6/28/2019

AWS Exam Event

28 August 2019 Egypt
31 August 2019 Saudi Arabia

We are delighted and proud to announce conducting our 1st AWS exams events in
Egypt and Saudi Arabia

For interested participants may register through our website or via

Email Bassam@eliteservices-int.com

Cairo Phone: +201010799397 Elite Engineering

AL Khobar ,Saudi Arabia
6/28/2019
Phone: +966538391734
info@eliteservices-int.com
Company 1

Education Certification
Instructor Profile • Bachelor of Metallurgy and material science
Engineering
• Candidate to master degree in failure of
corroded dissimilar weld
Professional Certification
• AWS-CWEng (Certified Welding Engineer)
• SCWI Senior Certified Welding Inspector
• ASNT NDE LEVEL III in RT
• ASNT NDE LEVEL III in UT
• ASNT NDELEVEL III in MT
• ASNT NDE LEVEL III in PT
Bassam Ghreeb Abdelazeem • EDDY CURRENT TESTING Level II
• API 570 Authorized Piping Inspector
Skills & Expertise • API 510 Authorized pressure vessel Inspector
• Welding Engineering and technology • API 653 Above Ground Tank Inspector
• API 936 Refractory
• Welding Inspection
• API 580 RBI
• Non Destructive Testing • API 571 Material and corrosion
• Material Technology • CSWIP Welding Inspector 3.1
• Corrosion • Welding fundamentals from American university in
• Piping-Tanks-Pressure Vessels Cairo(AUC)
Construction • Corrosion in petroleum industries certification from
• Fired Heaters construction high technology institute
• Radiation Safety Training in Occupational health and
Email safety and secure work environment
Bassam.abdelazeem@gmail.com
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 Inspector - Primary Responsibility

 to Ensure Weld Quality

 welding inspector is one of the “front line” individuals who must check to

see if all of the required manufacturing steps have been completed

properly.

 The Welding Inspector Must Have:

 Training and Experience

 Broad Knowledge and Skills


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 Body of Knowledge
 ANSI/AWS A1.1 - Metric Practice Guide for the Welding Industry

 ANSI/AWS A2.4 - Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing, & Nondestructive

Examination

 ANSI/AWS A3.0 - Standard Welding Terms & Definitions

 ANSI/AWS B1.10 - Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection of Welds

 ANSI/AWS B1.11 - Guide for the Visual Inspection of Welds

 ANSI/ASC Z49.1 - Safety in Welding, Cutting, & Allied Processes

 ANSI/AWS QC1: - Standard for AWS Certification of Welding Inspectors

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 A responsible person who:

 Determines Weld Quality according to applicable codes and/or

specification

 May be an overseer of others (variable skills for any amount or type of

workmanship)

 May be an inspection and test specialist (specific task with limited

responsibility)


6/28/2019 Or, a combination of the above
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 The Welding Inspector

 A Person Who Brings “KASH” to the Job.

 K-----Knowledge
 Drawings ,Codes, Standards, Specifications & Welding Terms , Welding Processes &
Testing Methods

 A-----Attitude
 Fair, Impartial, consistent, committed

 S----Skills
 Inspection Experience , Welding Experience & Training in Welding Metallurgy

 H-----Habits
 Safe practices, Record keeping , Physical condition & Good vision
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A. Knowledge and Skills:

(1) prepare reports

(2) communicate effectively orally and written

(3) understand the fundamentals of SMAW, SAW, OFW, RW, GTAW, FCAW, GMAW,
PAW, SW, ESW, and Thermal Spraying, Soldering, Mechanical Cutting, Thermal
Cutting/Gouging, Brazing/Braze Welding

(4) understand the fundamentals of VT, MT, UT, PT, RT, LT, quality procedures and quality
audits/surveillance

(5) understand the fundamentals of welding metallurgy

(6) understand welding symbols and drawings

(7) interpret drawings

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B. Standards:
(1) verify base material compliance

