a prop or a support.

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2. Kundhei, Orissa:
• Made of light wood,
• Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
• Have more joints and are, therefore, more
versatile, articulate and easy to manipulate.
• Use a triangle shape wooden prop, to
which strings are attached for manipulation.
• costumes resemble those worn by actors of
the Jatra traditional theatre.
• music – regional music & Odissi dance‟s
music.

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3. Gombeyatta, Karnataka
• Puppets - styled and designed like the
characters of Yakshagana
• highly stylized and have joints at the legs,
shoulders, elbows, hips and knees.
• manipulated by five to seven strings tied to
a prop.
• complicated movements are manipulated
by two to three puppeteers at a time.
• music - beautifully blends folk and classical
elements.

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4. Bommalattam, Tamil Nadu
• Combine the techniques of both rod and
string puppets.
• Made of wood and the strings for manipulation
are tied to an iron ring which the puppeteer
wears like a crown on his head.
• Few puppets have jointed arms and hands,
which are manipulated by rods.
• This puppets are the largest, heaviest and the
most articulate of all traditional Indian
marionettes.

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 SHADOW PUPPETS
• Shadow puppets are flat figures.
• cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it
translucent.
• pressed against the screen with a strong source of light
behind it.
• manipulation between the light and the screen make
silhouettes or colourful shadows
• found in Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

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1. Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka
• puppets are mostly small in size.
• puppets however differ in size
according to their social status, for
instance, large size for kings and religious
characters and smaller size for common
people or servants.

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2. Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh
• puppets are large in size and have
jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and
knees.
• coloured on both sides, throwing
coloured shadows on the screen.
• music - influenced by the classical
regional music
• theme are drawn from the Ramayana,
Mahabharata and Puranas.

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3. Ravanachhaya, Orissa
• puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
• Not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the
screen.
• Manipulation requires great dexterity, since there
are no joints.
• Puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in
bold dramatic poses.
• Apart from human and animal characters, many
props such as trees, mountains, chariots, etc. are also
used.
• puppets are smaller in size.
• create very sensitive and lyrical shadows.

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 ROD PUPPETS
• An extension of glove-puppets, but often much
larger and supported and manipulated by rods from
below.
• found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.

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1. Puthul Naach, West Bengal
• Carved from wood.
• Costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre
• Puppets have mostly three joints.
• Heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and
both hands attached to rods are joined at the shoulders.
• Bamboo-made hub is tied firmly to the waist of the puppeteer
on which the rod holding the puppet is placed.
• Puppeteers each holding one puppet, stand behind a head-high
curtain and while manipulating the rods also move and dance
imparting corresponding movements to the puppets.
• Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized prose
dialogues & a group of musicians provide the accompanying music
with a drum, harmonium and cymbals.
• Music and verbal text have close similarity with the Jatra
theatre.

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2. Orissa Rod puppets
• Mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to
strings instead of rods.
• Elements of rod and string puppets are
combined in this form of puppetry.
• Most of the dialogues are sung.
• Music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi
tunes.
• Puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from
Bengal or Andhra Pradesh.
• More operatic and prose dialogues are seldom
used.
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3. Yampuri, Bihar
• Made of wood.
• Puppets are in one piece and have no
joints.
• Requires greater dexterity.

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 GLOVE PUPPETS
• Also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets.
• Head is made of either cloth or wood.
• Hands emerges from just below the neck.
• Rest of the figure consists of a long flowing skirt.
• controlled by the human hand - first finger inserted in the head
and middle finger and thumb are the two arms of the puppet.
• In Orissa, the puppeteer plays on the dholak with one hand and
manipulates the puppet with the other.
• Delivery of the dialogues, the movement of the puppet and the
beat of the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic
atmosphere.
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1. Pavakoothu, Kerala
• Head and the arms are carved of wood and joined
together with thick cloth, cut and stitched into a
small bag.
• Face of the puppets are decorated with paints,
small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of
the peacock, etc.
• Manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves
the hands and head of the puppet.
• Theme - based on the episodes from either the
Ramayana or the Mahabharata.

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UNESCO’S List of Intangible Cultural Heritage

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 INTRODUCTION
 UNESCO established its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage with the aim of
ensuring better protection of important intangible cultural heritages worldwide and
the awareness of their significance.
 This list is published by the Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of
Intangible Cultural Heritage and its members are elected by State parties meeting
in UN General Assembly.
 The list was established in 2008 when the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of
the Intangible Cultural Heritage took effect.
 As of 2010 the programme compiles two lists.
1. The longer Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of
Humanity comprises cultural "practices and expressions [that] help demonstrate
the diversity of this heritage and raise awareness about its importance."
2. The shorter List of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Need of Urgent Safeguarding is
composed of those cultural elements that concerned communities and countries
consider require urgent measures to keep them alive.

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 Continue…..
 Intangible cultural heritage means the skills, knowledge,
expressions, representations, practices – as well as the
artefacts, objects, instruments, and cultural spaces associated
with them that various groups, communities and in certain
cases individuals recognise as a part of their cultural heritage.

 India, known for its heritage and cultural diversity has 13

cultural heritages in the UNESCO‟s intangible cultural
heritages list.
 “Kumbh Mela” was the latest addition to the list.
 Kumbh Mela was inscribed on the Representative List of
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity during the 12th
session held at Jeju, South Korea.

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 UNESCO intangible cultural heritages from
India

1. Koodiyattam-
 It is a Sanskrit theatrical tradition practised in
Kerala and one of India‟s oldest living theatrical
traditions
 The characters of this theatre form are: Chakyaar
or actor, Naambiyaar, the instrumentalists and
Naangyaar, those taking on women's roles.
 Emphasis on hand gestures and eye movements
makes this dance and theatre form unique.

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 Continue….
2. Vedic Chanting –
 The tradition of Vedic chanting, chanted during sacred rituals and
recited daily by the Vedic communities.
 The value of this tradition lies not only in the rich content of its oral
literature but also in the ingenious techniques employed by the
Brahmin priests in preserving the texts intact over thousands of
years.
 Although the Vedas continue to play an important role in
contemporary Indian life, only thirteen of the over one thousand
Vedic recitation (सस्वर ऩाठ) branches have survived.
 Moreover, four noted schools – in Maharashtra (central India), Kerala
and Karnataka (southern India) and Orissa (eastern India) – are
considered under imminent threat.

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 Continue….
3. Ramlila–
 Ramlila is a popular folk theatre in the region of
North India.
 It is an enactment of Ramayana using songs, dances
and dialogues, mainly during the period before
Dussehra.
 This staging of the Ramayana is based on the
Ramacharitmanas by Tulsidas in the sixteenth
century in a form of Hindi in order to make the
Sanskrit epic available to all.

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 Continue….
 4. Ramman-
 Ramman is a religious festival and ritual theatre of
the Garhwal region in India.
 Combining theatre, music, historical reconstructions,
and traditional oral and written tales, the Ramman is a
multiform cultural event of Uttarakhand
 Celebrated every year in Baisakh month (april) in the
courtyard of the temple of Bhumiyal Devta( a local diety)
situated in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand.
 Included in the UNESCO Representative list of
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

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 Continue….
5. Mudiyettu –
 It is a traditional ritual theatre and folk dance
drama from Kerala,
 based on a mythological tale of battle between Darika –
the demon and goddess Kali.
 Performed only in the Kali temples of Kerala.
6. Kalbelia –
 A folk song and dance form of Rajasthan.
 Kalbelia songs disseminate mythological knowledge
through stories.
 Men accompany women on the khanjari percussion
instrument and the poongi.

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 Continue….
7. Chhau Dance –
 A tradition from eastern India that enacts episodes
from epics including the Mahabharata and
Ramayana, local folklore and abstract themes.
 It is found in three styles named after the location
where they are performed, ie. the Purulia Chau
of Bengal, the Seraikella Chau of Jharkhand, and the
Mayurbhanj Chau of Odisha.
 It is closely connected to the regional festivals
specifically the Chaitra Parva.
 The dance is performed at night in an open space to
traditional and folk melodies

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 Continue….
8. Buddhist Chanting-
 The sacred texts chanted by the Buddhist lamas (priests)
in the Ladakh region.
 Two forms of Buddhism are practised in Ladakh –
Mahayana and Vajrayana – and there are four major
sects, namely Nyngma, Kagyud, Shakya and Geluk.
 Each sect has several forms of chanting.
 Chanting is undertaken for the spiritual and moral well-
being of the people, for purification and peace of mind, to
appease the wrath of evil spirits or to invoke the blessing
of various Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and deities.

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 Continue….
9. Sankirtana–
 It is Ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur.
 Includes a set of arts performed to mark religious occasions
and various stages in the life of the Vaishnava people of the
Manipur plains.
 In a typical performance, two drummers and about ten singer-
dancers perform in a hall or domestic courtyard encircled by
seated devotees.
 Sankirtana has two main social functions: it brings people
together on festive occasions throughout the year, acting as a
cohesive force within Manipur‟s Vaishnava community; and
it establishes and reinforces relationships between the
individual and the community through life-cycle ceremonies.

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 Continue….
10. Traditional brass and
copper craft of utensil making –
 The traditional brass and copper craft of utensil
making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru in
Punjab has got the distinction of being inscribed on the
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage
of Humanity, UNESCO, 2014.
 The craft of the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru
constitutes the traditional technique of manufacturing
brass and copper utensils in Punjab.
 The metals used – copper, brass and certain alloys –
are believed to be beneficial for health.

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 Continue….
11. Yoga –
 Yoga is the art of unifying the mind
with body and soul for greater
spiritual, mental and physical well-
being.
 It consists of a series of poses,
meditation, controlled breathing,
word chanting and other techniques
designed to help individuals build
self-realization, ease any suffering
they may be experiencing and allow
for a state of liberation.

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 Continue….
12. Nawrouz –
 Nawrouz is the Persian New year celebrated
worldwide.
 It invloves street performances of music and
dance, public rituals involving water and fire,
traditional sports and the making of
handicrafts.
 It usually occurs on March 21 or the previous or
following day, depending on where it is
observed.
 Besides Iran, Balkan countries and Central
Asia also celebrate the arrival of spring with
the Nawrouz festival.

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 Continue….
13. Kumbh Mela–
 The festival of a sacred pitcher where the piligrims bathe or take
dip in the sacred river.
 It is one of the largest human congregations in the world.
 It is held in four pilgrimage places on the sacred rivers in
Haridwar, Ujjain, Nashik and Prayag.
 According to Hindu belief, During a battle between God and
Demons over a pitcher containing nectar of
immortality(Amrit), a few drops fell at four main locations-
Haridwar, Ujjain, Allahabad, and Nasik, where Kumbh is held
after every 12 years.
 UNESCO has inscribed Kumbh Mela into its list during its 12th
session of the committee held at Jeju, South Korea.

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 StepUp IAS
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PSS
AC7

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications
Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Difference Between Architecture and Sculpture
The word architecture" is derived from the Latin word tekton which means builder.
Sculpture, means "to cut or cleave'. Sculptures are smaller works of art, either handmade or
with tools and are more related to aesthetics than engineering and measurements.

Architecture Sculpture
Refers to design and construction of Relatively Smaller, 3 dimensional work of art.
buildings.

Mixture of various type of material is used Single piece of sculpture is made of single
like- stone, wood, glass, metal, sand. type of material.

It involves study of engineering and requires It involves creativity and imagination and
detail and accurate measurement. may not depends as heavily on accurate
measurement.
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 HARAPPAN ART

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 HARAPPAN ART
• Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are two major Cities which
are earliest and finest example of Urban Civic Planning.
• On the banks of the river Indus particularly at the bends
that provided water, easy means of transportation of
produce and other goods and also some protection by way
of natural barriers of the river .
• Consisted of walled cities which provided security to the
people.
• Rectangular grid pattern of layout with roads that cut
each other at right angles.
• Used standardized burnt mud-bricks as building material.
• Evidence of building of big dimensions which perhaps
were public buildings, administrative or business centers,
pillared halls and courtyards.

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 Continue…..
• No evidence of temples.
• Granaries which were used to store grains which give an
idea of an organized collection and distribution system.
• „Great Bath‟ - public bathing place shows the importance of
ritualistic bathing and cleanliness in this culture. It is still
functional and there is no leakage or cracks in the
construction.
• Most of the houses had private wells and bathrooms.
• Dominant citadal - treated as evidence of some kind of
political authority ruling over the cities.
• evidence also of fortifications with gateways enclosing the
walled cities which shows that there may have been a fear of
being attacked.

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 The Great Bath

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 citadal

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 Continue…..
Some of the important sites of the Indus Valley civilisation and their
archaeological findings are:
•Harappa in present Pakistan - 2 row of six granaries with big
platform, stone symbol of lingam and yoni, mother goddess figure.
Moreover, sculpture of dog chasing a deer in bronze metal, dancing
girl of stone and a red sand stone male torso have been excavated.
•Mohenjo-daro in present Pakistan - The great bath, the great
granary, post cremation burial, sculpture of bearded priest.
•Dholavira in Gujarat - Giant water reservoir, unique water
harnessing system, stadium, dams and embankments, inscription
comprising 10 large sized signs like an advertisement board.

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 Continue…..
• Lothal (Manchester of Indus Valley civilisation) in Gujarat -
Dockyard, double burial, risk husk, fire altars, painted jar, modern
day chess, terracotta figure of horse and ship, instruments for
measuring 45,90 and 180 degree angles.
• Rakhigarhi in Haryana.
• Ropar in Punjab - Dog buried with human oval pit burials.
• Balathal and Kalibangan In Rajasthan - bangle factory, toy carts, bones
of camel, decorated bricks, citadel and lower town.
• Surkotada In Gujarat - first actual remains of the horse bones,
• Banawali in Haryana - toy plough, barley grains, oval shaped
settlement, only city with radial streets,
• Alamgirpur In Uttar Pradesh - Impression of a cloth on a trough.

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 Double burial and Dockyard

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 Sculpture
Seals
• Most seals were square, it was found that triangular, rectangular and
circular seals were also used.
• Steatite, a soft stone found in the river bed was most common material
used to make seals although Terracotta seals have also been found.
Some instances of Copper, Gold and Ivory see you have also been
found.
• Most hills have inscriptions in a pictographic script that is yet to be
deciphered. The script was written from right to left.
• Animal Impressions were also there, generally 5 - The common animals
were: Unicorn, rhinoceros, Tiger, elephant, buffalo, etc
• No evidence of cow has been found in any seal.
• Example: Pashupati seal, Unicorn scene

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 Sculpture
Pashupati seal
• A steatite seal discovered at Mohenjo Daro depicts a
human figure or a deity sitting cross legged.
• The figure, referred to as Pashupati we are the
three horned head here and is surrounded by
animals.
• And elephant and the tiger are there on the right
side of the figure while or Dinosaurs and a buffalo
are seen on the left side.
• Two antelopes are shown below the seat of the
figure.

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 Sculpture
Stone Sculpture
Male Torso
• The Male torso is a red sandstone figure, which
has socket holes in the neck and shoulders for the
attachment of head and arms.
• The frontal posture of the torso has been consciously
adopted.
• The shoulders are well carved and the abdomen looks
slightly prominent.
• This male torso is considered to be a remarkable object
that in its balanced lines stands somewhat equal to the
beautiful art of Gandhara two thousand years later.

