TECHNICAL JOURNAL Vol 1, No.

1, July 2019
Nepal Engineers' Association, Gandaki Province
ISSN : 2676-1416 (Print)
Pp.:  16-28

Analysis of Watersheds in Gandaki Province,

Nepal Using QGIS
Keshav Basnet*, Er. Ram Chandra Paudel and Bikash Sherchan
Infrastructure Engineering and Management Program
Department of Civil and Geomatics Engineering
Pashchimanchal Campus, Institute of Engineering
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
*Email: basnet.keshav@gmail.com

Abstract
Gandaki province has the good potentiality of hydro-electricity generation with existing twenty-
nine hydro-electricity projects. Since the Province is rich in water resources, analysis of watersheds
needs to be done for management, planning and identification of water as well as natural resources.
GIS offers integration of spatial and no spatial data to understand and analyze the watershed
processes and helps in drawing a plan for integrated watershed development and management. The
Digital Elevation Model (DEM) available on the NASA-Earth data has been taken as a primary data
for morphometric analysis of watershed in Gandaki Province using QGIS. Delineation of watershed
was conducted from a DEM by computing the flow direction and using it in the Watershed tool.
Necessary fill sink correction was made before proceeding to delineation. A raster representing
the direction of flow was created using Flow Direction tool to determine contributing area. Flow
accumulation raster was created from flow direction raster using Flow Accumulation Tool. A point-
based method has been used to delineate watershed for each selected point. The selected point may
be an outlet, a gauge station or a dam. The annual rainfall data from ground meteorological stations
has been used in QGIS to generate rainfall map for the study of rainfall pattern in the province
and watersheds using IDW Interpolation method. The present research work provides some major
morphometric watershed parameters like drainage area, flow length, slope, drainage density and
rainfall patterns for watersheds in Gandaki Province. Furthermore, the parameters were compared
among the watersheds in Kaski. The results of this study can be used as a reference for proposing
infrastructures in those watersheds and it can also be used for making policy by local government
authorities related to Energy, Water Resources, Irrigation, and Infrastructures.
Keywords: Hydrologic analysis; Hydrologic modeling; Watershed parameters; Morphometric
parameters; Phewa watershed.

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1. Introduction (2018) performed hydrologic analysis for the
Gandaki province has the good potentiality of purpose of designing storm water drainage in the
hydro-electricity generation with existing 29 area of Lamachaur, Pokhara, Nepal. They found
hydro-electricity projects (Sahayogee, n.d.). the existing drainage system of Lamachaur area
Number of lakes and perennial rivers can be is inadequate to safely discharge the surface
attributed to the richness in water resources in water based on hydrologic analysis. Since the
this province. The province is drained by the Gandaki Province is rich in water resources,
tributaries of the river Gandaki (Kali Gandaki, the comprehensive hydrological study of
Budhi Gandaki, Seti Gandaki, Marshyangdi, watersheds yet to be done by local government
Madi, Daraundi, and Seti). This province is and authorities related to water resource for
rich in lakes as well with Phewa, Rupa, Begnas, management, planning and identification of
Khaste, Dipang, and Tilicho lakes to name a water as well as natural resources. Basnet et
few. According to the Statistic Office Kaski, al. (2018) conducted comparative hydrological
Central Bureau Statistics, the Gandaki Province study of common approaches used for calculation
covers an area of 21,773 km2 which is about of design discharge. They concluded that the
14.66% of the total area of Nepal. The Province Catchment Area Ratio method found to be
is extending between 27°-20' N to 29°-20' N suitable one for estimating the design discharge
latitude and 82°-52' E to 85°-12' E longitude. In of Padhu Khola, Kaski, Nepal. The present
terms of terrain, the province is spread over the research performed hydrologic modeling to
Himalayan, Hilly and Terai regions of Nepal; study watersheds within Gandaki Province.
5,919 km2 (26.8%) of the area falls under The major focus was given to Kaski District
the Himalayan region, 14,604 km2 (67.2%) and Phewa Watershed (see Figure 1 and Figure
of the area falls under the Hilly region, and 2). The Phewa Lake Watershed (28°11′39″ to
1,310 km2 (6%) of the area falls under 28°17′25″ N and 83°47′51″ to 83°59′17″ E) is
the Terai region (Province Profile, Province a micro region of the hill of Nepal. It lies in the
No. 4). Hydrological studies are important west of Pokhara Metropolitan City (Former
and necessary for water and environmental Pokhara Sub-metropolitan City) covering about
resources management. Demands from society 122.53 km2 area with the elevation from the sea
on the predictive capabilities of such study level between 793 m and 2508.81 m. Some 5.75
and analysis of hydrological parameters are km2 area of Phewa Lake watershed realm lies in
becoming higher and higher, leading to the need Pokhara City and occupies 38% population of
of enhancing existing research theories and the city (Aryal, 2007).
even on developing new theories. For example,
hydrological analysis is critical to design road
side drains for better management of storm water
in major cities of Nepal. Basnet and Neupane