(2) verify filler metal compliance

(3) verify filler metal storage/handling compliance

(4) verify inspection records compliance

(5) verify proper documentation compliance

(6) verify base material and filler metal compatibility

(7) certify documented results compliance

(8) verify procedure qualification records compliance

(9) verify welding procedure compliance

(10) verify NDE procedures compliance

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C. Procedure Qualification:
(1) verify welding equipment appropriateness

(2) verify edge preparation compliance

(3) verify joint geometry compliance

(4) witness procedure qualification

(5) verify welding procedure qualification compliance

(6) review welding procedures for compliance with code and contract requirements

(7) write welding procedures

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D. Performance Qualification :
(1) witness welder performance qualification

(2) verify welder qualification compliance

(3) verify welder qualification records compliance

(4) request welder performance requalification

E. Production
(1) verify welder qualification appropriateness

(2) verify production welding compliance

(3) verify personnel qualifications

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F. Inspection
(1) perform visual examinations

(2) verify examination procedure compliance

(3) review examination results compliance

(4) develop visual inspection procedures (before, during, and after welding)

(5) provide NDE inspection planning and scheduling (before, during, and after a project)

(6) review welding inspection reports

(7) verify implementation of nondestructive and destructive evaluation methods

G. Safety
(1) be knowledgeable of applicable info@eliteservices-int.com
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H. Quality Assurance
(1) perform audits and surveillance
(2) implement weld inspection quality assurance plans
I. Project Management
(1) review contract requirements
(2) review vendor proposal compliance
J. Training
(1) develop and provide a training program for the AWI
(2) develop visual inspection training
K. Evaluation
(1) evaluate AWIs performance
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 Inspection Reports “Rules of etiquette”

 Reports should contain sufficient information regarding how the inspection was performed
so that similar results can be obtained later by someone else.

 Clearly and concisely stated facts

 Well organized reports presenting a total picture

 Logical sequence to reporting

 All supporting forms, reports and data included or referenced

 Completed with ink or printed

 When making corrections, cross out the previous entry and initialed & dated the correction

 Should be signed and dated by the inspector who did the job
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 A welding inspector must be ethical primarily in order to

 To maintain integrity and high standards of skills, practice, and conduct in the occupation
of welding inspection

 To Safeguard the Public’s Health and Well-being

 Ethical Requirements for the Welding Inspector

 Ethics simply detail what is considered to be common sense and honesty.

 Integrity

 Inspectors should Live by rules and report to their supervisors whenever some
questionable situation occurs
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 Ethical Requirements for the Welding Inspector

 Public Statements

 The welding inspector’s position also carries with it a certain responsibility to

the public.

 While inspectors may be incapable of discovering every problem, it is their

responsibility to report any condition that could result in a safety hazard.

 When performing an inspection, inspectors should only do those jobs for

which they are properly qualified. This reduces the possibility of errors in
judgment.
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 Ethical Requirements for the Welding Inspector

 Public Statements
 The welding inspector’s position also carries with it a certain responsibility to the public.

 If the inspector is involved in a dispute regarding the inspection, he may be asked to publicly
express an opinion. If stated, the opinion should be based totally on facts that the inspector
believes to be valid.

 the best way to deal with public statements, however, is simply to avoid them whenever
possible.

 The inspector should not volunteer information just to gain publicity. However, in situations where
a public statement is required, the welding inspector may wish to solicit the advice of a legal
representative before speaking.

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 The Welding Inspector as a Communicator

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 The Welding Inspector as a Communicator

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 CWI Exam
 A- Fundamentals - 2 hrs.
 150 questions closed book – Min. pass 108/150 ( 72% )

 B - Practical - 2 hrs.
 46 questions, measurements, calculations – Min. Pass 34/46( 72% )

 C - Code - 2 hrs.