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 Sculpture
Stone Sculpture
Bearded Priest
• This steatite figure of the bearded man interpreted
as a priest or priest king is draped in a shawl
coming under the right arm and covering the left
shoulder.
• His shawl is decorated with trefoil patterns. His
eyes are a little elongated, and half-closed as in
meditation.
• The shawl on the shoulder of the bearded priest
indicates that the handicraft of embroidery was
commonly practiced in Indus Valley Civilization.
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 Sculpture
Bronze Figure
• The most discussed example of metal
sculpture in context with Indus Valley is
the Dancing Girl.
• Metal casting was popular at all the major
centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation, for
example the copper dog and bird of Lothal,
bull from Kalibangan and the human figures of
copper and bronze from Harappa and
Mohenjodaro.
• Bronze statues were made by the “lost wax
technique”.

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 Sculpture
Lost wax technique
• This practice is still prevalent in many parts of the country particularly the
Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.
• Under this technique, the beewax is first melted over an open fire and then
strained through a fine cloth into cold water.
• These wax was used to make a shape of the entire image first.
• After that, this image is covered with a paste of clay, sand and other
materials such as cow dung.
• On one side, an opening is kept. When it becomes dry, the wax was heated
and the molten wax was drained out through a tiny hole.
• The hollow mould thus created was filled with molten metal which took the
original shape of the object.

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 Sculpture
Bronze dancing girl
• The dancing girl is the world's oldest bronze sculpture.
• It‟s a four-inch-high copper figure, found in
Mohenjodaro.
• It depicts a girl whose long hair is tied in a bun. Bangles
cover her left arm, a bracelet and an amulet or bangle
adorn her right arm, and a cowry shell necklace is seen
around her neck.
• The girls seems be in what is called Tribhanga posture.
• She is full of expression and bodily vigour and conveys
a lot of information.

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 Sculpture
Terracotta
• Terracotta sculpture have been mostly found in
Gujarat and Kalibanga.
• It refers to use of fire baked clay for making
sculptures.
• In comparison to bronze sculptures Terracotta
sculptures have been found in less numbers.
• Pinching method have been used to make Terracotta
sculpture.
• Terracotta was generally used to make toys, animals
miniature cards and wheel.
• Example: mother goddess.

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 Sculpture
Mother Goddess
• The most important terracotta figure in the
Indus Valley Civilization is the figure of Mother
Goddess.
• This figure is crude standing female adorned
with necklaces hanging.
• The most distinct feature of the mother goddess
figurines is a fan-shaped head-dress with a
cup-like projection on each side.
• Rest of the facial figures are very crude and
distant from being realistic.

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 Sculpture
Pottery
• The potteries found at the excavation sites can be broadly
classified into two kinds - plain pottery and painted pottery.
• The painted pottery is also known as Red and Black pottery -
Trees, birds, animal figures and geometrical patterns were the
recurring themes of the paintings.
• Most of the potteries that have been found are very fine wheel-
made ware with a very few being handmade.

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC8

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Evolution
• During the later Vedic period the Vedic people began to
settle with their tribes.
• The nomadic organisation made a gradual shift towards
territorial identity and settled as Mahajanpadas,
Between 600–400 B.C.
• Magadha outgrew others and established its supremacy
among the Mahajanpadas.
• Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom situated at
modern day Bihar.
• It was one of the four main kingdoms existed during 6th
century BC in North India.
• Others were Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala. All of them were
along with 16 Mahajanpadas.

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 Classifications
Mauryan Art

Court Art Popular Art

Palaces Caves
Pillars Pottery

Stupa Sculpture

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 Court Art
Palaces
• The workman-ship of the imperial palace was of very high
standard. The Maurya`s capital was at Pataliputr and the
palaces at Kumarahar were created to reflect the splendor of
the Mauryan Empire - Probably there were similar palaces in
other cities. All towns were surrounded by the high walls.
• Kumarahar was where today‟s Patna city stands.
• Chinese travellers Fa-Hien in the 5th century
and Xuanzang in the 7th century visited the place.
• Fa-Hien remarked that “no human hands of this
world could accomplish this.”
• Megasthenese has given a very beautiful and vivid description
of the royal palace and the court of Chandra Gupta.

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 Continue…
• According to Megasthenes the royal palace of Chandra
Gupta was far more splendid than those of the Persian
kings.
• Megasthenes described the palace as one of the greatest
creation of mankind.
• Megasthenese was a Greek scholar who had come in the
court of Chandra Gupta as an ambassador of the Greek king
Salukus.
• He remained in India for fourteen years and wrote a famous
book named 'Indica' in which he has described the different
aspect of Indian life of that period.
• Ashoka Palace at kumhrar was a massive structure. It had a
high Central pillar and was a three story wooden structure.
The palace walls were decorated with carving and sculptures.

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 Ashok`s Palace

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 Court Art
Pillars
• One of Ashoka‟s first artistic programs was to erect the pillars that are now
scattered throughout what was the Mauryan empire - The pillars vary from
40 to 50 feet in height.
• Made of sand stone of Chunar.
• The pillars weigh about 50 tons each - Only 19 of the original pillars
survive and many are in fragments - The first pillar was discovered in the
16th century.
• Inscriptions on pillars- Objective-
1. State Symbol,
2. Commemorate Battle victories
3. Preach Imperial Sermon (उपदे श).

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 Court Art
Pillars

 4 Parts-
1. A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a
single piece of stone or monolith.
2. On top of it lay the capital, which was the Lotus
shaped or bell shaped - The bell shaped capital was
influenced by the Iranian Palace, has was the highly
polished and illustrated finish of the pillars.
3. Above the capital there was a circular or rectangular
base on the Abacus
4. On the base there was animal figure.

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 Ashok`s Pillars

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 Court Art
Stupa

• A stupa refers to a mound-like structure that contains some relic of

Buddha or Buddhist monks.
• The origin of Stupas is considered to be from the Shramana tradition
in which the Shramana monks were buried in seated position.
• When Buddha died, 9 stupid were elected - 8 of them had the relics
of Buddha at their Medhi while the 9th had the pot in which the
relics were originally kept.
• The foundation of Buddhist stupas was mainly laid by Asoka - He is
said to have built over 84,000 stupas, most of which are not extant
today. The earliest and largest stupa found in Sanchi is ascribed (श्रेय
दे ना) to Asoka.

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 Continue..
• The core of the Stupa was made of on Raw brick while the
outer surface was made by using burnt bricks, which was
then covered with thick layer of plaster.
• The Medhi and the Toran was decorated by wooden
sculptures.
• Devotees walk around the pradakshina path or open
Ambulatory passageway as a token of worship.
• Example: Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most
famous of the ashokan's Stupas. Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar
Pradesh is the oldest one.

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 SANCHI STUPAS
• Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh is a site of
three stupas out of which the first and
the oldest Great Stupa was originally
commissioned by Asoka.
• The „Great Stupa‟ at Sanchi is the oldest
stone structure of India and was originally
commissioned by the Ashoka in the 3rd
century BC, vandalized (तहस नहस करना)
by Pushyamitra Sunga and rebuilt by his
son Agnimitra and again improvised by
Saatavahana kings.
• Thus, this stupa represents a testimony to
the Maurya, Sunga as well as Saatavahana
art in India.

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 Bharhut STUPA
• Around 100 B.C., a great stupa was made at Bharhut,
in the eastern part of present-day Madhya Pradesh (in
Satna District).
• Bharhut stupa was initially built by Asoka and was later
improvised by the Sungas.
• Unlike the imperial art of the Mauryas, the inscriptions
on railings of Bharhut stupa show that the reliefs and
figures were donated by lay people, monks and nuns.
• Thus, it is one of the earliest examples of Maurya
popular art.
• The railings contain numerous birth stories of the
Buddha‟s previous lives, or Jataka tales.
• The railings of the stupa and its one surviving gate are at
the Indian Museum in Kolkata.

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Lecture
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PSS
AC9

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Evolution
• During the later Vedic period the Vedic people began to
settle with their tribes.
• The nomadic organisation made a gradual shift towards
territorial identity and settled as Mahajanpadas,
Between 600–400 B.C.
• Magadha outgrew others and established its supremacy
among the Mahajanpadas.
• Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom situated at
modern day Bihar.
• It was one of the four main kingdoms existed during 6th
century BC in North India.
• Others were Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala. All of them were
along with 16 Mahajanpadas.

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Classifications
Mauryan Art

Court Art Popular Art

Places Caves
Pillars Pottery

Stupa Sculpture

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 Popular Art
Caves
• Rock cut caves are an artistic achievement of Ashoka's reign.
• The roots of rock cut architecture are found in Maurya era. The Mauryan
caves were made for Ajivika, Buddhists, Jains as well as the Hindu
religions.
• Features
1. Artistic gateway
2. Polishing inside the cave
• The twin hills of Nagarjuna and Barabar comprise of seven rock-cut caves,
the oldest of it kind in India. Nagarjuna has three caves wheres Barabar
houses four different caves.
• Seven sisters - 4 caves of barabar caves (Ashoka) + 3 caves of Nagarjuni
caves (Dasharatha)

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 Continue..
• These caves were built for the Buddhist monks during Ashoka and
Dashrath (Ashoka‟s grandson) during 3rd cent BC.
• Monks of the now extinct Ajivkas sect too were believed to have resided
and practiced their religion in these caves.
• The hill is named after the Buddhist ascetic Nagarjuna, the founder of
the Madhyamaka School of the Mahayana Buddhism.
• The glass finish doorways have narrow tops and broadened bottoms and
generally open up towards 220 SW of S which could be the direction of
Buddha Gaya.
• Use- Mauryan caves- Vihar (residential places for Buddhist monks)

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 Seven sisters
• Barabar Caves: The oldest examples of Mauryan rock-cut architecture in
India are the Barabar caves, located in the Barabar hills, in Jehanabad
District of Bihar. There are four caves in Barabar dating back to reign of
Asoka (273-232 BC), initially for the Ajeevika sect.
1. Visva Zopri
2. Karan Chaupar
3. Sudama cave
4. Lomas Rishi cave
• Nagarjuni Caves: 35km north of Gaya - mysterious caves of Nagarjuna. Three
caves were excavated in the Nagarjuna Hills.
1. Gopi (Gopi-ka-Kubha)
2. Vahiyaka
3. Vedathika Kubha

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 Barabar caves
1. Lomas Rishi cave: This is the most popular Barabar cave. The
decorative arch above the entrance (facade) of Lomas Rishi Cave
was made in imitation of the wooden architecture of the time. This
became a constant feature in the later Chaityas and is known as
the Chaitya Arch. It also continued as a decorative motif in later
temples.
2. Sudama cave: This cave known for the bow shaped arches and has
Asokan inscriptions.
3. Karan Chaupar: It has a single rectangular room with polished
surfaces, contains inscription dating back to Maurya era.
4. Visva Zopri: There are two rectangular caves over there.

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 Sudama Cave Lomash Rishi Cave

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 Popular Art
Pottery

►Northern black polished wear.

►Maturity and climax in pottery
making.
►Some silver pottery is found.
►Purpose of silver pottery-luxury
wear.

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 Popular Art
Sculpture
• Sculptures were used primarily for the
decoration of Stupas, in the Torana and
medhi and as the form of religious
expression.
• Two of the famous sculptures of mauryan
Period Are those of yaksha and yakshini.
• They were object of worship related to all
three religions-Jainism, Hinduism and
Buddhism.
• The earliest mention of yakshini can be
found in Shilpadikaran, a Tamil text.

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC10

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Evolution
• During the later Vedic period the Vedic people began to
settle with their tribes.
• The nomadic organization made a gradual shift towards
territorial identity and settled as Mahajanpadas,
Between 600–400 B.C.
• Magadha outgrew others and established its supremacy
among the Mahajanpadas.
• Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom situated at
modern day Bihar.
• It was one of the four main kingdoms existed during 6th
century BC in North India.
• Others were Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala. All of them were
along with 16 Mahajanpadas.

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 Classifications
Post Mauryan Art

1. Caves 3. Sculpture

2. Stupas

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 Classifications
Foreign Invasions Native Rulers Southern Rulers

Indi- Greek Shung Dynasty Chola Dynasty

Indi- Scythians Kanv Dynasty Chara Dynasty

Indi- Parthians Satvahan Dynasty Pandya Dynasty

Kushan

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
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 Post Mauryan Art: Architecture
Rock Cut Caves
• The construction of Rock caves continued as in the Mauryan
period. However, this Period Saw the development of two
types of rock is- Chaitya and Vihara.
• While the Vihars were residential halls for the Buddhist and
Jain monks and were developed during the time of the
Mauryan Empire, the Chaitya hall were developed during this
time. They were also decorated with animal and human
figure.
• For Example: Karle Chaitya Hall, Ajanta Caves (29 Caves: 25
Vihar + 4 Chaitya)
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The Ajanta Caves are
about 29 rock-
cut Buddhist cave
monuments which
date from the 2nd
century BCE to
about 480 CE
in Aurangabad
district of Maharashtr
a state of India.

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 Architecture
Stupas
• Stupas became larger and more decorative in the post Mauryan Period.
• Stone was increasingly used in place of wood and Brick.
• The Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of Toranas as beautiful
decorated get ways.
• The Toranas were intricately carved with figures and patterns and were
evidence of Hellenistic influence (The Hellenistic period covers the
period of Mediterranean history between the death of Alexander the
Great in 323 BC and the emergence of the Roman Empire as signified by
the Battle of Actium in 31 BC).
• Example: Bharahut Stupa in Uttar Pradesh, The Torana at Sanchi Stupa
etc.

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 Stupa
• A lower pradakshinapatha or
circumbulatory path was added
along with the upper one at
Stupa – 1 (Sanchi)
• All the four gateways were now
carved with beautiful
sculptures.
• Depiction of picture got
naturalistic with no stiffness in
the body
• Carving technique appeared
more advanced.
• Symbols continued to be used
representing the Buddha.

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 Sculpture
• The apex of the sculpture making is said to be found in this period.
• Important centers – Gandhara (now in Pakistan), Mathura in India and
Amravati.
• Buddha in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and Gandhara.

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 Sculpture
Gandhara School
• Region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan was an
important center of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century A.D.
• Imbibed all kinds of foreign influences like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and
Kushan.
• The Gandhara School florist in two stages - From 50 BC to 500 AD - while the
former school was known for its use of Bluish Gray sand stone, the latter
School used mud and stucco (lime plaster) for making the sculpture.
• The image of Buddha and Bodhisattva were based on the Greco-Roman
Pantheon and resembled that of Apollo.
• Origin can be traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria and Northwest India.
• During the reign of Kanishka that the art received great patronage.

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 Continued..
• Also known as the Greco- Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of
Art were applied to Buddhist subjects.
• The Greek Invaders brought with them the tradition of the Greek and Roman
sculptures, which influenced the local tradition of the region - Thus,
Gandhar School also came to be known as Greco-Indian school of art.
• “Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an Indian."
• Most characteristic trait - depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated
positions.
• Seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way.
• Typical feature - rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and complex
symbolism.
• Tallest rock-cut statue of Lord Buddha - Bamiyan (Afghanistan) - 3-4 century
AD.

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 Continue….

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 Continued..
• Gandhara Art is shown making four types of hand gestures
and this is a remarkable feature in this art. The gestures
are as follows:

1. Abhayamudra : Don‟t fear

2. Dhyanamudra : meditation
3. Dharmachakramudra: a preaching mudra
4. Bhumisparshamudra: Touching the earth

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 Continued..

Abhayamudra Dhyanamudra Dharmachakramudra Bhumisparshamudra

(Don‟t fear) (Meditation) (Preaching mudra) (Touching the earth)

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 Continue….