Volume 1 Issue 1 17
 and sub-basins and determine
morphometric parameters: (a) Drainage
Area, (b) Watershed Length, (c) Watershed
Slope, (d) Flow Length, (e) Drainage
Density, and (f) Watershed Shape Factors
using QGIS.
c) To use rainfall data from TRMM and
ground meteorological stations to generate
rainfall map of sub-basins.
Figure 1: Map of Gandaki Province Recently, Nepal has gone into federal system
(Source: Provincial Government, Gandaki Province) and there are challenges for every province to
manage administrative system first, secondly
the management of water resource in order
to prioritize the major concern. In Gandaki
Province where there are numbers of lakes
and water basins exist, it is very important to
manage these water resources and watersheds
for proper development of the province and for
predicting and managing future water demand.
One of the major tasks for this would be analysis
of watersheds in Gandaki Province. Watershed
Figure 2: Landsat (MSS, OLI and TM) analysis provides not only their boundaries
image of Phewa watershed (Source: United but also hydrological parameters useful for
States Geological Survey web portal: http:// management programs like decision making.
earthexplorer.usgs.gov) It helps in flood prediction modeling and snow
melt runoff models and provides necessary
The main goal of the present research work is
inputs for hydrological modeling. Being
to determine morphometric parameters of the
concentrated on the analysis of watersheds in
watersheds in Gandaki Province of Nepal using
Gandaki Province, especially near Kaski area,
QGIS. Specifically, the research work intends
this research work has various significances
to achieve the following objectives:
(e.g., water management programs, water
a) To acquire and generate GIS data layers resource identification and management, and
for study area. These layers include flood prediction and control).
Digital Elevation Models (DEMs), digital
As the purpose of this study was to generate
raster graphic maps (DRGs), National,
watershed parameters/characteristics for
Provincial and District boundaries.
control point in Gandaki Province in basic level,
b) To use DEM to delineate the watersheds
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morphometric characteristics of watersheds 2.2 Watershed Delineation Steps
are only the output of this study in general. Authors proceed through a series of steps as
Detail study needs advanced level analysis shown in Figure 3 while delineating watersheds
considering discharge, interbrain flow, etc. This or defining stream networks.
study uses 30 m DEM for analysis of sub-basins
in the Gandaki Province, the DEM also have Z
accuracies generally between 10 m and 25 m
root mean square error (RMSE).