 60 questions, open book- Min. Pass – 44/60 ( 72% )

 Code Options for CWI Exam

 AWS D1.1 - Structural AWS D1.5 - Bridge

 AWS D15.1 - Railroad API 1104 - Pipeline

6/28/2019  ASME Section VIII and ASME Section IX, ASME B31.1, ASME B31.3.
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 Exam Success
 Must Pass All Three Parts With:

 72% Minimum for CWI

 60% Minimum for CAWI

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 Safety Training
 A key aspect of safety

 Mandated by local occupational safety regulations (e.g., OSHA 29CFR1910.1200)

 Aids accident prevention (Welders and other equipment operators work most

safely when they are properly trained in the subject) .

 Proper training includes Instructions in the safe use of Equipment and

Processes, and safety rules that must be followed

 Personnel need to know and Understand rules and consequences of disobeying

them (Example of welder’s head positioning against fumes)

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 Before work begins

 users must always read and understand the

manufacturers’ instructions on safe

practices for the materials and equipment,

and the Material Safety Data Sheets

(MSDSs).

 Certain AWS specifications call for

precautionary labels on consumables and

equipment.

 These labels concerning the safe use of the

Typical Warning Label for
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 Equipment.
 Welding equipment, machines, cable,

and other apparatus shall be located so

that it does not present a hazard to

personnel.

 Good housekeeping shall be maintained.

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 Protective Screens.
 Workers or other persons adjacent to the welding areas shall be protected from the

radiant energy and spatter of welding and cutting by noncombustible or flame-resistant

screens or shields, or shall be required to wear eye and face protection, and protective

clothing.

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 Eye and Face Protection.

 Arc Welding and Cutting
 Welding Helmets, or headshields (w/ appropriate filter plate or
cover plate) MUST be used by Welders and nearby personnel
(ANSI Pub Z87.1)

 Lens shade to be selected according to the radiation intensity

(Lens Shade Selector – Table 2.1)

 Number 2 filter plate is recommended for general purpose

protection

 Submerged Arc Welding

 During SAW – use tinted safety glasses
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 Respiratory Protective Equipment

 When controls such as ventilation fail to reduce air contaminants to
allowable levels or when the implementation of such controls are not
feasible, respiratory protective equipment shall be used to protect
personnel from hazardous concentrations of airborne
contaminants.
 Only approved respiratory protective equipment shall be used.
 Whenever the use of respirators is required, a program to establish the
proper selection and use of respirators shall be implemented.

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 Protective Clothing

 Clothing shall be selected to minimize the potential for ignition, burning,

trapping hot sparks, or electric shock.

 Clean clothing

 Woolen is best

 Treated cotton acceptable

 No synthetics!
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 Gloves

 All welders and cutters shall wear protective flame-resistant gloves.

 All gloves shall be in good repair, dry, and capable of providing

protection from electric shock by the welding equipment.

 Gloves made of leather, rubber, or other suitable materials are

recommended.

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 Source of welding fumes

 The welding process

 The consumables.

 The composition of the base metals.

 The surface coating, such as paint or zinc.

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 Position of the Head

 Welders and cutters shall take precautions to avoid breathing the fume
directly.

 Avoiding the fume can be done by positioning of the work, the head,
or by ventilation which captures or directs the fume away from the
face.

 The optimum airflow to keep the welder's head out the plume, The air
should flow laterally across the welder’s work station, rather than

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 Types of Ventilation

 Natural

 Mechanical Natural

 fans

 Exhaust hood
Air-ventilated
 Downdraft tables Mechanical
helmets
 Air-ventilated helmets
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 Confined Space
 Cutting &welding in confined spaces

 Prior use? Must know!