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 Sculpture
Mathura School
• The Mathura School florist in the banks of the river Yamuna in the.
Between 1st and 3rd Century BC.
• Established tradition of transforming Buddhist symbols into human form.
• Buddha‟s first image can be traced to Kanishka‟s reign (about 78 A.D.).
• The sculpture of the Mathura School were influenced by the stories and
images of all three religion of the time- Buddhism, Hinduism and
Jainism.
• The Mathura School Showed a striking use of symbolism in the images-
For example, Shiva is shown through Linga and Mukha linga.
• Similarly, the Hallo around the head of Buddha is larger than in
Gandhara school and decorated with geometrical pattern.

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 Continue….
• The images were model on the earlier Yaksha images formed during
the Mauryan Period.
• Strongly built - right hand raised in protection and left hand on the
waist.
• The figures do not have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara
Art.
• Seated figures are in the padmasana posture.
• Not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain
Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon.
• Guptas adopted, further improvised & perfected Mathura School of
Art.
• Observed at - Sarnath, Sravasti and even as far as Rajgir in Bihar.

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 Continue….

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 Continue….

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 Sculpture
Amravati School
• Flourished on banks of Krishna river (Andhra Pradesh)
• Main patrons – Satavahanas & Ikshvakus
• White Marble (limestone) was used in this art
• Site of largest Buddhist stupa of South India.
• Themes were Buddha‟s life and Jatakas tales → Mainly Buddhist
• Curly hairs of Buddha → A feature that is influenced by the Greeks.
• Sculptural composition is more complex and characterized by
intense emotions, bodies are shown with three bents
(i.e. tribhanga)
• In this school, statues of Kings, Princes, and Palaces got
prominence.

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC11

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Evolution
• During the later Vedic period the Vedic people began to
settle with their tribes.
• The nomadic organisation made a gradual shift towards
territorial identity and settled as Mahajanpadas,
Between 600–400 B.C.
• Magadha outgrew others and established its supremacy
among the Mahajanpadas.
• Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom situated at
modern day Bihar.
• It was one of the four main kingdoms existed during 6th
century BC in North India.
• Others were Vatsa, Avanti and Kosala. All of them were
along with 16 Mahajanpadas.

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Post Mauryan Art
Foreign Invasions Native Rulers Southern Rulers

Indi- Greek Shung Dynasty Chola Dynasty

Indi- Scythians Kanv Dynasty Chara Dynasty

Indi- Parthians Satvahan Dynasty Pandya Dynasty

Kushan

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 Gupta period (400 – 600
AD)
• On ruins of Kushan Empire rose Gupta Empire
• Constituted majority of UP & Bihar
• Main center of power at Prayag (Allahabad)
• Founder of Gupta Dynasty was Sri- Gupta
• Srigupta was succeeded by Ghatochkacha
• Both of them were called Maharaja.
• Chandragupta 1- 1st to be called as Maharajadhiraja
(Great king of kings).
• Samundragupta: Known as greatest ruler of Gupta
dynasty & Napolean of India
• Chandragupta 2 (Chandragupta Vikramaditya):
Extended his empire by military conquests & marriage
alliances
• Fall of Gupta Empire: Hunas, Yashodharman, Weak Ruler

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 Classifications
Post Mauryan Art

Caves Temple

Sculpture

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 Gupta Art
• Guptas were Bramhanical by Religion (Hindus) with special devotion to
Vishnu. They showed exemplary tolerance for both Buddhism and Jainism.
Gupta Coins – king on one side & goddess on the other
• The emergence of the Gupta Empire in 4th century A.D. is often hailed as
the "Golden period of Indian Architecture".
• While the earlier Gupta rulers were Buddhists and continued the traditions
of Buddhist architecture, temple architecture came to the fore front under
the patronage of the Hindu rulers of the later Gupta phase.
• Temple architecture reached its climax during this period. Similarly,
Buddhist and Jain art also reached its peak during the Gupta Age.
• They worshipped - Vishnu in the Northern and Central part of India, Shiva in
the Southern part and Shakti in the Eastern part of India as well as in the
Malabar coast or South-west part of India.

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 Architecture
Rock Cut Caves
• During the Gupta period, architectural development of the
caves remained constant although it marked climax stage
of Buddhist caves & monasteries esp. in western central
India
• However, the use of mural paintings on the walls of the
caves became an added feature.
• Some of the finest examples of mural paintings can be
found in the caves of Ajanta and Ellora.

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 Caves: Ajanta

The earliest
Ajanta caves
were carved in
the 2nd Century
BC out of horse-
shoe shaped
cliff along the
Waghora River.

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 Caves: Ajanta
• Ajanta is a series of rock-cut caves near Aurangabad in Mahastra.
• There are a total of 29 caves of which 25 were used as Viharas or
residential caves while 4 were used as Chaitya or prayer halls.
• Discovered by the British officers while hunting a tiger in 1819 AD.
• This site is declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It
encompasses both Theravada (Hinayana) and Mahayana Buddhist
traditions.
• The figures in these caves were done using Fresco Painting and
demonstrate considerable naturalism - The colors were obtained
from local vegetation and minerals The outline, of The paining,
were done in red colour and then the inside was painted - One of
the striking features is the absence of blue colour in the paintings.

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 Caves: Ajanta
• The paintings are generally themed around Buddhism – the life
of Buddha jataka stories. Of the 29 caves 5 were developed
during the Hinyana phase while remaining 25 were developed
during Mahayana phase of Buddhism.
• The reference of Ajanta caves can be found in the travel accounts
of chinese Buddhist Traveller Fa Hien and Hieun TSang.
• Caves are carved on a perpendicular cliff hence no courtyards.
• All three forms of Art are combined in these caves: Architecture,
Sculpture, Paintings.
• Caves depict a large number of incidents from the life of the
Buddha (Jataka Tales).

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 2 Phases
• In date and style, these caves can be divided into two
broad phases.
1. Phase I (2nd Century to 1st Century BCE) – The earliest
excavations were done by the Satavahanas and belong to
the Hinayana (Theravada) phase of Buddhism. The object
of worship is a stupa here. Caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15
belong to this era.
2. Phase II (5th Century AD to 6th Century AD) – These
excavations are a major contribution of the Vakatakas and
Chalukyas and belong to Mahayana phase of Buddhism.

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 Phase I/ Satavahana Phase: Continue…
• Throughout his life Buddha was against the
idea of sculpting and painting images of
him. Hence, this phase depicts the Lord via
symbols.
• Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa
containing worship halls of chaitya-griha
form, and caves 12, 13, and 15 are viharas.
• Cave 9 : This apsidal (मेहराबदार)chaitya griha
is datable to second century B.C. and
belongs to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism.
It is a large liturgical( ऩूजन ऩद्धतत संबंधी) hall,
with monolithic stone stupa carved from a
living rock.

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Cave 10 –
The cave consists of a
central hall and a rock
stupa around which a
circumambulatory path is
provided.

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 Phase II / Vakataka Phase
• The second phase was of greater artistic activity at
Ajanta during the rule of the Vakataka dynasty - King
Harishena is credited to have been at the forefront of
the development cycle.
• Major difference from Phase I is the depiction of Buddha
as a result of spread of Mahayana Buddhism which
believes in revering the Master through images and
idols.
• Caves – Caves 19, 26, and 29 are chaitya-grihas, the rest
viharas.
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CAVE 16
Dying
Princes

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 CAVE 19
• This chaitya griha is datable to fifth
century A.D. The stupa is carved with a
standing image of Buddha. This cave is
known for its sculptural grandeur of
the facade.
• The hall has painted depictions of
Buddha in various postures. Cave 19 is
first example of a chaitya wholly in
stone.
• Standing Buddha in the interior
cave covered with drapery,
topped by a majestic three tiered
umbrella in front of a stupa.

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 CAVE 26
• This chaitya griha is quite similar to
Cave 19, but of a larger dimension
and more elaborately and
exquisitely provided with sculpted
figures.
• The chaitya griha consists of a hall,
side aisles (pradikshana) and a rock-
cut stupa front by an image of
seated Buddha.
• Side walls are extensively carved
with images and decorative designs.

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 CAVE 26 : Temptation by Mara
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 Caves: Ellora
• It one of the largest rock-hewn monastic-temple
complexes in the entire world and a UNESCO World Heritage Sit.
There are 34 caves, structures are excavated out of the
vertical face of the hills.
• Out of these-
1. There are 12 Mahayana Buddhist caves (caves 1-12),
2. 17 Hindu caves (caves 13-29)
3. 5 caves of the Jain faith (caves 30-34).
• The Ellora Caves are not only a unique artistic creation but also with
its sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, it
illustrates the spirit of tolerance that was characteristic of ancient
India.

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 Continue..

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 Buddhist Monuments [CAVE 1- 12]
• Among these 12 caves only one is a prayer
hall (chaitya griha) while others are
monasteries.
• Cave 5 is unique because it is designed as a
hall with two parallel refectory benches in
the Centre with a Buddha statue in the rear.
• Cave 5 of Ellora and Cave 11 of the Kanheri
caves are only two such Buddhist caves in
India.
• Example: Vishvakarma Cave [CAVE 10]-
• Vishvakarma Cave – Seated Buddha in
preaching position (vyakhyana mudra)
• This is the only chaitya-griya in Ellora.

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 Buddhist Monuments [CAVE : 5]

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 Hindu Monuments [CAVE 13- 29]
• Rashtrakutas were
major contributors.
• The Dashavatara
[Cave 15] – This cave
has many well carved
sculptures.
• Lord Vishnu is
depicted in his ten
incarnations.

Vishnu at Dashavatar
Ellora Temple
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 Dasavatar Cave [CAVE 15]
Cave 15 has cells and a
layout plan that are similar
to Buddhist Caves 11 and
12, which suggests this
cave was intended to be a
Buddhist cave; however,
the presence of non
Buddhist features, such as
a Nritya Mandapa
(an Indian classical
dance pavilion) at its
entrance, indicated
otherwise.

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 Kailashnath Temple [CAVE 16]
• Ascribed to Krishna I, a Rashtrakuta ruler this temple was constructed
around the middle 8thCentury AD.
• This temple is world famous for being the largest single monolithic
excavation in the world.
• The temple architecture shows traces of Pallava and Chalukya styles.
• This amalgamation is a result of influence of Virupaksha temple of
Pattadakal (Chalukyan temple) and Kailasa temple of Kanchi (Pallave
temple).
• Though it needs to be specified, Kailash temple is not an exact imitation of
these temples.
• The temple is chiefly a Shaivite temple although sculptures belonging to
Vaishnavism are also found here.
• The temple consists of four parts – the main shrine, the entrance gateway,
an intermediate shrine for Nandi and mandapa surrounding the courtyard.
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 Kailashnath Temple [CAVE 16]

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 Jain Monuments [CAVE 30- 34]
• These caves belong to Digambara sect.
• The emphasis in the Jain caves is the depiction of twenty
four Jinas (spiritual conquerors who have gained liberation
from the endless cycle of rebirths).
• Along with them yakshas, yakshis and human devotees are
depicted.
• Amongst its devotional carvings, the Jain Ellora caves offer
some of the earliest Samavasarana images.
• Samavasarana is of special interest to Jains, as it is a hall
where the Tirthankara preaches after attaining Kevala
Jnana (liberating omniscience).
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 Bagh Caves
• Located on the bank
of Baghani (Tributary
of Narmada) river in
the Dhar district of
Madhya Pradesh.
• It is Group of 9 Caves
which were carved
in late 4th century –
6th century AD.
• It is architecturally
very similar to
Ajanta Caves.

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 Junaghar Caves
Located in
Gujarat, a unique
feature of the
Junagadh eaves
is the
Presence of a 30-
50 ft high citadel
known ax "Upar
Kot" in front of
the prayer hall.

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 Nasik Caves
• It is a group of 23 Buddhist
caves, also known as "Panda"
Leni".
• They were developed during
1st century A.D and belong to
the Hinayana Period.
• So there are no image, of
Buddha.
• Instead, his presence
is indicated through the use
of motifs and symbols like
throne and foot prints.

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 Elephanta Caves
• Elephanta Caves are a UNESCO
World Heritage Site and a
collection of cave temples
predominantly dedicated to Hindu
god Shiva. They are located
on Elephanta Island,
or Gharapuri (literally "the city of
caves") in Mumbai Harbour,.
• The carvings narrate Hindu
mythologies, with the large
monolithic 20 feet (6.1 m) Trimurti
Sadashiva (three-faced Shiva)

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 Sculpture
• Gupta sculpture thus is the logical outcome of the early
classical sculpture of Amravati and Mathura.
• Its plasticity is derived from that of Mathura and its
elegance from that of Amravati. Yet a Gupta sculpture
seems to belong to a sphere that is entirely different.
• Thus ,During the Gupta period, a new school of
sculpture developed around Sarnath.
• It was characterized by the use of cream coloured
sandstone and the use of metal.
• The halo around the head of Buddha was intricately
decorated.
• Example: Standing Buddha, Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Classifications
Post Gupta Art

Caves Temple

Sculpture

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 Classification of Indian Temples
1. Nagara (North India)
2. Dravida (South India)
3. Vesara style→ an independent style → Mixure of
Nagara and Dravida styles

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 Development of Temple
Temple architecture, with the development of a square
sanctum and a pillared port emerged during the Gupta
period. There was a gradual progression from the flat-roofed
monolithic temples in the initial stages to the sculptured
'shikhara' in the later years- progression can be
distinguished into five stages:

First Stage:
The features of the temple developed during this phase are:
1. The temples had flat roof.
2. The temples were square in shape.
3. The portico (बरामदा) was developed on shallow pillars.
4. The entire structure was built on low platforms.
Example: Temple No. 17 at Sanchi.

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 Continue..

Second Stage:
• The temples built during this phase
continued most of the features, the
earlier phase. However, the platform
were higher or upraised.
• Some instances of two-storied temples
has also been found.
• Another important addition of this phase
was a covered ambulatory passageway
around the sanctorum or Garbgriha.
• Example: Parvati temple at Nachna
kuthara in Madhya Pradesh.

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 Continue..
Third Stage:
• This Stage saw the emergence of Shikharas in place of flat roof However,
they were still quite low and almost square.
• Panchayatan style of temple making was introduced.
• In the Panchayatan style of temple making, there were four subsidiary
shrines along with the temple of the principal deity.
• The temple was square with an elongated (having notably more length than
width; being long and slender) Mandap in front of it a rectangular shape.
The subsidiary shrines were placed opposite to each other on either side
of the Mandap, giving the ground plan a crucified shape.
• Example: Dashavatar temple at Deogarh (U.P.), Durga temple at Aihole
(Karnataka), etc.

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Dash avatar temple at
Deogarh (U.P.)

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 Continue..
Fourth Stage:
• The temples of this stage
were almost similar, except
the main shrine became more
rectangular.
• Example: Ter temple at
Sholapur,

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 Continue..
Fifth Stage:
• In This stage, there was the
introduction of circular
temple with shallow
rectangular projection.
• Rest of the features of
previous stage continued.
Example; Maniyar Math at
Rajgir.

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 Features of Temple
1. Garbhagriha:
• It literally means „womb-house‟ and is a cave like a sanctum.
• In the earliest temples, it was a small cubical structure with a single entrance.
• Later it grew into a larger complex.
• The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity) which is itself the
focus of much ritual attention.
2. Mandapa:
• It is the entrance to the temple.
• It may be a portico or colonnaded (series of columns placed at regular
intervals) hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers.
• Dances and such other entertainments are practiced here.
• Some temples have multiple Mandapas in different sizes named as
Ardhamandapa, Mandapa, and Mahamandapa.

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 Continue..
3. Shikhara or Vimana:
• They are mountain like the spire of a free-standing temple.
• Shikhara is found in North Indian temples and Vimana is found in South
Indian temples.
• Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a pyramidal-like
structure.
4. Amalaka:
• It is a stone disc like structure at the top of the temple and they are
common in North Indian Temples.
5. Kalasha:
• It is the topmost point of the temple and commonly seen in North Indian
Temples.