2. Material and Methods

2.1 Data Acquisitions and Program Setup
Achieving objectives required research into Figure 3: Steps involved in delineation of
what data sets are available and which ones watershed (Source: GIS Resources: A Knowledge Archive)
best suit the needs of the research (Mason &
DEM (Digital Elevation Model) is the principal
Maidment, 2000). The main sources of data
input required for watershed analysis. Value in
acquisition were the Nepal Government Geo
each cell corresponds to its elevation (z- values
Portal, ICIMOD, USGS, NASA-Earth data,
are regularly spaced intervals) representing the
TRMM, Alaska Satellite Facility, and The
terrain over the “Bare Earth”. A depression in
Humanitarian Data Exchange (HDX), all of
a DEM is unavoidable, which in fact is a cell
which provide GIS data layers that are essential
that is surrounded by higher elevation cells.
for this study. Most of the data layers were
Although some depressions are real, such as
obtained by downloading them from the official
quarries or glaciated potholes, are considered
websites of the above-mentioned agencies, and
imperfections in the DEM for the subsequent
local resources where open source spatial data
steps in the watershed analysis. Therefore,
of Remote Sensing and GIS are available.
depressions must be removed. A common
Once all the necessary spatial datasets for the method to remove depression is to increase
Gandaki Province were collected, the next step its cell value to the lowest overflow point out
was to process and analyze the spatial data of the sink resulting in a flat surface. With the
using ‘QGIS Desktop 2.18’ computer program. filled DEM, flow direction raster is generated
It is very critical to assign and use consistent which represents the direction of flow of water
coordinate system for all datasets used in out of each cell. A widely used method is the
delineating watershed by so all the spatial D8 method which assigns a cell’s flow direction
datasets were assigned a researched coordinate to the one of its eight immediate surrounding
system of WGS 1984 UTM Zone 44N. cells that has the steepest distance-weighted
gradient. In the next step, flow accumulation
tool tabulates for each cell, the number of cells
Volume 1 Issue 1 19
that will flow to it. The tabulation is based on delineation is based on the point of interest.
the flow direction raster. A flow accumulation This point of interest may be stream gauge
raster can be interpreted in the following two stations or dams. They may also correspond to
ways. surface drinking water system intake points of
interest are called pour point or outlets. If pour
a) Cells having accumulation values generally
point is not located directly over a stream link,
correspond to stream channels, whereas
it will result in a small, incomplete watershed
cells having an accumulation value of zero
for the outlet.
generally correspond to ridgelines.
b) If multiplied by cell size, the accumulation Watershed boundaries, stream network,
value equals to drainage area. waterways, drain direction, etc., were analyzed
Flow accumulation raster already represent using raster file and converted to vector using
stream network with the accumulation raster to vector conversion tool for every point,
surface in the background. However, actual lines and polygons and calculation of those
stream network can be derived from a flow parameter were done using different functions
accumulation raster. The derivation is based like area, length, slope calculator provided by
on a threshold accumulation value. A threshold ‘QGIS Desktop 2.18’.
value of 500, for example, means that each cell
2.3 IDW Interpolation Method
of the drainage network has a maximum of 500
Inverse distance weighted (IDW) interpolation
contributing cells. A higher threshold value will
explicitly makes the assumption that things,
result in a less dense stream network and fewer
which are close to one another, are more
internal watersheds than lower threshold value.
alike than those that are farther apart (Figure
Threshold values between 100 to 500 cells seem
4 and Figure 5). To predict a value for any
to best capture the stream network in the area.
unmeasured location, IDW uses the measured
Assigning a unique value and associating values surrounding the prediction location.
with flow direction to each section of stream The measured values closest to the prediction
network is a step or procedure to derive stream location have more influence on the predicted
links. A stream link raster therefore resembles value than those farther away. IDW assumes
a topology-based stream layer: the intersections that each measured point has a local influence
or junctions are like arcs or reaches. that diminishes with distance. It gives greater
Finally, watershed is delineated and there weights to points closest to the prediction
are two different methods namely area-wide location, and the weights diminish as a function
watershed and point-based watersheds. Inputs of distance as it named inverse distance
required for area-wide watershed delineation weighted.
are flow direction raster and stream link raster.
A denser stream network will have more but
smaller watersheds. Point based watersheds
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Figure 6. Booth seems quite similar in shape,
size, and orientations that validate the method
of analysis. Therefore, this method can be
used in other watersheds too. Figure 7 shows
the stream networks of Kaski district obtained
Figure 4: Unknown z value from the analysis and the stream networks from
Subedi (2013), where both seems quite similar
in shape, size and orientations, which validates
the method of analysis. Table 1 illustrates the
comparison of facts for Phewa Lake Watershed
Figure 5: Determination of value of z using form present study with previous studies. The
IDW results of present research found comparable
Interpolated points are estimated based on their with the results of previous studies which
distance from known cell values. Points that are validates the data, program and the method used
closer to known values will be more influenced in analysis of this study. Hence this method can
than points that are farther away. The formula is be used in other regions too.
given below where the sigma notation simply
means that adding whatever number of points
that will be interpolated. Here the authors
simply summing the elevation values at each
point with respect to distance.
 zi 
∑
n
 p 
 di
i =1
Zp = 
n  1 
∑ i =1  d p  (a) Result from this study (
 i 
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 A Comparison with Previous Studies
Lake Watershed has been a focus point for
research around the globe. It is found that
several previous studies have been already
conducted on Phewa Lake Watershed. Here
is a comparison between this and previous
(a) Result
studies. The polygon of from
Phewathis study
Lake Watershed (b) From Subedi (2013)
obtained from the analysis was compared with Figure 6: Comparison of Phewa Lake
the Satellite image used by (Subedi, 2013) in Watershed with previous study