 Toxic chemicals

 Flammable chemicals

 Fill with inert gas/water

 Vent container

 Fire extinguishers nearby

 Gas cylinder and welding power sources should be located Outside the Confined
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 Secure Cylinders During Use. A suitable cylinder

truck, chain, or steadying device shall be used to
keep cylinders from being knocked over while in use.
 for the purpose of identifying the gas content,
Cylinders shall be legibly marked with either the
chemical or the trade name of the gas.
 Cylinders on which the labeling is missing or illegible
shall not be used. They shall be returned to the
supplier.
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 Electric Shock
 Many sources for shock (welding and cutting operations)

 Shock currents > 6 (mA) are considered primary current- harmful

 Steady state currents between 0.5mA (perception threshold) and 6mA – secondary
current

 Most equipment operates between 115 and 575 V (fatalities occur from 80 V)

 Electric Shock Prevented

 Insulation - best guard

 Good connections

 Personnel training
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 3 Basic ‘Process’ Groups

 Welding

 Brazing

 Cutting

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

 is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an electric
arc between a covered metal electrode and the work.
 Sometimes called “Stick”
 Manual process “The SMAW process is almost totally WELDER dependent”

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 The electrode coating, It Provides:

1. Shielding
 some of the coating decomposes to form a gaseous shield for the molten metal.
2. Deoxidation
 the coating provides a fluxing action to remove impurities and oxygen and other
atmospheric gases.
3. Alloying
 the coating provides additional alloying elements for the weld deposit.
4. Ionizing
 when the flux coating becomes molten it improves electrical characteristics to increase
arc stability.
5. Insulating
 the solidified slag provides an insulating blanket to slow down the weld metal cooling
rate.
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 AWS Shielded Metal Arc Covered Electrode Classification System

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 AWS Shielded Metal Arc Covered Electrode Classification System

 Example

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 Stainless Steel Electrodes

Alloy type
of Stainless Steel

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 Electrode Coating Classification F #:

 F-1 High Deposition Group
 (Exx20, Exx24, Exx27, Exx28)

 F-2 Mild Penetration Group

 (Exx12, Exx13, Exx14)

 F-3 Deep Penetration Group

 (Exx10, Exx11) Cellulosic electrode

 F-4 Low Hydrogen Group

 (Exx15, Exx16, Exx18)
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 Low Hydrogen Electrodes.

 Types end in a ‘5’, ‘6’, or ‘8’

 Purchase in sealed, metal containers

 Store after opening in heated, vented oven

 Most codes require that low hydrogen

electrodes be held at a minimum oven
temperature of 250°F [120°C] after removal
from their

 Limit atmospheric exposure

 a low moisture content(less than 0.2%),

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 Stainless Steel Electrodes

 E308, E308L - Weld 304 and 304L

 E316, E316L - Weld 316 and 316L

 E309 - Weld Stainless to Carbon Steel

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 Welding Current Types

 AC
 DCEN- DC Electrode Negative ----
(Straight) Polarity
 DCEP – DC Electrode Positive -------
(Reverse) Polarity

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 Arc length
 The distance between the tip of electrode and the weld surface

Factors affecting the arc

length are
 the class of electrode,
 joint design,
 metal thickness and
 Current setting

 As arc length increases, voltage goes up; and

 as arc length decreases, voltage goes down.
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 Traditional Welding Power Source

 Constant Current Power Source
 Electrode moved closer, Arc V falls, Arc A rises
 Electrode moved away, Arc V rises, Arc A drops
 Arc current directly related to heat input
 Welder controls heat input to work

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 Arc blow
 welding problems is the result of a distorted magnetic field that deflects the
welding arc
 Porosity can also result from the presence arc blow

Distorted Magnetic Fields atinfo@eliteservices-int.com

Ends of Welds Magnetic Field
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 To reduce the effects of arc

blow, several alternatives can
be tried. They include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
1. Change from DC to AC.