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 Temple Architecture
6. Antarala (vestibule): Antarala is a transition area
between the Garbhagriha and the temple‟s main hall
(Mandapa).

7. Jagati: It is a raised platform for sitting and praying

and is common in North Indian temples.

8. Vahana: It is the mount or vehicle of the temple‟s main

deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj which is placed
axially before the sanctum.
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 Nagara School of Architecture
• Style of temple architecture that became popular in northern
India
• A square temple with a number of graduated projections
(Rathakas)
• A tower (sikhara) gradually curving inwards and capped by a
spheroid slab with ribs round the edge (Amalaka) give the
elevation
• Prominent features → Shikaras (Spiral roofs), Garbhagriha
(sanctum) & Mandap (pillared hall)
• Thus the two major characteristics of this style are the
cruciform ground plan and the curvilinear tower

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Three subtypes of Nagara temple depending upon the
shape of Shikhara

1. Rekha Prasad / Latina

• Simple Shikhara → Square at the base
and the walls curve inward to a point on
the top.
• Latina types are mainly used for
housing the garbhagriha
• The top is called „Latina‟ or the rekha-
Prasad type of Shikhara.
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 Continue..
2. Phamsana
• Phamsana buildings tend to be broader
and shorter than latina buildings.
• Their roofs are composed of several
slabs that gently rise to a single point
over the center of building, unlike the
latina ones which look like sharply
rising tall towers.
• They do not curve inwards, instead
they slope upwards on a straight
incline.
• In many North Indian temples
Phamsana was used for mandapa and
latina for Garbhgriha.

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 3. Valabhi
• Rectangular building with a roof that
rises into a vaulted (गुंबददार) chamber.
• They are usually called as wagon
(चौऩहहया गाडी) vaulted buildings
• The edge of the vaulted chamber is
round, like the bamboo or wooden
wagons that would have been drawn by
bullocks in ancient times.
• The form of this temple is influenced
by ancient building forms that were
already in existence.

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Three sub schools developed under Nagara style
1. Odisha School
• Most of the main temple sites are located in ancient Puri and Konark.
• Here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top
when it suddenly curves sharply inwards.
• Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha.
• The ground plan of the main temple is square, which, in the upper
reaches of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning
mastaka.
• The exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors
generally quite bare.
• Odisha temples usually have boundary walls.
• Example: Konark Temple, Jagannath temple, Lingaraj temple.

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Konark Temple

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 Jagannath Temple

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 Lingaraj Temple

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 2. Khujuraho/Chandel school
• Khajuraho‟s temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures.
• Patronized by Chandela kings of Bundelkhand (10th and 11th century).
• These 22 temples (out of the original 85) are regarded as one of world‟s
greatest artistic wonders.
• The finest among them is Shaivite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev, built
around 10th century by King Ganda.
• The standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and
an entrance portico.
• These entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the Odishan style they were
conceived as separate elements.
• The sikhara is curved for its whole length, and miniature sikharas emerge from
the central tower.
• The halls and porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which
rise progressively upto the main tower.
• Vishnu Temple at Chaturbhunj (MP) is another prominent temples at Khajuraho.
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 2. Solanki School
• Patronized by Solanki
kings (later Chalukya)
of Gujarat (11th to 13th
century).
• The Vimala, Tejpala
and Vastupala temples
at Mount Abu exhibit
this style.
• Dilwara temple in Mt
Abu – Highest Jain
pilgrimage

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 Exquisite example is Sun temple at Modhera, built by Raja
Bhimdev-I of the Solanki Dynasty in 1026
• There is a massive rectangular
stepped tank called the suryakund
in front of it.
• 108 miniature shrines are carved in
between the steps inside the tank.
• A huge ornamental arch-torana
leads one to the sabha mandapa
(the assemblyhall) which is open on
all sides.
• Every year at the time of the
equinoxes, the sun shines directly
into the central shrine.

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 StepUp IAS
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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
INDIAN ART –
1. Performing Arts
2. Visual Arts
PERFORMING ARTS-
A) Dances of India
 Classical Dances
 Folk Dances
B) Music of India
 Hindustani Classical Music
 Carnatic Classical Music
C) Theatre forms in India
D) Indian Puppetry
E) UNESCO’S List of Intangible Cultural Heritage

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Visual Arts
A) Indian Architecture
B) Indian Sculpture
C) Indian Painting
D) UNESCO’S List of Tangible Heritage Sites in India

INDIAN Culture –
A) Religion in India
B) Indian literature
C) Philosophical school
D) Indian Cinema
E) Science and Technology through ages
F) Calendars in India
G) Some important Cultural Institution.

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 South Indian Art
Mahendra Group

• Four stages of temple architecture had been

observed in South India – Mainly during the Pallava‟s
rule, around 6th century AD which are as follows:
• This was the stage of Pallava Temple architecture.
That Temple built under Mahendravarman were
basically Rock cut temples.
• Under him, the temples for known as Mondapas,
Unlike the Nagara style in which come under pass
means only the Assembly hall.

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 Narasimha group
• This represented the second stage of
the development of temple
architecture in South India.
• The Rock cut temple was decorated by
intricate sculptures.
• Under Narasimhavarman, the
Mondapas were not divided into
separate Rathas.
• The biggest one was called the
Dharmaraja Ratha: In it the smaller
one was called the Draupadi Ratha.
• The design of a temple in the
Dravidian style of architecture is a
success of the Dharmaraja Ratha.

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 Rajsimha (Narasimhavarman II) Group
• Led the third stage of Temple
development.
• Under him development of real structural
temples was started in Place of Rock cut
temples.
• Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram,
kailashnath Temple at Kanchipuram.
• Shore Temple is a granite made temple at
Mahabalipuram built during the rein of
Narsimhavarman.
• This group of temples is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site and is oldest structural
temple (in contrast with rock cut temples)
in India.

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 Nandivarman Group

• This was the fourth stage of Temple development during

the Pallava dynasty.
• The temple built under him but smaller in size.
• The features were almost similar to the Dravidian style of
temple architecture.
• After the decline of Pallava dynasty temple architecture
acquired a new style under the Chola Kingdom, known as
the Dravidian style of temple architecture this market a
new era in the development of temples in the southern
India.

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 Dravidian Style
• Deployed for Hindu temples in Tamil Nadu from the 7th to 18th century,
characterized by its pyramidal tower.
• Unlike the Nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
• The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is known as Gopura/
Gopuram.
• Consists of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure or tower
(Vimana).
• Consists of an attached pillared porch or hall (Mandapa) which precede the door
leading to the nucleus cell
• The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up geometrically rather than the
curving shikhara of north India.
• Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, and barrel-vault roofs
at the centre.
• A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex is general in
south Indian temples.

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 Continue..
• The earliest examples include 7th century rock-cut shrines at
Mahabalipuram and a developed structural temple, the Shore
Temple at the same site.
• Finest examples are Brihadeshwara temple at Thanjavur, built
about 1010 by Rajaraja 1, & temple at Gangaikondacolapuram,
built about 1025 by his son Rajendra Chola.
• Subsequently, a number of successive court enclosures, each with
its own gateway (Gopurams), were added.
• By the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565) the Gopurams had
increased in size so that they dominated the much smaller
temples inside the enclosures.

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Brihadeshwara Temple
at Thanjavur

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 Chola Sculpture: NATRAJ
• Shiva‟s dancing position is associated with the end of the cosmic
world.
• Shiva has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and
suppressing the apasmara, the demon of ignorance or
forgetfulness, with the foot of same leg.
• Shiva raises his left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which
represents tirobhava that is kicking away the veil of maya from
the devotee‟s mind.
• His four arms are outstretched and lower right hand is posed
in Abhayahasta mudra.
• The upper right hand hold & Damaru
• The upper left hand is held in dola hasta and connects with the
Abhaya hasta of the right hand.
• His Hair flocks fly on both the sides touching the circular jwala
mala or the garland of flame, which surrounds the entire dancing
figuration.

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Three sub schools developed under South Indian Temple style
1. Hoysala School
In the region of Karnataka near Mysore, the temples built under the
Hoysala rulers developed a distinct style of their own known as the
Hoysala School of art. It developed in the period from 1050-1300 A.D
with the prominent seats being Belur, Halabid and Sringeri.
Some of the features of the architecture are:
•Multiple shrines were built around a central pillared hall.
•Unlike the crucified ground plan of the Panchayatan style, the shrines led out
in the shape of an intricately designed star. This was known as the Stellate plan.
•Soft sope stone (Chorite schist) was the main building material.
•Massive emphasis was laid on the decoration of the temple through sculptures.
Both the interior and exterior walls, even the jewelleries
worn by the deities were intricately carved.

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 Continue..
• All the chambers had Shikharas
which were interconnected by an
arrange- of horizontal lines and
mouldings. This resolved the tower
into an orderlly
• Succession of tires.
• The walls and stairs of temple
followed a zigzag pattern.
• Example: Hoyasaleshwar temple at
Helebid.

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 Other Important School of Art
Vijaynagar School
The rulers of the Vijaynagar empire were great patrons of art and architecture with
capital at Hampi. Under them, the architectural style started to be influenced by the
Indo-Islamic style of Bijapur which, in turn, was reflected in the temples built during
this period. The features of the temples were:
•The walls of the temples were highly decorated with carvings and geometrical
patterns.
•Goupurams, which were previously present on the front side, were now built on all
the sides.
•The enclosing walls were larger.
•More than one Mandapas were built in each temple. The center Mandapa came to be
known as kalyan Mandap.
•The concept of secular bnildings inside the temple premises also introduced during
this period.
Example : Vittalaswami temple, Lotus Mahal etc.

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• The structure was built
during the rule of Devaraya
II, who was one amongst the
rulers of the Vijayanagara
Empire.
• The structure was built in
the 15th century.
• Many portions of the temple
were expanded and
enhanced by
Krishnadevaraya, who was
the most famous ruler of
the Vijayanagara dynasty.

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• The Stone Chariot, which
stands tall in the
courtyard of the temple,
is one of the most
stunning architectural
wonders and is also one of
the three famous stone
chariots in the country.
• The other two chariots are
located in Konark and
Mahabalipuram.

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Musical
Pillars

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 Nayaka School
The Nayakas rose on the fall of Vijayanagara empire.
The Nayaka School of Architecture florist under the Nayaka rulers in the
period Between 16th century and 18th century A.D. It was also known as
Madurai School. It was architecturally similar to the Dravidian style, but
much larger in scope. Some of the unique features are:
1. Presence of Prakaran or huge corridor in the portico, around the
Garbha Griha, along with roofed Ambulatory passageways.
2. The Gopurams built under the Nayaka rulers were some of the
largest Gopurams. The Meenakshi temple in Madurai has the tallest
Gopuram in the world. The art of Gopuram reached its Climax in the
Nayaka style.
3. The temple structure were filled with integrate carvings.
Example: Meenakshi temple, Madurai, et cetera

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 Meenakshi Temple
• The most famous architectural landmark of this period is the Meenakshi-
Sundareswara temple at Madurai.
• The great temple complex has actually two shrines; the first one dedicated to
Shiva as Sundareswara and the second one to his wife Meenakshi.
• Have all the features of Dravidian style with an additional prominent feature
known as „Parakram‟s
• Prakram‟s are huge Corridore‟s along with roofed ambulatory passageways. It
served to connect various parts of temple while enclosing certain areas.
• Intricate carvings are seen all across the temple walls.
• The large tank set slightly off the axis to the main temple is another
impressive feature of the temple.
• Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico, the tank was used for ritual
bathing.

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Others
Vesara Style/Chalukya Style/Karnataka Stylec
• This style has features of both Nagara and Dravidian style.
• It consists of two principle components like Dravidian style
i.e. Vimana & Mandap.
• Departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered
ambulatory around the sanctum.
• Example: Lad Khan temple at Aihole, Temples at Badami,
Virupaksha temple – Pattadakal, Hoysala temples
at Karnataka

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 Virupaksha temple –
Pattadakal

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 Hoysala temples at Karnataka

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 Pala School
In Bengal region, the style of architecture came to be known as Pala
school of architecture. It developed in the period between 8th and 12th
century A.D. under the patronage of Pala dynasty and Sena dynasty. The
Palas were mainly Buddhist rulers, while the Senas were Hindus. Thus,
the architecture reflected the influence of both the religions.
The architecture of this region is featured by:
• The buildings had a curve or sloping roof, as in bamboo huts. This
became popularly known as "Bangla roof" and was later adopted by the
Mughal architects.
• Burnt bricks and clay, known as terracotta bricks, was the principal
building material used.

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 Continue…
• The temples of this region has at all,
curving sikhara ground by a large
Amalaka, similar to the Odisha School.
• For the sculptures of this region, both
stones as well as metals are used. Stone
was the major component.
• The figures were unique in their highly
lustrous finish.
• Example: Siddheshwar Mahadev temple
in barakar, Temples around Bishnupur etc.

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 StepUp IAS
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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Classifications
Delhi Sultanate

Imperial Style Provincial Style

Slave Dynasty Bengal School
Khilji Dynasty Malwa School
Tughlaq Dynasty Jaunpur School
Lodi Dynasty Bijapur School
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 Architecture in Medieval India
• With the Arab conquest of Sind in 712 A.D., the arrival of the Islamic
rulers to the western frontiers of India had started.
• By 12th century A.D., the throne of Delhi had been occupied by an
Islamic ruler, which marked the onset of the medieval period of Indian
history. In the subsequent years. Indian architecture underwent a
massive change.
• New elements, such as calligraphy, ornamentation using inlay work, etc.
were introduced to reflect the tastes and preferences of the new rulers.
• However, the local architects retained certain flavours of the local
architectural traditions as well. Thus, in the architecture of this
following period, we see a confluence of Persian style with the Indian
style. Hence, it is known as Indo-Islamic architecture or Indo- Saracenic
architecture.

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 Features of Indo-Islamic architecture
•The use of arch and domes gained
prominence during this period.
• It was known as arcuade' style of
architecture and replaced the
traditional Trabeat style of
architecture.
•The Islamic rulers introduced the
use of minars around the mosques
and the mausoleums.
•Mortar was used as a cementing
agent in their constructions.
•The Indo-Islamic architecture
avoided the use of human and
animal figures.

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 Continue..
•While the Hindu architecture had become too
congested, the Indo-Islamic architecture
introduced spaciousness, massiveness and breadth
to it.
•While the previous structures used sculptures as
means of decoration, the Indo-Islamic architecture
used calligraphy as means of decoration.
•Arabesque method was also used for decoration.
Arabesque meant the use of geometrical vegetal
ornamentation and was characterised by a
continuous stem which split regularly, producing a
series of counterpoised, leafy, secondary stems. The
secondary stems, in turn, split again or returned to
merge with the main stem creating a decorative
pattern.

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 Continue..

•The architecture of this

period heavily used the
principles of geometry -
from decorative pattern to
imbibing a sense of
symmetry.
• The buildings had
intricate jaali works,
which signifies the
importance of light in
Islamic religion.

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 Continue..
• An important feature of the
architecture during this period was
the use of water in the premises of
the constructions in the form of
courtyard pools, fountains and small
drains. Water was used primarily for
three purposes:
1. Religious purpose
2. Cooling the premises
3. Decorative purpose.

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 Continue..
• The Islamic ruler introduced the
Charbagh style of gardening, in
which a square block was divided
into four adjacent identical
Gardens.