Volume 1 Issue 1 21
 management and planning should be the top
concern of the Gandaki Province Government
(Officially, Government of Gandaki Pradesh).
Watershed analysis can be one of the key ideas
for the management and planning of water and
natural resources. Watersheds parameters can be
used as a reference for proposing infrastructures
in those watersheds and it can also be used for
making policy by local government authorities
(a) Result from this study related to Energy,
(b) From Water Resources, Irrigation,
Subedi (2013)
and Infrastructures.
Provincial boundary of Nepal, officially the
Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, can
be seen in Figure 8. Gandaki Province is one
of the seven provinces of Nepal. This layer
was acquired from Geo Portal Nepal official
website and necessary processing was done
by using QGIS Desktop 2.18 program for the
presentation. Figure 9 shows the major rivers
of Nepal and Hydrological Stations; the rivers
(b) from Subedi (2013)
were delineated from ASTER Global DEM
Figure 7: Comparison of Kaski District
available freely upon request on NASA-Earth
Streams with previous study
data with spatial resolution of 30m x 30m. The
Table 1: Comparison of major parameters for location of hydrological Station was taken from
present research and previous studies Department of Hydrology and Meteorology
S. Parameters This Study
Subedi Aryal
Remarks (DHM) official website. These station locations
N. (2013) (2007)
Area
were taken as a reference to choose outlets of
1. 121.61 km2 119.89 km2 122.53 km2 Comparable
derived sub-basins. Sub-basins in Gandaki Province that
2. Shape As shown As shown - Comparable
are delineated using ASTER Global DEM are
Stream
3.
Network
As shown As shown - Comparable presented in Figure 10. From the analysis it was
4. DEM (m.)
12.5 m x 30.0 m x
-
Used fine DEM found that there are nine numbers of sub-basins
12.5 m 30.0 m in this study
Phewa
in Gandaki Province, where only two of them
5. Outlet - - Same
Dam completely lie within the province boundary and
6. Software QGIS Arc GIS - -
they are East Seti Sub-Basin and Marshyangdi
3.2 Watershed Analysis of Gandaki Province Sub-Basin. The rest seven sub-basins are
Being rich in water resources, water partially lying in the Gandaki Province. The

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majority of area is occupied by Kali Gandaki to prepare rainfall map which helps to study
Sub-Basin with 11839.8 km2 drainage area and current trends of rainfall in the province.
minimum area is occupied by East Seti Sub-
Basin with 2959.02 km2 drainage area. East Kaski District
(Area: 2,017 km2)

Seti Sub-Basin has higher slope of 0.0307 and Province

No. 7 Province
No. 6
Tinahu Sub-Basin has lesser slope of 0.0076. Gandaki Province
(Area: 21,733 km2)

Average annual rainfall distribution of Nepal Province

No. 5 Province

and the average annual rainfall distribution of

No. 3
Province
No. 1

sub-basins are shown in Figure 11 and Figure 12 Province

No.2

respectively. The rainfall map has been prepared

from open source HDX data (1980-2000)
Figure 8: Provincial boundaries of Nepal
Figure 1: Provincial boundaries of Nepal

by using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW)

Interpolation method. The rainfall map form
TRMM (Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission),
a joint space mission between NASA and the
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency designed
to monitor and study tropical rainfall, has also
been taken as a reference. From the analysis it
was found that the maximum average annual
Rainfall had been occur in Kali Gandaki Sub-
Figure 9: Major Rivers and Hydrological
Basin and minimum average annual rainfall had
Stations of Nepal
been occur within West Rapti Sub-Basin.
Table 2: Morphometric parameters of sub-basins
Morphometric parameters of sub-basins from
Drainage WS Flow
the analysis are presented in tabulated form S. N.Sub Basins Major River Area
Perimeter
Length Length
Drainage
(Km.) Density
in Table 2. The sub-basin parameters were (Sq.Km.) (Km.) (Km.)
Kali Gandaki Kali Gandaki
calculated by using geometrical and statistical 1
Sub-Basin River
11839.800 861.125 393.344 786.189 0.066
Marshyangdi Marshyangdi
tool in QGIS. The highlighted sub-basins are 2
Sub-Basin River
4798.660 443.600 166.781 233.913 0.049