2. Hold as short an arc as possible.

3. Reduce welding current

4. Use a back-step technique.

5. Wrap work cable around the workpiece

and pass work current through it

6. Extend the end of the joint by attaching

runoff plates.
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 SMAW Advantages  SMAW Limitations

1. Field or shop use 1. High welder skill required

2. Inexpensive power supply 2. Rate deposition is very low

3. Very portable 3. Slag removal

4. All positions 4. Electrode storage considerations

5. Welds most alloys 5. Arc blow

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 Gas Metal Arc Welding

 An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and
the weld pool the process is used with shielding from an externally supplied gas
 Sometimes called “MIG” or MAG
 Used as automatic or semiautomatic process

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 Process Principles
 Heat source- electric arc between electrode (wire) and the work

 Shielding- an external gas supply

 Filler metal- fed automatically from a spool or reel

 Flux- not applicable

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 Welding Current Types

 DCEP- normal type of current used

 Shielding Gas
 Inert- ( Argon )a gas that does not combine chemically with the base or filler
material

 Carbon Dioxide- not inert, is the most common gas used on low carbon steel

 75% Argon,25%CO2- is used to produce a smoother bead with less spatter, but
will reduce penetration

 Argon/Oxygen- this mixture with 5% Oxygen as maximum will produce a spray

transfer with no spatter
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 GMAW Modes of Transfer

 Spray

 80 %AR -20 CO2

 High amperage and voltage

 flat and horizontal

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 GMAW Modes of Transfer

Pulsed Arc

 various amperage levels

 spray transfer

 all positions

 transition current

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 GMAW Modes of Transfer

Globular

 100 % CO2

 higher amperage and voltage

 flat and horizontal

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 GMAW Modes of Transfer

 Short-Circuiting
 AR/CO2
 low amperage and voltage
 all positions
 provides the lowest amount of heat
to the workpiece and therefore is
prone to incomplete fusion
 This type of transfer produces a
small, fast-freezing weld pool that is
generally suited for the joining of
thin sections, out-of-position
welding, and filling of large root
openings.
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 GMAW Modes of Transfer

Factors for Transfer Modes

 Shielding gas

 Current level

 Voltage level

 Power supply
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 GMAW Electrode Identification System

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 Low Alloy (Solid) Electrode Classification GMAW, GTAW,

and PAWS

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 Stainless Steel (Solid) Electrode Classification GMAW,

GTAW, and PAWS

Alloy type
of Stainless Steel

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 GMAW Power Source Types and Characteristics

 Constant Voltage- 100% duty cycle with flat volt/amp curve
 Is ‘self-regulating’ (maintains constant arc length)

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 GMAW Advantages
1. Works faster as compared to SMAW due to Continuous filler
metal feed

2. High deposition rates as compared to S.M.A.W.

3. produce welds with deeper penetration

4. No slag formation takes place

5. Clean process

6. Welds most alloys

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 GMAW Limitations

1. Equipment is more complex

2. The equipment are Costly and less portable.

3. GMAW is not suitable for Filed since strong wind may below

away the shield

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 Flux Cored Arc Welding

 An arc welding process that uses an arc between a continuous filler metal electrode and
the weld pool.
 the process is uses with shielding gas from a flux contained within the tubular electrode
with or without additional shielding from an externally supplied gas

Self-shielded FCAW Flux-Cored

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 Flux Cored Arc Welding

 Dual-Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding

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 FCAW Guns - Gas & Self-shielded

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 Welding Current Types

 DCEN or DCEP depending on type of wire

 Shielding Gas
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most widely used for use in welding steel because

 CO2 provides deep penetration and low cost

 Methods of Application
 Manual N/A

 Semiautomatic Most Popular

 Mechanized widely used

 Automatic widely used

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 FCAW Electrode Identification System

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 Low Alloy (tubular) Electrode Classification FCAW

Tubular

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 Stainless Steel (tubular) Electrode Classification FCAW

Alloy type
of Stainless Steel

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 FCAW Power Source Types and Characteristics

 Constant voltage with flat volt amp curve

 Constant speed system with a constant current machine

 The wire feeder is a variable speed system

 100% duty cycle

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 FCAW Advantages
1. High quality welds