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 Continue..
• The architectures of these times
also used the Pietra Durga
technique for the inlay
of precious stones and gems
into the stone wall.
• Another unique feature was the
use of foresight any technique
in the buildings, such that the
inscriptions appear of the same
size from any place

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 Delhi Sultanate : Imperial Style
Slave Dynasty (1206 to 1290 A.D. )
• During this period, most of the constructions were
remodellings of the existing Hindu structures.
• Example: Kuwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutub
Minar premised, which was converted from a Jain
temple, Arhai Din Ka jhopda.
• They also started the erection of a number of
monuments, Qutb Minar being a prime example.
• It is a 5-storey structure initiated by Qutb-ud-din
Aibak, Ground floor. The next three stories were
completed by Iltutmish and the fifth story was
done by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.

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 Khilji dynasty (1290 A.D. to 1320 A.D. )
• The constructions of this
period are marked by the
use of red sandstone.
• The prominence of
Arcuade style began from
this period.
• Mortar began to be used
prominently in all the
constructions as a
cementing agent.
• Example: Alai Darwaza
by Ala-ud-din Khilji, Siri
fort, etc.

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 Tughlaq dynasty(1320 A.D. to 1413 A.D. )
• It was the crisis period for architecture during the
Delhi Sultanate period. However, some construction
works were still undertaken, which used grey
sandstone.
• During this period, the focus was more on strength
of the building and so, there was less emphasis on
decoration.
• The constructions combined both arch and lintel
method of entrance design. They also introduced a
style of construction known as 'battar' which was
characterised by sloping walls to give more strength
to the building.
• Example: Cities of Tughlaqabaad, Jahaanpanah and
Ferozabad.

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 Lodi dynasty (1451A.D. to 1526 A.D. )
• Under the Lodi dynasty, architecture
continued to take a back seat.
• Only tombs were commissioned during this
period. However, one important feature of
architecture during this period was the
introduction of double domes. It consisted of
a hollow dome inside the top dome. The
reasons for the use of double domes were:
1. To give strength to the structure, and
2. To lower the inner height of the dome.
• The tombs built during this phase were hard
and bare, without any lavish decorations.
• They were built in octagonal shapes.
• Example: Lodi gardens, the city of Agra was
established by Sikandar Lodi, etc.

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 Continued..

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 Delhi Sultanate : Provincial Style
Bengal School
• Use of bricks and black
marble.
• The Mosque built during this
period continued the use of
sloping “Bangala Roof”
previously used for temples.
• Examples: Qadam Rasul
mosque in Gaur, Adina
mosque in Pandua.

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 Malwa school/ Pathan School
• The cities of Dhar and Mandu in the Malwa plateau became prominent
seats of architecture. The most prominent feature of the buildings here
is the use of different coloured stones and marbles.
• The buildings had large Windows, which could be as result of European
influence and work decorated by a stylist use of Arches and pillars.
• Even the stairs were used to enhance the aesthetics of the
construction.
• Environmental adaptation: Large window, pavilion were highly arched,
Artificial reserve was known as "Baulis" were constructed
• The use of battar system introduced by the two clocks made the
building strong.
• Example: Rani Roopmati Pavilion, jahaj Mahal, Ashrafi Mahal

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 Continue
Rani Roopmati Pavilion

Jahaj Mahal
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 Jaunpur School
• A unique feature of
the building here is
the use of bold and
Force full characters
painted on huge
screens in the centre
and sideways of the
prayer hall.
• Example: Atala
Mosque, jaunpur.
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 Continue..

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 Bijapur School
• Under the patronage of Adil Shah,
the Bijapur style of the Deccan
style of architecture developed.
• Unique in the use of Three arched
facade and bulbous dome, which
were almost Spherical and with a
narrow neck.
• Iron clamps and a strong plaster of
motor were used to give strength
to the buildings. The walls were
decorated by rich carving.
• Example: Gol Gumbaz, the
mausoleum of Adil Shah, in
Bijapur.

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 StepUp IAS
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PSS
AC15

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Classifications
Mughal Art
Babur
Shershah Humayun
Suri Akbar
Jahangir
Shahjahan
Aurangzeb
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 Mughal Architecture
• Indo-Muslim architecture got striking improvement with the arrival of Mughals, as
had been declined significantly during the Lodi‟s period.
• Unlike Delhi Sultanate Sultans, Mughals mixed and mingled with the local
population & Rajput provinces.
• Akbar followed the policy of conciliation to live in peace with his Hindu subjects.
He founded Din-i-illahi religion collecting good points of all prevailing religions.
• Jahangir was half Hindu by blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput princess.
Shahjahan too continued this policy of tolerance and respect for the Hindus. The
Mughal empire, as well as Mughal architecture, flourished and rose to great
heights under their benign rule, but all this ended abruptly under the last of the
great Mughals, Aurangzeb, a puritanical Muslim, who tried to reverse the entire
conciliatory policy of his ancestors.
• He looked upon art, music, dance, painting and even architecture as an evil born
of worldly desire. There was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in aesthetic
appreciation and architectural enterprise.

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 Babur (1526 – 1530)
• His reign was too short lived to inspire any new style or technique.
• For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in war.
• However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of gardens are ascribed
to him.
• Ascribed to him are mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at
Sambhal near Delhi

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 Humayun (1530 – 1540 and 1555 – 1556)
• His reign was marked with constant power struggle with Sher Shah Suri. So,
he couldn't focus much on art and architecture.
• He laid the foundation of a city named dinpanah, but couldn't finish it.
• The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture is the tomb of
Humayun, in Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum.
• Prototype for Mausoleum of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore
• Known as precursor of Taj Mahal, Agra.
• Although Sikander Lodi‟s tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is
Humayun‟s tomb which strikes a new note - centre of a square garden, raised on
a vast platform – Charbagh style,
• First time that red sandstone was used along with white → the white is used
cleverly to emphasise, surround & underline doors and windows, strengthening
the design.The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian
traditions.

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Humayun
Tomb

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 Sher Shah Suri (1538–1545)
• During his reign, Sirsa undertook the
construction of Quila-e-Quhunah Mosque. He
also undertook the construction of Grand
Trunk Road.
• The construction under Ser Shah continued
the tradition of the Delhi Sultanate Period.
• Sher Shah‟s own tomb (mausoleum), at
Sasaram, in Bihar: Was made by modifying
Lodi octagonal pattern with a verandah
around it
• Surs made use of red and dark grey stone
latticed screens,painted ceilings and colored
tiles
• The Purana Qila and the Quila Kohna Masjid
inside, are also ascribed to Sher Shah Suri.

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 Akbar (1556 – 1605)
• Akbar took a keen interest in the
development of art and
architecture during his Reign.

• Use of red sandstone, also

introduced the use of "Tudor arch"
(Four Centered Arch).

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 Agra Fort
• Made of red sand-stone.
• On the banks of the river Yamuna.
• Begun in 1565 and completed in 1574.
• It was one of the first constructions start during the reign of Akabar.
However, most of the structures Present inside the fort were done during the
reign of Shah Jahan. Some of the prominent building here are-
1. Moti Masjid, made by Shah Jahan.
2. Diwan-i-aam (Hall of Public audience) by Shahjahan
3. Diwan-i-khas (Hall of Private audience) by Shahjahan
4. Jahangiri Mahal
5. Sheesh Mahal (Turkish Bath)
• The gardens inside the fort are built using the Charbagh style. During the
reign of AKbar.

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 Fatehpur Sikri
• One of the highlights of Indo-Islamic architecture was the creation of a new
capital city by Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri- as a token of gratitude to Sheikh Salim
Chisti.
• Fatehpur Sikri was begun in 1569 and completed in 1574, the same year in
which the fort at Agra was completed.
• Fatehpur Sikri was a town planned as an administrative unit consisting of
public buildings as well as private residence in close proximity.
• Almost all the structures are based on trabeate construction:
1. Buland Darwaza
2. Panch Mahal
3. Jodha Bai`s palace
4. Salim Chisti s tomb (Akbar was the disciple of Salim Chisti, a sufi saint)
5. Ibadat khana (Akbar used to meet the leaders of different religions here).

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Panch Mahal
• The highest and the most
impressive structure, called
the palace of five stories with
open terraces on each story
• Based on the Hindu system of
trabeate structure, consisting
of pillared verandas,
architrave, and brackets.
• Build on the pattern of a
Buddhist Vihara is the topmost
domed pavilion, purposefully
thrown out of the centre that
crowns the entire building.

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Tomb of Sheikh
Salim Chisti

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 Diwan-i-Khas
• A complex structure, also known as
Hall of Private Audience
• It is a square chamber with three
openings on each side and a richly
carved column in the center supporting
a magnificent flower shaped capital.
• Thorough ventilation is provided by
placing on all sides perforated windows
opposite each other on every wall.
• The charming balcony supported by a
circular top capital, runs round the
halls whole length of the four sides on
the first floor level, supported by
brackets.

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 Jahangir (1605-1627)
• During the reign of Jahangir, architecture took a back seat
as he focused more on painting and other form of art.
• However he oversaw, the construction of some
noteworthy monuments including Akbar's Tomb in
Sinkandra.
• He also Built his own tomb at Lahore - its exterior that is
richly decorated with pietra dura.
• Further he developed a number of gardens during his
reign, e.g. the Salimar Bagh on the banks of Dal Lake in
Kashmir. He also Built Moti Masjid at Lahore.

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 Tomb of Jahangir

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 Shahjaha (1628 – 1658)
• Erected the most romantic building, Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved
wife, Mumtaz Mahal
• Tajmahal is a square tomb built on a raised terrace, with graceful tall
minarets at its four comers.
• As in Humayun‟s tomb, the tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary
chambers at the angles
• The tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome & made of white marble
(Substitution of red sandstone)
• Beautiful inlay work with precious multicolour stones (Pietra dura style) in
its floral and arabesque pattern.
• Shahjaha also constructed a number of elegant, lavishly decorated buildings
viz. Red Fort, Khas Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, & Jama Masjid in Delhi
• Built Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his daughter Jahanara Begum
& Wazir Khan‟s mosque in Lahore, 1634.

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 Red Fort (Lal Quila)
• In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capital from Agra to
Delhi.
• Work begun in 1639 and completed after 9 years.
• Red Fort is an irregular octagon with its walls, gates,
and a few other structures constructed in red
sandstone, and marble used for the palaces.
• It consists of a Diwan-i-Aam, containing the marble
canopy ornamented with beautiful panels of pietra dura
work showing a few paintings.

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 Diwan-i-Khas (In Red Fort)
• It is a high ornamented
pillared hall, with a flat
ceiling supported on
engraved arches.
• Its pillars contain Pietra
dura ornamentation and the
upper portion was originally
gilded and painted.
• It is also said that its marble
dais once supported the
famous Peacock Throne
(Muhammad Shah dfeated by
Nadir shah. ).

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 Aurangzeb (1658 – 1707)
• The love of
constructing
magnificent buildings
came to an end
rather abruptly with
the last of the great
Mughals, Emperor
Aurangzeb.
• Built Bibi-ki-Maqbara
(tomb of his wife
Begum Rabia
Durani) → a poor
replica of the Taj
Mahal.

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC16

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 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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 Classifications

Ancient India

Harappa Art Mauryan Art Post-Mauryan Art

Gupta Age Art South Indian Art

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 Classifications

Medieval India

Delhi Sultanate Mughal Art

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 Classifications

Modern India

Indo- Gothic Style Neo- Roman Style

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 Modern Architecture
• The arrival of the European colonists coincided with
the decline of the Mughal empire which started a power
struggle among the Portuguese, French, Dutch, Danish
and the British, which culminated in the British rule of
India till 1947.
• However, the Europeans also brought with them a
wealth of architectural styles, which can be seen in the
numerous constructions they undertook.

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 Portuguese Influence
• The Portuguese brought with them the Ilberian style of architecture. They
initially built trading posts and ware houses, which were later remodeled
into fortified town along the coastlines. They also introduced the concept of
„Patio houses.
• Example: St. Cathedral in Goa and Castella de Aguanda in Mumbai.

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 French influence
• The French brought the conception
of urban city planning with them.
• The French towns of Pondicherry
(now Puducherry) and
Chandernagore (now Chandannagar).
• They built imposing buildings as a
show of power.
• They also introduced the concept
of anonymous architecture which
is a feature of modern
architecture.
• Example: Church of Sacred Heart
of Jesus in Puducherry.

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 British Influence
• The British brought with them the Gothic style of architecture. It merged
with the Indian architecture and resulted in the Indo-Gothic style of
architecture.
• Post-1911, a new style of architecture known as the Neo-Roman
architecture emerged.
• Indo-Gothic Style: Also known as the Victorian style, it was a unique blend of
Indian, Persian and Gothic style of Architecture. Some features are:
1. Onion (bulbous) domes –Bulbous, onion like roofs with a pointed projection.
2. Doomed kiosks – Indigeniously called chhattris; supported by 4 columns;
largely used to lend visual symmetry
3. Towers/Minarets – Tall spires with a conical crown;
4. Overhanging Eaves –protection against bad weather.
5. Pinnacles (शशखर) – Ornamental capping of towers and buttresses.
6. Vaulted (गुंबदाकार) roofs Open pavilions

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Ind0 Gothic Style: Gateway of India, Mumbai

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 Ind0 Gothic Style: Example

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 Victoria Terminus Station (Chhatrapati Shivaji station), Mumbai
• Designed by the British architect
F. W. Stevens, the structure
became the symbol of Bombay
• Based on late medieval Italian
models, the terminal was built
over 10 years, starting in 1878
• An outstanding example of
Victorian Gothic revival
architecture in India
• Blended with themes deriving
from Indian traditional
architecture
• Bombay city was labelled as the
„Gothic City‟

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 Victoria Memorial Hall (Kolkata)
• Designed by
William Emerson in
late 19th century
• To perpetuate the
memory of Queen
Victoria in India
• Drew elements
from the indigenous
& Indo-Islamic
architecture
combined with the
Gothic revival &
Neo-Classical styles

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 Neo-Roman Style
• Post-1911, the constructions undertaken by the British Raj were done
according to Neo-Roman style or Neo-classical style.
• The architecture of New Delhi, done by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
was the finest example of this style.
• It has been often described as the “Rome of Hindustan". The features of this
phase are:
1. The constructions were anonymous and without any interesting features.
2. It was a confluence of all styles of architecture which made it congested
and cramped the space of artistic expression.
3. Simplicity, modernity and utility were highly compromised due to the hybrid
nature of the constructions.
4. There was a focus on circular buildings.
5. Concept of Upturned Dome: Supreme Court, Rastrapati Bhavan.

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OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC17

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 Indian Painting

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 INTRODUCTION
 Indian painting has a very long tradition and history
in Indian art.
 The earliest Indian paintings were the rock paintings
of pre-historic times, the petroglyphs(rock engravings)as
found in places like Bhimbetka rock shelters(earliest
painting), some of the Stone Age rock paintings found
among the Bhimbetka rock shelters are approximately
30,000 years old.
 Earliest evidence of Paintings are found on ROCKS
 Then came the Painted Pottery of Indus Valley
Civilisation.
 But the real beginning of Paintings can be traced from
GUPTA AGE.

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 Pre-Historic Paintings
 Painted rock shelters by prehistoric cave dwellers.
 Reflects primitive records of wild animals, birds & marine
creatures.
 Depicts human images, dancing images and hunting scenes.
 There is use of Bold lines and colours like ochre red, yellow
earth colors, or soot black.
 Notable example → Bhimbetka caves in MP (biggest
prehistoric art depository in India).
 The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site from
the paleolithic and mesolithic period through about 1700 BCE
in central India.
 It is a UNESCO world heritage site that consists of seven hills
and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 kilometres
 Bhimbetka caves were discovered in 1958 by V.S. Wakanker.