completely or majority of area lies within the 3

East Seti Sub-
Seti River 2954.020 330.327 143.712 223.468 0.076
Basin
boundary of Gandaki Province. The purpose of 4
Thuli Bheri Sub-
Bheri River 13678.800 879.132 330.224 956.026 0.070
Basin
this study was to generate watershed parameters/ East Rapti Sub-
5 Rapti River 4707.600 503.917 222.460 379.310 0.081
characteristics for control point in Gandaki Basin
West Rapti Sub-
Province in basic level. Considering Inter- 6
Basin
Rapti River 6282.070 642.272 305.152 561.978 0.089

basin flow, discharge data from hydrological 7

Tinahu Sub-
Tinahu River 4569.490 447.986 91.437 426.445 0.093
Basin
stations may lead to advance level of study Budhi Gandaki Budhi Gandaki
8 3621.240 415.984 127.446 274.761 0.076
in the province. Recent rainfall data from Sub-Basin River
Trishuli Sub-
meteorological stations can be incorporated 9
Basin
Trishuli River 4117.620 534.624 219.274 417.673 0.101

Volume 1 Issue 1 23
 Figure 10: Sub-basins of Gandaki Province
Table 2 contd.: Morphometric parameters of sub-basins
WS Shape Annual
Elevation
Watershed Slope

Factor Precipitation

Elongation
Circularity

S. N.Sub Basins
High Low

(mm.)

(mm.)
(m.) (m.)
Ratio

Ratio
Max.

Min.
Kali Gandaki
1 5020 180 0.0123 2.232 0.312 4990 195
Sub-Basin
Marshyangdi
2 4333 261 0.0244 1.806 0.469 3550 330
Sub-Basin
East Seti Sub-
3 4631 219 0.0307 1.714 0.427 4950 1450
Basin
Figure 11: Annual Precipitation of Nepal 4
Thuli Bheri Sub-
5368 226 0.0156 2.120 0.400 2750 340
Basin
East Rapti Sub-
5 2068 124 0.0087 2.072 0.348 2810 1935
Basin
West Rapti Sub-
6 2492 125 0.0078 2.286 0.293 2700 1335
Basin
Tinahu Sub-
7 781 82 0.0076 1.870 0.834 2585 1705
Basin
Budhi Gandaki
8 5560 326 0.0411 1.950 0.533 3175 950
Sub-Basin
Trishuli Sub-
9 5350 180 0.0236 2.350 0.330 3175 995
Basin

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Figure 12: Annual Precipitation of sub-basins in Gandaki Province

3.3 Watershed Analysis in Kaski District Annapurna Range in the northern side is always
Kaski, a part of Gandaki Province is one of the full of snow. The beautiful scenery of northern
seventy-seven districts of Nepal. Kaski district mountains, gorge of Seti River, Davis Falls,
with Pokhara as its district headquarter, covers natural caves, Fewa Lake, and Begnas Lake
2,017 km2 area. The altitude of Kaski district are the main attractions. Major river networks
ranges from 450 m the lowest land to 8,091 m in Kaski district are shown in Figure 13. Seti,
the highest point in the Himalaya range. Kaski Madi, Modi, and Mardi Khola are major rivers
district covers parts of the Annapurna mountain that flow from the upper Himalayas range and
range. The district is full of rivers such as Seti contribute most of water demand of people and
Gandaki, Modi, and Madi along with other infrastructure projects like hydropower and
rivulets. The district headquarters Pokhara lies irrigation. A DEM of 12.5 m spatial resolution
about 750 m above the sea level and is one of has been taken from Alaska Satellite Facility.
the best tourist destinations in the world. The The stream networks (rivers) were generated
district is famous for the Himalayan range from flow accumulation raster, where threshold
with about eleven Himalayas with altitude was taken as 25 km2.
greater than 7000 m. The famous Peaks include
Machhapuchhre (Virgin Peak – 6993 m). The
Volume 1 Issue 1 25
 Figure 13: Major Rivers in Kaski District
Watersheds and stream network delineated Table 3: Watersheds in Kaski District: Fact and
within Kaski district can be visualized in Figure Figures
14. This layer was derived from point-based S.
Watersheds
Area
% Area Major Stream
N. (Km2)
watershed delineation method. The outlet points South Annapurna
1. 160.109 8.76% Modi Khola
Glacier Watershed
(point of interest) ware manually allocated to Machhapuchhre Glacier
2. 117.439 6.43% Seti River
the stream location with higher accumulation Watershed
Madme Khola Madme Khola
3. 162.675 8.90%
and lowest elevation. Flow direction raster and Watershed Madi Khola
Upper Modi Khola
snap pour point raster - which were derived 4.
Watershed
173.339 9.48% Modi Khola
Upper Seti River
from flow accumulation raster and point of 5.
Watershed
135.883 7.43% Seti River
Upper Madi Khola
interests - were used to delineate watersheds. 6. 188.503 10.31% Madi Khola
Watershed
Table 3 show name, area and major stream of the 7.
Lower Modi Khola
66.109 3.62% Modi Khola
Watershed
thirteen watersheds derived from the analysis. 8. Mardi Khola Watershed 233.693 12.79%
Mardi Khola
Seti River
Study shows that the Seti-Bijaypur Watershed 9.
Lower Madi Khola
130.051 7.12% Madi Khola
Watershed
has higher drainage area of 267.378 km2 and 10. Phewa Lake Watershed 121.610 6.65% Harpan Khola
Dovan Khola
Rupa Lake Watershed has lowest drainage area 11. Rupa Lake Watershed 31.781 1.74%
Tabesi Khola
12. Begnas Lake Watershed 39.239 2.15% Khudi Khola
of 31.781 km2. Seti River
13. Seti-Bijaypur Watershed 267.378 14.63%
Bijaypur Khola