2. High deposition rates

3. Deep penetration

4. Relatively high travel speeds

5. Suitable for field work

6. Easily mechanized

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 FCAW Limitations

1. Equipment is more expensive

2. Equipment is more complex

3. Slag needs to be removed

4. Primarily only welds steels

5. Very smoky process

6. Filler metal more expensive

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 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

 An arc welding process that uses an arc between a tungsten electrode (non-consumable)
and the weld pool .
 the process is used with shielding gas
 T.I.G.-Tungsten Inert Gas

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 Tungsten Electrode Classifications

 Tungsten electrode classifications are based on the chemical composition of the
electrode and also shows the color identification system for the various classes of
tungsten electrodes.

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 GTAW Filler Metals (Consumable)

 selection of a filler metal GTAW application
 a filler metal should match the properties of the base metal in the welded
condition
 GTAW cut lengths
 These filler metals do not produce any slag so there is no need for post-weld
cleaning.
 Cut lengths are available in a range of diameters (from 1/16 to 1/8 inches) and in
industry standard lengths of 36 inches (0.9 m)

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 GTAW Filler Metals (Consumable)

 Low Alloy (Solid) Electrode Classification
 ER70S-2, ER70S-3, etc

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 Stainless Steel (Solid) Electrode Classification GMAW,

GTAW, and PAWS

Alloy type
of Stainless Steel

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 GTAW Power Source Types and Characteristics

 Transformer- AC- constant current

 Rectifier- DC- constant current

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 Welding Current Types

Great for AL

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 GTAW Advantages
1. High quality welds /Good appearance

2. No slag

3. Very little, if any, post-weld cleaning required

4. Autogenous welding (welding without filler metal /Good for thin

materials such as AL)

5. Can be automated

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 GTAW Limitations
1. High skill factor required

2. Low deposition rate / Low productivity

3. Lower productivity

4. Higher initial cost of the equipment

5. Shielding gas expensive

6. Purging gas expensive

 to Prevent Oxidation in the root area during welding stainless steel, titanium
and other corrosion-resistant materials
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 Submerged arc welding

 an arc welding process that uses an arc or arcs between a bare metal electrode or
electrodes.
 The arc and molten metal are shielded by a blanket of granular flux on the workpiece

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 SAW Power Source Types and Characteristics

 Constant Voltage (flat) - most of the power sources

 Constant Current (drooping)

 Wire feeder is a variable speed system

 100% duty cycle

 Welding Current Types

 AC

 DCEN or DCEP depending on type

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 SAW Electrode Identification System

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 Fluxes for SAW Welding

 The 2 methods of flux manufacture are:
1) Fused
 Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in
colour, cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture
absorbent and tends to be of the acidic type

2) Agglomerated
 Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly
shaped, easily crushed can easily add alloying
elements, moisture absorbent and tend to be of the
basic type

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 SAW Advantages  SAW Limitations

1. High quality weld metal 1. Flat or horizontal fillets only
2. Deep penetration
2. Extensive setup time
3. High deposition rates
3. Slag removal
4. Smooth, uniform finish, no spatter

5. Little or no smoke

6. No arc flash

7. High utilization of electrode wire

8. Good for overlay of large areas

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 Electroslag Welding
 ESW is characterized by the joining of
members who are placed edge to edge
so that the joint is vertical

 ESW is not an arc welding process

 Heating from the electrical resistance

of the molten flux to melt the base and
filler metals.