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 Classification of Indian Paintings
Mural Paintings Miniature Paintings
 Murals are large works executed on the walls  Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or
of solid structures directly, as in the Ajanta albums on perishable material such as paper, cloth, leaf or on Glass.
Caves & Kailash temple (Ellora).  Miniature small and detailed paintings.
 The mural paintings are unique because of  There are several precondition that are necessary to be fulfilled for
their large size. making miniature painting.
 They cannot be contained on paper and need a. The painting should not be larger than 25 square inch.
to be executed on the walls of large structures b. The subject of the painting should be painted in not more than
usually cave and temple walls. 1/6th of the actual size. For example- An adult head of 9 inches
 The theme of these in India are based on all would not be painted larger than 1.5 inches.
three religions Buddhism, Jainism as well as  Some examples are Pala School paintings, Kishangarh paintings
Hinduism. Mughal paintings, Miniature art during Delhi Sultanate Etc.

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 Mural Painting: Fresco Painting
 A technique of mural painting executed
upon freshly laid lime plaster.
 With the setting of the plaster; the
painting becomes an integral part of
the wall.
 This implies that the Fresco is done on
wet plaster and that is why it is more
durable work than normal Mural
paintings as Murals are painted on
already dried surfaces .

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 Features of Indian Miniature Paintings
 Most human characters are seen with side profiles.
 Characters of painting usually have bulging eyes,
pointed nose and slim waist.
 In Rajasthani miniature skin colour of the character
is Brown where as in Mughal paintings they are
generally Fairer.
 The colour of divine being like Lord Krishna is blue.
 Women have long hairs and colour of their eyes and
hair are generally black.
 Men generally wear traditional clothes and turban on
their head.

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 Six Limbs/Sadanga of Indian Paintings
 In Vatsyayana, Kama sutra, Painting is of the fine art among the 64 fine arts.
 Here Vatsyayana speaks about 6 principles or limbs called as Sadangas of paintings.
These are as follow-

1. Rupabheda Knowledge of appearance like facial expressions and features.

2. Pramanam Correct perception, measure and structure of the subject or

object.
3. Bhava Portraying of feelings and emotions on Canvas.

4. Lavanya Yojanam Infusion of Grace and artistic representation.

5. Sadrisyam Similarities between the real and the creation.

6. Varnikabhanga Colour differentiation by using the right brush and colours.

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 1.Rupabheda

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 2. Pramanam

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 4. Lavanya Yojanam

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 Mural Paintings
1. Ajanta Cave Paintings -
 It is situated in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra and since
1983, Ajanta Caves have been UNESCO World Heritage site.
 Ajanta Caves consists of a set of 29 Caves and
Both Mural and Fresco paintings are found on the wall of Ajanta Caves.
 Prominent features–
• Half closed drooping eyes
• Each female Have a unique hairstyle.
• Even animal and bird are shown with emotions
• Common Theme of these paintings ; Jataka stories having
Buddhist influence.
• Colours used in paintings are red Ochre, brown, Black Or deep red

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2. Sittanavasal Caves Paintings –
 These famous Rock cut caves are known for the
paintings in the Jain temples located in Pudukkottai
town in Tamilnadu.
 These Mural have close resemblance to bargain Ajanta
cave paintings.
 The painting are not only on the walls but also on the
ceiling and pillars.
 Initiated by MahendraVerman and NarsimhaVerman
(Pallava rulers)
 Paintings are connected with Jaina theme.
 Technique used in painting is Fresco technique.
 The common colours include yellow, green, Orange,
blue, black and white.

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3. Ellora Cave Paintings -
 Ellora in Maharashtra, India, is one of the largest rock-cut
monastery-temple cave complexes in the world, and
a UNESCO World Heritage Site
 It has influence of all three religions Hinduism, Jainism,
Buddhism.
 Theme of painting are Ramayana and Mahabharata
,animals, battle scenes ,Shiva etc.
 Painted in rectangular panels with thick borders.
 Prominent features-
• Sharp twist of the head.
• painted angular bents of the arms.
• sharp projected nose.
• long drawn open eyes.

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4. Lepakshi Paintings –
 These paintings were executed on walls of
Lepakshi Temple located in Vijaynagar district
of Karnataka made by Vijayanagar empire.
 Paintings of the temple do not follow a religious
theme rather a secular theme despite being a
temple.
 Paintings show a complete absence of primary
colours , especially Blue.(A primary colour is a colour
which cannot be made by mixing other colours and the primary
colours are red, yellow and blue)
 These paintings depict a decline in painting in
terms of quality.
 The forms, figures and details of the costumes are
outlined with black colour

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 Miniature Paintings
1.The Pala School of Art-
 The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature Paintings
(11-12th century)
 These paintings are generally found as a part of manuscript
and were generally executed on Palm leaves or vellum paper.
 A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the
Buddhist themes were written, illustrated with the images of
Buddhist deities at these centers.
 Isolation is found in the painting means there is only
one single figures or two figures in the painting and rare
group paintings.
 In the name of nature only Banana and Coconut trees are
painted.

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2. Apbhramsa School of
Art-
 It is also known as Jain school of Art.
 Originated in Gujarat and Mewar region of Rajasthan.
 The most common theme of these paintings were Jain and
in later period Vaishnav too.
 Painting made on Palm leaf in earilier phase but later they
were made on paper.
 Features of the human figures in the paintings have fish
shaped bulging eyes, pointed nose, double chin and
stiff posture.
 The animal and bird figurines in the painting are
represented as Toys.
 Use of Bright and Gold colours.

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3. Sultanate Painting-
 The Sultanate painting shows an attempt to
arrive at a fusion of the newly-introduced
Persian and Indian traditional styles.
 There are hardly any examples of court
painting during the Sultanate.
 One of the earliest known examples date
from the 15th century, including a copy of
the Shahnama
or Book of Kings, created under Lodi rule,
which bears a close relationship to
contemporary Jain
paintings.
 Features: standing in rows and identical
poses, narrow bands of decoration.

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4. Mughal Era Paintings
 Mughal paintings had Indian, Persian( safavi school of art) and
Islamic influence.
 There was change in colours and introduced variety of Themes except
Religious themes and hence Secular in Nature.
 The focus shifted from depicting God to gloryfying the ruler and now they
focused on hunting scenes, historical events and other court related
paintings.
 These painting were considered unique because of the use of Brilliant
colours and accuracy in line drawing
 Mughal brought the technique of Foresightening in India.
 Undre this technique " objects was drawn in a way that they look closer
and smaller than they really are"
 The contributions in the field of Painting under the successive rulers are
as follows-

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A. Babur
 He did not have much time to Commission paintings but
patronised the Persian artist called Bihzad.
B. Humayun
 He brought to main painters from Persia Abdus Sammad and
Mir Sayeed Ali and hence Persian influence started in Mughal
paintings.
C. Akbar
 Akbar established department for paintings and Karkhana or
workshops for paintings.
 He regularly gave award to the painters for their work.
 Akbar recognise beauty of Indian artist and invited them to work in
his Karkhana and hence the Indian influence started in the Mughal
paintings.

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 The unique feature of paintings in
Akbar's are the use of three dimensional
figures and the continued use of
foresightening.
 Use of calligraphy in paintings
encouraged by the artists.
 One of the prominent feature of this
period was the transformation of
popular art to the court art i.e. the artist
was more focused at depicting the scenes
of court life than the life of the masses.
 Famous painters of this period- Daswant,
Basawan and Kesu.

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D. Jahangir-
 The Mughal paintings reached its climax in the
period Of Jahangir.
 He was a naturalist (lover of nature) by nature and
focused more on the paintings of flora and fauna
like birds, animals, trees flowers etc.
 Portrait paintings were emphasized in this period.
 Decorated margins in the painting was one of the
Unique trend in this phase.
 Jahangir himself was a good Artist and had his own
private workshop.
 Most famous miniature paintings of this time-
Zebra, the Turkey and the Cock.
 Famous artists from his period is Ustad Mansur,
Abul Hasan and Bishandas.

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E. Shahjahan-
 Naturalistic depictions in the painting diminished in this
period.
 Shah Jahan likes to create artificial elements in the
paintings.
 Liveliness in the paintings reduced and unnatural stillness
was seen in paintings because of European influence in his
Court.
 Use of charcoal and pencil sketching was used widely.
 Too much Use of gold, silver and bright colours in the
Painting.
 Famous artists of the period were Mohammad Faqirullah
Khan, Mir Hashim, Muhammad Nadir, Bichir,
Chitarman, Anupchhatar, Manohar and Honhar.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
F. Aurangzeb-
 He discouraged paintings and
hence Dispersion of artists from
Mughal court was seen.
 After this there was development of
regional School of paintings.
 Due to lack of patronage artists
migrated to Hyderabad in the
Deccan and to the Hindu states of
Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh etc.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC18

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 Indian Painting

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 Regional School of Paintings
A. Rajasthani paintings(Rajput
paintings)
 Rajasthani style of painting is deeply rooted in Indian tradition &
Mythology and the theme of this painting was Indian epics like Ramayana
and mahabharat, love poems, hunting scene, riding scenes etc.
 In Rajasthani style of paintings there was use of strong and contrasting
colours, bold drawing etc.
 It developed in three phases-
a. 16 century- simple, straight forward paintings on solid and dark
background
b. 17 century- Fine and sophisticated paintings.
c. 18th century -Portrait paintings means human oriented paintings.
 There are several sub styles of Rajasthani painting as follows-

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
1. Mewar Paintings-
 It is also known as Raagmala Paintings.
 These paintings are based on Ragas means is a
fusion of painting, poetry and music.
 Theme- Most of the paintings depicted life at
court in Mewar.
 The unique point of this period is the
extraordinary Tamasha paintings that show
court ceremonial and city views in detail.
 In these paintings, bright and brilliant red,
orange, green, bright-blue colours have been
profusely used.
 Famous painter work Sahibdin etc.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
2. Kishangarh School of
Painting
 Kishangarh paintings developed under the
patronage of Raja Sawant Singh.
 Men and women are drawn with pointed nose,
curved eyes and serpentine locks of hair.
 Themes-portraits or love scenes of Radha and
Krishna.
 Use of gold and primary colours was very much.
 Krishna is painted in blue colour.
 Famous painting is Bani Thani painting called as
Indian Monalisa made by Nihal Chand.
 Famous Painter- Nihalchand etc.

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3. Bundi school of Painting
 Bundi is located in Aravalli ranges .
 The main focus in painting is on local vegetation.
 Theme- love scenes , Asthetic scene etc.
 There was use of both primary and secondary colours
.
 Human faces are round having pointed nose.
 Colour of sky is painted in different colours and
mostly a red ribbon is visible in the sky.
 Notable examples → Bhairavi Ragini (Allahabad
Museum), illustrated manuscript of the Bhagawata
Purana (Kota Museum) & a series of the Rasikapriya
(National Museum, Delhi)

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
4. Amber -Jaipur
painting
 This School is also called the Dhundar
school.
 This school of painting originated at
Amber but later shifted to Jaipur.
 This school is reached its climax in the
period of Sawai Pratap Singh in the 18th
century.
 There is a fairly large number
of portraits and miniature of the Jaipur
rulers in the paintings.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
5. Marwar School of
painting
 Men and women wore colourful clothing in the
painting.
 The school of painting is completely uninfluenced
by the Mughal Style after 18th century.
 Large number of miniature comprising portraits
etc executed from the 17th to 19th centuries at
several Centre of paintings like Pali, Jodhpur,
Nagaur in Marwar.
 Famous painter during this time was Man Singh
and he commissioned extensive series of
paintings including the Shiva Purana,
NataCharitra, DurgaCharitra, Panchtantra etc.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 B. Pahari School of painting
 The Pahari School of painting comprises the present state of
Himachal Pradesh, some areas of Punjab, area of Jammu in the
Jammu and Kashmir state and Garhwal in Uttar Pradesh.
 Lord Metacafe discovered Pahari paintings in Kangra valley
(1835-36) and after discovery of Pahari School of paintings,
Rajput style of Paintings classified as; Rajasthani school of
painting and Pahari School paintings.
 In Pahari School of painting both Mughal and Rajasthani
influence can be seen.
 The theme ranged from mythology to literature and some
common theme were: love scenes of Radha Krishna, boyhood
pranks of Krishna, dedicated graces of Indian womenhood.
 Two greatest figure of this school are Nainsukh and Manaku.

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1. BASOHLI
 The earliest centre of painting in the Pahari
region was Basohli where under the
patronage of Raja Kripal Pal, an artist
named Devidasa executed miniatures in the
form of the Rasamanjari illustrations in 1694
A.D.
 There is a change in the facial type which
becomes a little heavier.
 The Basohli style of painting is characterized
by vigorous and bold lines and strong glowing
colours, large eyes, use of beetles wings for
showing diamonds in ornaments, narrow sky.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
2. GULER (Jammu)
 Consisting of portraits of Raja
Balwant Singh of Jasrota (a small
place near Jammu) by Master
Nainsukh.
 Paintings are in a new naturalistic and
delicate style marking a change from
the earlier traditions of the Basohli
art.
 Colours used are soft and cool.
 Inspired by the naturalistic style of
the Mughal painting.
OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
3. Kangra school of Painting
 The Guler style was followed by another style of
painting termed as the "Kangra style", representing
the third phase of the Pahari painting in the last
quarter of the 18th century.
 The name Kangra style is given to this group of
painting for the reason that they are identical in style
to the portraits of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra.
 This painting reached its zenith during the reign of
Maharaja Sansar Chand.
 In these paintings, the faces of women in profile have
the nose almost in line with the forehead, the eyes
are long and narrow and the chin is sharp.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
4. Thangka
School
 This painting is famous in
Ladakh region.
 Chinese influence in
paintings can be seen
because of a famous symbol
Dragon which is an
important symbol in China.
 Thangkas are painted
on cotton or silk.
 Mostly miniature paintings
are found.

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 C. South Indian Paintings
 The trend of making miniature paintings was
already prevalent in South Indian states and it
developed in the early mediaeval period.
 These paintings were different from the North
Indian miniature paintings because of heavy use of
gold.
 There is more concentration on divine creatures in
painting than that of rulers.
 Some major school of South Indian paintings are
Tanjore school of painting, Mysore school of
painting etc.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
1. Mysore Paintings-
 It is originated in the town of Mysore in Karnataka.
 These paintings are known for their elegance and attention
to detail.
 Painting is done on paper.
 The major theme of the Mysore painting is the depiction of
Hindu Gods and Goddesses.
The unique part of these paintings is that they had two or
more figures in each painting and one figure predominates
all the others in sheer size and colour.
More use of muted colour means not so bright colour.
Technique of painting is very different from the North
Indian style as they use the “Gessopaste” which is a
mixture of zinc oxide and Arabic Gum.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
2. Tanjore paintings
 Thanjavur painting has been recognized as a Geographical
indication by the Government of India in 2007-08
 Theme: Hindu Gods and Goddesses, pictures of child
Krishna dominates more in these paintings.
 Portraits have a smiling face of figures.
 So much concentration on decoration, brilliant colour
patterns , use of very rarely precious and semi-precious
gems and also liberal use of gold.
 These paintings are created on glass or board instead of cloth
or leaf.
 Conical crown - a typical feature of the Tanjore painting
 These painting reached their zenith under patronage of
Sarfoji Maharaj.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC19

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Indian Painting

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 Folk Paintings of India
1) Madhubani
Paintings-
 It is folk painting of Mithila region of
Bihar.
 Therefore, It is also called Mithila painting
 Exclusive monopoly of Women in these
paintings.
 Uniqueness of these are that No Gap left
Empty in the painting and and the gaps are
filled by paintings of animals, birds, flora
and even geometrical designs .