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Figure 14: Watersheds and stream network delineation of Kaski District

4. Conclusion Basin has minimum average annual precipitation
The analysis of Phewa watershed conducted in of 2700 mm as compared to other sub-basins.
details. The drainage area obtained is 121.61 km2 None of the Sub-Bains has been observed with
and it was observed that the area is similar to the regular/circular shape, all are elongated shaped.
previous studies. The morphometric analysis of Since the sub-basins are elongated shaped,
watershed in Gandaki Province was conducted smaller peak flooding is possible. The East Seti
in Sub-Basin level and it was found that there Sub-Basin has steeper slope of 0.0307, while
are nine numbers of sub-basins in Gandaki Tinahu Sub-Basin has minor slope of 0.0076.
Province. It was observed that only two sub- The Watersheds analysis for Kaski District has
basins: East-Seti Sub-Basin with total drainage been performed and it was found that there are
area of 2959.02 km2 and Marshyangdi Sub- thirteen numbers of watersheds, where Seti-
Basin with total drainage area of 4798.66 km2 Bijaypur watershed has larger drainage area of
are completely within the province boundary. 267.378 km2.
Most of the area of Gandaki Province has been The results observed in the present work
occupied by Kali Gandaki Sub-Basin with total can be used as a reference for site suitability
drainage area of 11839.8 Km2 where maximum analysis of infrastructures in those watersheds.
average annual rainfall of 4990 mm observed. These parameters can be integrated with
Least drainage area of 2959.02 km2 is occupied other hydrological information viz, land use/
by East Seti Sub-Basin with maximum annual land cover, geology, water level and soils in
precipitation of 4950 mm. The West Rapti Sub-
Volume 1 Issue 1 27
GIS domain for decision making regarding Ma, Y. (2004). GIS Application In Watershed
soil and water conservation structures (check Management. Nature and Science.
dam, nala bund, etc.) in those area for ground Mason, D., & Maidment, D. R. (2000). An Analysis
water development and management by local of a Methodology for Generating Watershed
government authorities related to Energy, Water Parameters using GIS. J.J. Pickle Research
Campus, Bureau of Engineering Research,
Resources, Irrigation, and Infrastructures. The
The University of Texas at Austin, Center
study recommended that the watersheds need
For Research In Water Resources, Austin.
hydrogeological and geophysical investigation
Retrieved May 2018, from http://www.crwr.
in future for proper water management and utexas.edu/online.html.
development of infrastructure within the Province Profile, Province No. 4. (n.d.).
study area. However, the present work can Retrieved July 2018, from Provincial
be a reference for academic researchers and Government, Gandaki Province Website:
young scientists, who are working on water h t t p : / / w w w. p 4 o c m c m . g o v. n p / u p l o a d /
management projects. news/1520422912_Province_Profile.pdf.
Rivas, B. L., & Koleva-Lizama, I. (2017, January
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