 Vertical ‘casting’ process

 Welding is done in a single pass

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 Common defects associated with ESW

1. Gross porosity how may cracks may be avoided?

(A) Maintaining proper current
2. Slag inclusions
(B) Maintaining proper spacing between
electrodes or guide tubes
3. Large grains

4. Gross shrinkage

5. Centerline Cracks due to weld metal shrinkage.

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 ESW Advantages

1. Joins heavy sections

2. High deposition rates

3. Single or multiple electrodes

4. Minimum joint preparation

5. Low distortion
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 ESW Limitations

1. vertical and flat position only

2. Very extensive setup time

3. Uses water-cooled shoes

4. Flux storage

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 arc stud welding

 An arc welding process using an arc between
a metal stud, or similar part, and the other
workpiece..
 DC power source,
 little operator skill is required

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 Inspection SW .

 First a visual examination is made to assure the presence of a 360° flash.

 reinforcing fillet, or “flash,” around the entire circumference of the stud base.

 the stud can be either struck with a hammer or pulled to judge its acceptability. OR

 torque tested to determine its quality.

 High quality with Arc Stud Welding can be obtained when

(A) Making test before starting.

(B) Using sufficient power energy source.

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 Brazing vs welding Processes

 welding Processes

 The base metals are melted.

 Brazing

 The base metals are not melted.

 The melting temperature of filler metal above 840°F (450°C)

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 Brazing
 The brazing processes achieve a bond between materials by heating them in the
presence of a filler metal that has a liquidus above 840°F (450°C) and below the
solidus of the base metal.

 The filler metal flows between the closely fitting joint surfaces by means of capillary
action.

 Brazing Aspects
 Large surface area
 Very small clearance
 Clean surfaces
 Flux often used
 Capillary action
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 Braze Joint Configurations

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 The most widely used processes are

 torch (TB),

 furnace (FB),

 induction (IB),

 resistance (RB),

 dip (DB),

 infrared (IRB), and

 diffusion brazing (DFB).

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 Brazing Advantages

 Strong joints

 Joins dissimilar metals

Torch brazing process requires a skilled operator
 Joins metals to nonmetals Furnace Brazing not require a skilled operator

 Joins “unweldable” metals

 Less heat, less distortion

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 Brazing disadvantages

 Cleanliness requirements

 Joint design requirements

Brazing joint can be inspected by ?

 Difficult to inspect
(A) Nondestructive testing methods
 PT, RT , UT, AET, Proof testing, Leak testing &Thermal
transfer examination
(B) destructive and mechanical testing methods.
 Peel testing ,Tension and shear testing , Metallographic
examination, Fatigue testing, Impact testing &Torsion

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 Brazing Discontinuities

 Voids, unbonded areas

 Base metal erosion

 Corrosion by flux

 Trapped flux

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 Soldering
 The base metals are not melted.

 The melting temperature of filler metal below 840°F (450°C)

 The solder is distributed between closely fitted joint surfaces by capillary

action.

 Unsatisfactory joints Soldering generally result from

 poor surface conditions (Contaminated or dirty surfaces)

 Improper joint fit-up, and

 incorrect flux selection

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 Soldering
 Some metals are easier to solder.
 Copper, silver, and gold are easy.

 Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, some high-carbon steels, ceramics, and

graphite

 Some metals are difficulty to solder

 Iron, mild steel and nickel are next in difficulty. Because of their thin, strong
oxide films.

 stainless steel and aluminium are even more difficult to solder.

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 Soldering methods and equipment

 dip (DS),
 iron (INS),
 resistance (RS),
 torch (TS),
 induction (IS),
 furnace (FS)
 infrared (IRS),
 ultrasonic (USS),
 wave (WS), and cascade soldering (CS
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 Cutting Processes

 Oxyfuel Cutting

 Air Carbon Arc Cutting

 Plasma Arc Cutting

 Mechanical Cutting

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 Oxyfuel Cutting Gases Commonly used

 Acetylene

 Methane

 Propane

 MPS (Methylacetylene-propadiene)

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 Oxyfuel Cutting (OFC)

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 OFC - Kerf and Drag

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 OFC Cut

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 OFC Advantages

 Simple equipment

 Very portable

 Cuts thin or thick materials

 Good accuracy

 Manual or mechanized
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 OFC disadvantages

 Inadequate to cut stainless steels.

 the finished cut may require additional cleaning or grinding to prepare it for

welding

 the flame and hot slag produced result in safety hazards for personnel near

the cutting operation

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 Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A)

 This process uses a carbon electrode to create an arc for

heating along with a high pressure stream of compressed air to

mechanically remove the molten metal.

 it can be used to cut all metals

 It is capable of cutting metals that cannot be cut by the oxyfuel

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 Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC)

 This process is similar in most respects to PAW except that now the purpose
is to remove metal rather than join pieces together.