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 The out line is drawn directly with a brush without any preliminary
sketching.
 The figures in these paintings are two dimensional.
 The paintings are made depicting auspicious occasion like birth,
marriage and festivals etc.
 Traditionally these paintings were painted on walls using rice paste and
vegetable colours on the base of cow dung and Mud.(Mural Painting)
 But after 1967 these were executed on paper or clothes etc in order to
sell them i.e for commercialization purpose.(Miniature paintings)
 Famous people associated with this painting Bua devi, Bhati Dayal
"Ganga Devi and Sita Devi.
 Since the art has remained confined a specific geographical area, it has
been given Geographical indication status.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
2. Warli paintings
 The name of the painting come from the people
called the warlis, indigenous tribe from Maharashtra.
 These paintings have close resemblance to the
Mural paintings of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.
 The base of the painting is made of a mixture
of Mud, branches and cow dung that gives it a red
ochre colour.
 For painting only white pigment is used which is
made up of a mixture of gum and rice powder.
 With time the popularity of Warli painting has
resulted in these being painted on a cloth of a base
of red or black background using white poster
colour. Hence these are both Mural and Miniature
Paintings.

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3. Manjusha Paintings
 This art form belongs to Bhagalpur
region of Bihar.
 It is believed that Manjusha art
originated in Anga Mahajanapada.
Hence, It is also known as Angika art.
 It is also called as snake painting
because snake Motifs are always
present in the painting.
 Boxes of jute and paper are used for
execution of these paintings.
 Geometric figures are used in
paintings.

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4. KALIGHAT PAINTINGS-
 Kalighat painting was a product of the changing
urban society of the 19th century
Calcutta.(Kolkata)
 Kalighat temple was considered the main centre
around which the traditional artists called „the
pataus‟ or „painters of cloth‟ concentrated.
 Water colours were used on Mill paper
using brush made of calf and squirrel hair.
 Originally theme of the painting was on Hindu
Gods and goddesses but over time these paintings
were used to express social sentiments of people.
 Romantic depictions of women in the paintings.

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5. Pattachitra Painatings-
 It is traditional painting of Odisha and the
name Pattachitra comes from a Sanskrit word
patta, which means canvas/cloth and chitra means
picture.
 No pencil or charcoal is used , rather brush is used
to draw outlines in Red or yellow.
 There is coating of Lacquer in the painting to give a
glossy finish.
 Theme of the painting are inspired from the
Jagannath and Vaishnava cult and sometimes from
Shakti and Shiva cult.
 Pattachitra on Palm Leaf is known as Tala
pattachitra

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6. Paitkar Paintings-
 Paitkar painting is practiced by Tribal people of Jharkhand.
 Paitkar painting is one of the earliest forms of tribal
paintings in India, and are also called scroll paintings due to
its appearance.
 These paintings are the pictures depicted in the way of
storytelling.
 This painting has cultural association with Ma Mansa , one of
the popular goddesses in Bengali household.
 Common theme of the painting is “what happens to human
life after death”.
 The usual subjects of these paintings are-
• Flora and Fauna
• Legend and Folktale
• Traditional Hindu Epic
• Festivals and Fairs.

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7. Kalamkari Paintings-
 Kalamkari literally means, Kalam - pen & kari
means - work, i.e., art work done using a pen.
 The main centers for this art are Srikalahasti and
Machilipatnam in Andhra pradesh.
 The artists use a bamboo or date palm stick to
serve as the brush or pen.
 Vegetable dyes are used to colour the designs
applied on the base of cotton cloth.
 Gods are painted blue.
 The demons and evil characters in red and
green.
 Yellow is used for female figures and
ornaments.
 Red is mostly used as a background.

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 Geographical Indication Status
 A geographical indication(GI) is a name or sign used on certain products which
corresponds to a specific geographical location or origin (e.g. a town, region, or country).
 India, as a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO), enacted the Geographical
Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999 has come into force with
effect from 15 September 2003.
 GIs have been defined under Article 22(1) of the WTO Agreement on Trade-Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights(TRIPS) Agreement .
 Darjeeling tea became the first GI tagged product in India, in 2004-05.
 Some paintings with GI status are:
1) Kangra paintings – Himachal Pradesh
2) Madhubani paintings – Bihar
3) Pattachitra – Odisha
4) Warli paintings- Maharashtra
5) Thanjore paintings- Tamil nadu
6) Mysore paintings - Karnataka

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 Modern Painting: Company Painting
 In the colonial period, a hybrid style of painting
emerged that combined the elements of Rajput,
Mughal and other Indian styles of painting with
European elements.
 They brought in European styles and techniques
to the painting.
 These paintings evolved when the British
Company officers employed painters who had
been trained in Indian styles.
 Hence, they mixed their employers European
tastes with their Indian training and this was the
called the 'Company Paintings'.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Continued…..
 They were distinguished by the use of water
colour and in technique by the appearance of
linear perspective and shading.
 This style of painting originated in Kolkata,
Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi and Thanjavur.
 Lord Impey and Richard Wellesley patronised
the painters; several painters were engaged in
painting the 'exotic' flora and fauna of India.
 The most famous of this school were Sewak
Ram, Ishwari Prasad and Ghulam Ali Khan.

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 Bazaar Painting

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 Bazaar Painting
 This school was also influenced by the European encounter in India.
 They were different from the Company paintings as that school mixed European
techniques and themes with Indian ones.
 The Bazaar school did not take any Indian influence but took the Roman and Grecian
influence.
 They made the painters to copy the Greek and Roman statues.
 This school was prevalent in the Bengal and Bihar region.
 Apart from the Greco-roman heritage, they made paintings on everyday bazaar that
showed Indian bazaars with European background.
 One of the most famous genres was of depicting Indian courtesans dancing before the
British officials.
 They painted religious themes but the figures of Indian Gods and Goddesses with more
than two axes and elephant faces like that of Lord Ganesha were prohibited as they
deviated from the European notion of natural human figurine.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Modern Paintings of India
Company Painting
 In the colonial period, a hybrid style of painting
emerged that combined the elements of Rajput,
Mughal and other Indian styles of painting with
European elements.
 They brought in European styles and techniques
to the painting.
 These paintings evolved when the British
Company officers employed painters who had
been trained in Indian styles.
 Hence, they mixed their employers European
tastes with their Indian training and this was the
called the 'Company Paintings'.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Continued…..
 They were distinguished by the use of water
colour and in technique by the appearance of
linear perspective and shading.
 This style of painting originated in Kolkata,
Chennai, Delhi, Patna, Varanasi and Thanjavur.
 Lord Impey and Richard Wellesley patronized
the painters; several painters were engaged in
painting the 'exotic' flora and fauna of India.
 The most famous of this school were Sewak
Ram, Ishwari Prasad and Ghulam Ali Khan.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Bazaar Painting
 This school was also influenced by the European encounter in India.
 They were different from the Company paintings as that school mixed European
techniques and themes with Indian ones.
 The Bazaar school did not take any Indian influence but took the Roman and Grecian
influence.
 They made the painters to copy the Greek and Roman statues.
 This school was prevalent in the Bengal and Bihar region.
 Apart from the Greco-roman heritage, they made paintings on everyday bazaar that
showed Indian bazaars with European background.
 One of the most famous genres was of depicting Indian courtesans dancing before the
British officials.
 They painted religious themes but the figures of Indian Gods and Goddesses with more
than two axes and elephant faces like that of Lord Ganesha were prohibited as they
deviated from the European notion of natural human figurine.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Bazaar Painting

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Painting of Raja Ravi Verma
 Raja Ravi Verma is one of India's greatest painters.
 He is considered to be the originator of the school of modern painting.
 The school was called 'modern' because of the heavy influence of
western techniques and themes.
 He was unique as he brought together elements of south Indian
painting with the western techniques of colour and style.
 He belonged to the state of Kerala and was called as the 'Raphael
of the East' because of his brilliant brush strokes and almost life
like paintings.
 Some of this very famous works include Lady in the Moonlight,
Mother India, etc.
 He gained nationwide recognition for his paintings from the epic
Ramayana especially the one titled 'Ravana Kidnapping Sita'.

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 Bengal School of Arts
 This school is unique as they use simple colours .
 The idea of the Bengal School came up with the work of
Abhanindranath Tagore.
 His Arabian Nights series made a mark on a global scale.
 One of the most famous painters of this school is Rabindranath
Tagore and paintings are unique as they used dominant black
lines that made the subject to look very prominent.
 He made small sized paintings.
 Spirituality is also seen in his painting.
 Most of the women he painted are shown covering their hands
and bodies under folds of their flowing veils or saris signifying
existence of the Bengali women of his time.
 Their eyes suggest sadness, and the dark shadows behind their
faces suggest their inability to express themselves.

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 Cubist Style of Paintings
 Under this style, the objects were broken,
analyzed and then
reassembled.
 The artist reconstructed this process on the
canvas through the use of abstract art forms.
 They tried to achieve the perfect balance between
line and colour.
 One of the most popular cubist artists in India
was M.F Hussain, who made a series of paintings
called the 'Personification of Romance'.
 He also used the “motif of a Horse” frequently in
paintings as it was best to depict the fluidity of
motion.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Cubist Style of Paintings

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC20

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Criteria for Cultural Sites
• Represents a masterpiece of human creative genius.
• Exhibits an important interchange of human values over a span of time a
cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology,
monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design.
• Bears a unique or exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a
civilization which is living or which has disappeared.
• Is an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural, or technological
ensemble or landscape which illustrates a significant stage in human history.
• Is an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use or sea-
use which is representative of culture or human interaction with the
environment specially when it becomes vulnerable beacause of changing
environment
• Living traditions with ideas or belief.

OFFICE-A-35/36,Bhandari House,Mukherjeenagar,Delhi-9,phn-09873102982
 Criteria for Natural Sites
• Contains superlative natural phenomena exceptional natural
beauty, and aesthetic importance.
• Representing major stages of earth`s history.
• Outstanding example of representing, significant ongoing
ecological and biological processes in the evolution and
development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine
ecosystem, and communities of plant and animals.
• Contains important and significant natural habitat for in-situ
conservation of biological diversity, including those that
contains threatened species of outstanding universal value.

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 Cultural Sites
1983
• Ajanta caves- Maharashtra
• Ellora Caves – Maharashtra
• Taj Mahal- Uttar Pradesh
• Agra Fort- Uttar Pradesh
1984
• Sun Temple- Konark ,Odisha
1985
• Maliaballipuram Temples - Tamil Nadu

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 Continue…
1986
• Churches in Goa
• Khajuraho Temples - Madhya Pradesh
• Fatehpur Sikri - Uttar Pradesh
• Hampi Temples- Karnataka
1987
• Elephanta Caves – Maharashtra
• Pattadakal Temples - Karnataka
1989
• Sanchi Stupa - Madhya Pradesh

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 Continue…
1993
• Humayun's Tomb - Delhi
• Qutub Minar - Delhi
1999
• Darjeeling Himalayan Railway - West Bengal
2002
• Mahabodhi Temple - Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
2003
• Rock shelters of Bhimbetka - Madhya Pradesh

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 Continue…
2004
• Brihadeshwara Temple - Tamil Nadu
• Victoria Terminus – Mumbai, Maharashtra
• Airavateshwar Temple - Darasuram ,Tamil Nadu
2007
• Red Fort- Delhi
2008
• Kalka Shimla Railway- Himachal Pradesh
2010
• Jantar Mantar- Jaipur, Rajasthan

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 Continue…
2013
• 6 hills of Rajasthan
2014
• Rani ki vav- Gujarat
2016
• Chandigarh‟s Capitol Complex
• Nalanda University- Bihar

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 Natural Sites
• Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (Assam)
• Kaziranga National Park (Assam)
• Keoladeo National Park. Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
• Sundarban National Park (West Bengal)
• Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh)
• Western Ghats
• Valley of Flowers (Uttarakhand)
• Nilgiri Mountain Railways (Tamil Nadu)
• Nanda Devi National Park (Uttarakhand)
• Khangchendzonga National Park (KNP): Sikkim

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC21

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 Religion in India

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 Introduction
• Religion in India is characterized by a diversity of
religious beliefs & practices.
• Secularism in India means treatment of all religions
equally by the state.
• India is a Secular State by the 42nd amendment act
of Constitution in 1976.
• The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of
the world‟s major religions; namely Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
• Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both
established in the country by the law and custom;
the Constitution of India has declared the right to
freedom of religion to be a fundamental right.

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 Hinduism
• Hinduism is a word that is drawn from Hindu, which connote people who
lived in the geographical area around the river Indus.
• Borrows its basic principles from pre Vedic and Vedic religious
philosophy.
• The oldest Veda is the Rig Veda and it consists of about 1000 Hymns.
• The Samveda the is about music and hymns.
• The YajurVeda is related to sacrificial hymns related to the Rig Veda.
• The Atharvaved is about the magic and medicine.
• All the Vedas have several commentary is attached to it like
Brahmanas as other literature was attached to it or call Arayankas,
which are mystical teaching and the Upanishads which are
speculations on the human being and his life reality.

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 Continue…
• These religious sacrifices and offerings work done in open air but later the pooja
or worship of the divine powers image begin.
• Soon there was a need to make temples and through the assimilation of various
ideas Hinduism became a proper religion with holy books, areas of worship
and priest to mediate with God.
• In the mediaeval, Hinduism went through Bhakti movement in North India
where the saints translated the Sanskrit text into Vernacular languages.
• In South India, the Vaishnavite movement was very strong and it reigned till the
end of 13th century. These saints, call Alvars, were the devotees of Vishnu and
sing songs which were collected and made into the Prabandhas .
• Another powerful group in the south was Shaivites or those who worship Shiva.
The saints who followed this were called Naynars.

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 Continue…
• In the modern Period, There was a need to change the highly ritualistic
nature of Hinduism.
• Many problems like the domination of Brahmins, Sati, child marriages
etc. had crept into Hinduism and the caste system led to large scale
discrimination.
• After the coming of the British and western ideals of equality, several
thinkers propelled to change the situation and they started some
movement to change the problems in Hinduism.
• Example: Brahmo Smaja, Ram Krishna Mission, Arya Samaj

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 Christianity
• Two major divisions – the Roman Catholic Church and
the Protestant church.
• According to tradition, Christianity was brought to India
by Saint Thomas in the 100 A.D.
• The Parthian king Gondophernes sent a messenger to
Syria to look for a skillful architect who would build for
him a new city, who returned with St. Thomas, who
converted him and many members of his court to
Christianity.
• The truth of the legend is doubtful.
• It was most probably the frequent trade and movement
between India and the west which was responsible for
bringing this disciple of Lord Christ to India.

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 Christianity
• Thomas preached Christianity in many parts of India & was killed at
Mylapore, near Madras.
• The tomb of St. Thomas is still to be found at the same place.
• A large community of Christians known as Syrian Christians continues to
reside in Kerala even today.
• Christianity is the third most dominant religion in India.
• At present there are about 2.3percent Christians in India .
• They are highly concentrated in Goa, Maharashtra, Arunachal Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu and Kerala.

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 Sikhism
• Started by Guru Nanak & was
preached by subsequent gurus till
tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh;
with basic beliefs as:
1. Formless god
2. Equality of all mankind
3. Need of a Guru
4. Pahul tradition
• Music has always been an
important feature of Sikhism as
they believe that through music
one can attain ecstacy or samadhi.

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 Continue…
 The fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev, gave the Sikhs three things viz.
• Adi Granth, which contains the sayings of five gurus and other allied saints.
• Standardized script for Gurmukhi in which the Adi Granth was first written.
• Site and the foundation of the Har Mandir sahib / Golden Temple and the Akal Takht
at Amritsar, the highest seat from where the dictats for the entire Sikh community are
issued.
 The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh created the Khalsa, which means “the pure”, in
1699.
• He also ordained the Sikhs to take five vows, namely, keeping of kesh (long hair and a
beard), kangha (comb), kada (a metallic bangle), kirpan (a sword) and kaccha (an
underwear extending to a little above the knees).
• He further added that after his death the Adi Granth will be the guru of the Sikhs and
they have to pay obeisance to this holy book.

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 Zoroastrianism
• Founded by Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in 8th century BC and preached monotheism in
the region now known as Persia
• Believe in one eternal god - Ahura Mazda.
• The first contact of the zoroastrians with India was in 936 AD when they fled from Iran
because of the Islamic invasions- Rajah of Sanjan story.
• They are commonly known as Parsis and are among the smallest communities in India.
• Live mostly in Mumbai, Goa and Ahmedabad.
• Thier sacred texts is Zenda Avesta and Athuna Vairyo which was supposedly written by
Zarathustra himself.
• They believe that dead matter is corrupting element to everything and hence they place
dead bodies in the open to be eaten by vultures.
• The only Space in India where they are left is “Tower of silence” in Mumbai
• Three major sects among the Parsis are: Shahenshai, Kadmi, Fasli.

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 Islam & Sufism
• Islam originated in the Arabian
Peninsula in the 5th century AD.
• The world Islam connotes submission to
God.
• The basic tenets of Islam are that there is
only one Allah and he send his messenger
to help the people on earth and Prophet
Mohammad was the last Prophet.
• According-to the Muslim belief, Quran is
the message of Allah revealed to
Mohammad through his archangel
(प्रधान दे वदत
ू ) Gabriel.

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 Continue…
• Prophet Mohammad‟s sayings are
preserved in what is called the Hadith or
Hadees.
The five fundamental principles of Islam are:
1. Tauhid (belief in Allah)
2. Namaz (prayers, five times a day)
3. Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan)
4. Zakat (giving of alms- शिक्षा)
5. Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca)
• The second most dominant religion after
Hinduism is Islam.

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 Sufism: Continue
• Sufism originated in Iran and found a congenial atmosphere in India under the
Turkish rule; preached spirituality through music mainly.
• In order to attain a state of mystical ecstasy, the sufis listened to poetry and
music (sama) which were originally in Persian, but later switched to Hindawi or
Hindustani.
• Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar
were the pioneer sufïs who are still loved, respected and honored in India.
• Sufis were also influenced by the Christian and Buddhist monks regarding the
establishment of their khanqahs () and dargahs
1. Khanqah - institutions (abode of Sufis) set up by the Sufis in northern India took Islam
deeper into the countryside.
2. Mazars (tombs) and Takias (resting places of Muslim saints) also became the centers for
the propagation of Islamic ideas.

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 Continue…
• Sufis were organized into religious orders
or silsilahs.
• According to Abul Fazl, the author of the Ain-
i-Akbari, there were as many as 14 silsilahs in
India during the sixteenth century.
• Sufis organized samas (a recital of holy songs)
to arouse mystical ecstasy.
• These also started the tradition of piri-
muridi, (teacher and the disciple).
• The shrines of some of the most famous saints
of sufism like Moinuddin Chishti and
Nizamuddin Auliya are in India.

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 Judaism
• Origins dating back nearly four thousand years,
rooted in the ancient near eastern region of Canaan
(which is now Israel and Palestinian territories).
Followers of Judaism are called Jews.
• Indian Jews are a religious minority of India.
• Judaism was one of the first foreign religions to
arrive in India- 2,000 years back.
• This is monotheistic religion and believed in One god
• Of the total Jewish population in India, about half live
in Manipur & Mizoram and a quarter live in the city
of Mumbai.
• In Kerala a community of Jews can be seen at
Kannur (Kodungalloor) and Kochi

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 BAHA’I Faith
• The Bahá'í Faith is a religion teaching the essential worth of all
religions, and the unity and equality of all people.
• Established by Bahá'u'lláh in 1863, it initially grew in Iran (Persia) and
parts of the Middle East, where it has faced ongoing persecution since
its inception. Currently it has between 5 and 7 million adherents,
known as Bahá'ís.
• Youngest of the world’s independent religion.
• India was the 6th country to have the Baha’i Faith introduced to it.
• Very small %age of population in India follows Baha’i Faith.
• Baha’i House of worship in Delhi, popularly known as the Lotus
Temple is a prominent attraction in Delhi.
• It was completed in 1986 and serves as the mother temple of the
Indian subcontinent.

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 BAHA’I Faith

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC22

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 Religion in India

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 Buddhism
• Gautam Buddha founded Buddhism and is known as Supreme
Buddha.
• He was born in Lumbini, a little principality of Kapilvastu in modern
day Nepal.
• Buddhahood or Buddhatva is the state of perfect enlighten attained
by a Buddha.
• This refers to the universal and innate property of absolute wisdom.
 Symbols of 5 great events of Buddha’s Life:
• Buddha‟s Birth: Lotus & Bull.
• The Great Departure (Mahabhinishkramana): Horse.
• Enlightment (Nirvana): Bodhi Tree.
• First Sermon (Dhammachakraparivartan): Wheel.
• Death (Parinirvana): Stupa.

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 Four Noble Truths
Four noble truths were taught by Buddha in Dhammachakraparivartan. They
are the core teachings of Buddhism.
• Sorrow: The world is full of sorrow and everything from birth to death brings
sorrows in life.
• Cause of Sorrow: The cause of sorrows is desire. It is the un-fulfillment of
human desires which leads him to the vicious cycle of births and rebirths.
• Prevention of Sorrow: It is possible to prevent sorrow. Man can get rid of
sorrow by triumphing over the desires.
• The path of Prevention of Sorrow: Man can avoid sorrow by avoiding
extremes of life and following middle path or Madhyam Patipada. The life of
moderation and self control along with pursuance of 8 fold path is essential to
prevent the sorrow.

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 The Eightfold Path of Buddhism
• Right understanding: Understanding that the Four Noble Truths are noble and true.
• Right thought: Determining and resolving to practice Buddhist faith.
• Right speech: Avoiding slander, gossip, lying, and all forms of untrue and abusive
speech.
• Right conduct: Adhering to the idea of nonviolence (ahimsa), as well as refraining
from any form of stealing or sexual impropriety.
• Right means of making a living: Not slaughtering animals or working at jobs that
force you to violate others.
• Right mental attitude or effort: Avoiding negative thoughts and emotions, such as
anger and jealousy.
• Right mindfulness: Having a clear sense of one‟s mental state and bodily health
and feelings.
• Right concentration: Using meditation to reach the highest level of enlightenment.

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 Buddhist Literature: Tripitaka
• Sutta Pitaka: It contains over 10 thousand suttas or sutras related to
Buddha and his close companions. This also deals with the first Buddhist
council which was held shortly after Buddha‟s death, dated by the
majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of king
Ajatasatru with the monk Mahakasyapa presiding, at Rajgir.
• Vinaya Pitaka: The subject matter of Vinay Pitaka is the monastic rules
for monks and nuns. It can also be called as Book of Discipline.
• Abhidhammapitaka: It deals with the philosophy and doctrine of
Buddhism appearing in the suttas. However, it does not contain the
systematic philosophical treatises. There are 7 works of Abhidhamma
Pitaka which most scholars agree that don‟t represent the words of
Buddha himself.

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 Some terminologies associated with Buddhism
• Nirvana: The concept of Nirvana in Buddhism is entirely different from the Hinduism.
Buddhism denied the concept of Moksha, however it defines Nirvana has to getting rid
of Cycle of Death and birth. It is achieved in the lifetime itself and not after death. To
achieve nirvana one should follow moral code of Conduct.
• Jatakas: They contain the tales of previous births of Buddha in poems. There are 547
poems.
• Buddha Charita: Buddha Charita is an epic style Sanskrit work by Ashavaghosa and was
compiled in second century BC. Dharmaraksa who is known to have translated many
works of Buddhism in Chinese, translated this work in Chinese in 420AD. It mainly
deals with Buddha‟s Life. Asvaghosa also wrote a Sanskrit Drama “Sariputra Prakaran”
which deals about Sariputta or Sariputra the disciple of Buddha.
• Bodhi Vamsa: Bodhi Vamsa is a mix Sanskrit Pali text which was composed by
Upatissa under the rule of Mahinda IV of Sri Lanka in 10th century AD. It describes the
arrival of branch of Bodhi tree in Sri Lanka and many other things which mentioned in
Mahavamsa.

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 Important Remark

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 Other Council
 Fifth Buddhist Council: 1871
• Fifth Buddhist Council took place in 1871 under the patronage of King Mindon in
Mandalay, Burma. It was presided by Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja, and
Sumangalasami. The idea was to recite all the teachings of the Buddha and examine
them systematically if any of them was dropped or altered.
 Sixth Buddhist Council : 1954
• The Sixth Buddhist Council was held in 1954 in Burma at Kaba Aye, in Yangoon under
the patronage of Burmese Government led by Prime Minister U Nu. Construction of
Maha Passana Guha, which is very much similar to India‟s Sattapanni Cave where the
first Buddhist Council had been held, was authorized by the government.
• It was aimed to preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya Pitaka. It held under the
presidency of Mahasi Sayadaw and Bhadanta Vicittasarabhivamsa. 500 buddhist
scholars from 8 countries participated in this council.

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 Hinayana
• Hînayâna is the orthodox, conservative schools of
Buddhism.
• Don‟t believe in Idol Worship and try to attain individual
salvation through self discipline and meditation.
• Asoka Patronized Hinayana.
• Pali the language of masses was use by the Hinayana
scholars.
• It is the dominant form of religion in Cambodia, Laos, Sri
Lanka, Thailand, and Burma.

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 Mahayana
• Mahayana Buddhism, also known as the Great Vehicle, is the form of
Buddhism prominent in North Asia, including China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea,
and Japan.
• This sect believes in the heavenliness of Buddha and believes in Idol
Worship.
• Fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine were based on the possibility
of universal liberation from suffering for all beings (hence the “Great
Vehicle”) .
• It allows salvation to be alternatively obtained through the grace of the
Amitâbha Buddha by having faith and devoting oneself to mindfulness of
the Buddha. This sect believes in Mantras.
• The main Mahayana sects include Pure Land, Zen, and Vajrayana (or
Tantric) Buddhism.

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 Difference

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 Vajrayana Buddhism
• A third major Buddhist tradition, the Vajrayana or Esoteric (गुप्त) tradition,
developed out of the Mahayana school and became a powerful and dynamic
religious force.
• The new form of text associated with this tradition, the tantras, appeared
during the Gupta period, and there are indications that distinctively Tantric rituals
began to be employed at this time as well.
• It was during the Pala period (8th–12th centuries), however, that the
Vajrayana/Esoteric tradition emerged as the most dynamic component of Indian
Buddhist life.
• The Vajrayana tradition of Buddhism spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet.
• Vajrayana Buddhists recognize a large body of Buddhist Tantras, some of which
are also included in Chinese and Japanese collections of Buddhist literature, and
versions of a few even in the Pali Canon.

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 StepUp IAS
Lecture
Code

PSS
AC23

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 Jainism
• The word 'Jain is derived from Jinna or Jaina which
means the Conqueror.
• They Believe that their religion is comprised of
people who have managed to control their desires.
• Jainism does not have a single founder. It is
commonly mistaken that Mahavir was the founder
of Jainism. However, he was the last Tirthankar.
• There were 23 Tirthankars before him.
• Jains form less than one percent of the Indian
population.
• The states of Gujarat and Rajasthan have the
highest concentration of Jain population in India.

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 Continue…
• Jainism lays heavy emphasis on non-violence (ahimsa) and the believers of this
religion, whether a monk or a householder, follow a very strict, well disciplined life.
• The first Tirthankar, Rishabhdev flourished prior to the Indus Valley Civilization and
has been referred to as Lord Vishnu in the Puranas.
• His name is also mentioned in the Vedas. The ancient Indian script, Brahmi, is
believed to be named after his (Rishabhdev's) daughter.
• He was followed by 23 other Tirthankars. The Jains believe that the Indus Valley
Civilization fiourished during the times between the third and the ninth
Tirthankaras .
 The different Tirthankaras are:
• Rishabha; Ajita; Sambhava; Abhinandana; Sumati; Padmaprabha; Supaarshva;
Chandraprabha; Pushpadanta; Shitalnatha; Shreyaamsha; Vaasupujya;
Vimala; Ananta; Dharma; Shanti; Kuntha; Aara; Mallinaatha; Munisuvrata; Nami;
Nemi; Paarshvanath and Mahavira.

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 Lord Mahaviraa
• Lord Mahavira was born at Vaishali in a Kshatriya nobel family, on March
30, 599 B.C. He was a contemporary of Lord Buddha.
• He was the 24th and the last of the Tirthankars. Mahavira was given a
name – Vardhamana, which means rising or growing, by his parents
because the family saw its prosperity after his birth.
• After leaving home at age of 30, for twelve years, he devoted himself to
self discipline and practiced severest penance and austerities.
• He gave his first sermon on the Vipula Peak at Rajgir. His first disciple
was Indrabhuti Gautama (female).
• He preached for the next 30 years, i.e. until the age of 72 when he
obtained nirvana.
• In his teachings, women had equal role to play and were not looked down
upon.
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 Continue
3 jewels of Jainism
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct
The principles of Jainism as preached by Mahavir
1. Rejected the authority of Vedas & Vedic rituals
3. Believed in karma & the transmigration of soul.
4. Lead great infancies on equality
 The early Jains discarded the Sanskrit language and adopted Prakrit
language.

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 The cardinal principles of Jainism are:
 Ahimsa-Nonviolence
 Satya- truthfulness
 Asteya- not stealing
 Aparigraha- non
acquisition and
 Brahmacharya- chaste
living

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 Jaina Sects
• Traditionally, the original doctrine of Jainism was contained in scriptures called
Purva. There were fourteen Purva. These are believed to have originated
from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara.
• There was a twelve-year famine around fourth century BCE. At that
time, Chandragupta Maurya was the ruler of Magadha and Bhadrabahu was the
head of Jain community.
• Bhadrabahu went south to Karnataka with his adherents and Sthulabhadra,
another Jain leader remained behind.
• During this time the knowledge of the doctrine was getting lost. A council was
formed at Pataliputra where eleven scriptures called Angas were compiled and
the remnant of fourteen purvas were written down in 12th Anga, Ditthivaya by
the adherents of Sthulbhadra.

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 Council
• When followers of Bhadrabahu returned, there was a dispute between them
regarding the authenticity of the Angas. Also, those who stayed at Magadha
started wearing white clothes which was unacceptable to the other who
remain naked. This is how the Digambara and Svetambara sect came about.
• The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 A.D. and was
presided over by Devardhi Kshamasemana.
• The purpose of this Council was to collect the sacred texts and write them
down systematically.
• However this time the 12th anga drawn at the first Council was lost. All the
remaining angas were written in Ardhamagadhi.

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 The reasons for spreading of Jainism
a) The success was the
popular dialect (Prakrit,
Religious literature was also
written in Ardhamagadhi)
used in place of Sanskrit by
Mahavira and his followers.
b) The simple and homely
morals prescribed to the
masses attracted the people.
c) The patronage extended
by Kings helped Jainism to
gain a place in the minds of
the people.

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