 Advantages (PAC)
 cutting of non-ferrous metals, PAC is also useful for the cutting of carbon
steels. That’s means can cut all metals

 ability to cut metals which cannot be cut with OFC,

 the resulting high quality cut, and

 increased cutting speeds for carbon steel.

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Butt
Lap

Tee
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Butt Edge

Spot

Plug
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 Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials,

or when access from both sides is restricted

Single Bevel Single Vee

Single J Single U
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 Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials,

Double Bevel Double Vee

Double J Double U
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Groove angle Groove angle

Angle of
bevel

Groove Depth of bevel

Radius

Depth of bevel
Root Face Root Face
Root opening Root opening

Single -V Butt Single - U Butt

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Weld reinforcement.
Weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill a weld groove.

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 A surfacing weld
 a weld applied to a surface, as opposed to making a joint, to obtain desired
properties or dimensions. Other terms associated with surfacing are:
a) Buildup
 a surfacing variation in which surfacing material is deposited to achieve the
required dimensions.
b) Buttering
 a surfacing variation that deposits surfacing metal on one or more surfaces to
provide metallurgically compatible weld metal for the subsequent completion of a
weld.
c) Cladding,
 a surfacing variation that deposits or applies surfacing material, usually to
improve corrosion or heat resistance.
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Depth of fusion
the difference between the fusion
Weld interface face and the weld interface
The boundary between
weld metal and
base metal in a fusion
weld

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 The welding symbol is the weld symbol with all the additional
element information (e.g., size, pitch, length, etc.) applied to it.

 The weld symbol identifies the specific type of weld (e.g., fillet,
groove, plug, slot, etc.).

 The weld symbol is one of the element of a welding symbol

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Required Elements Optional Elements

• Reference Line - always horizontal • Multiple reference lines
• Arrow • Tail
• Weld Symbol
• Dimensions
• Supplementary Symbols
• Finish
• Specification, Process

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 Information applicable to the arrow

side of the joint is placed below the
reference line

 Information applicable to the other

side of a joint is placed above the
reference line

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 A break in the arrow line

signifies that the member the
arrow points to is the member
receiving the edge
preparation.

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 A break in the arrow line

signifies that the member the
arrow points to is the member
receiving the edge
preparation.

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 Two or more reference lines may be used to indicate a sequence of

operations.
 The first operation is always on the reference line nearest the arrow.

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 The Tail is used to specify welding process information or other such

information needed to convey the necessary welding details.

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Arrow side - V- groove

Other side - V- groove

Both sides - V- groove

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Back or Backing, single J-

groove, fillet

Single-bevel-groove,
double fillet

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Square- groove Weld with Melt-

Through

Single-bevel-groove with Melt-

Through

Single-V-groove with Melt-

Through

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 Edge weld with melt-Through

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 Depth of Bevel, S, and Size of

Weld, (E) placed to the left of the
symbol

1/4 inch Depth bevel with a 3/8

inch weld

(No dimensions means complete

penetration)
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 The Root Opening is placed within

the weld symbol or just outside,
and only on one side of the
reference line
 Inches or mm per shop practice

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 Groove Angle is placed just

outside the weld symbol

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 Pitch is the distance between centers of adjacent weld

segments. Pitch length is shown to the right of the weld
length dimension

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 Chain intermittent weld dimensions are to be placed on

both sides of reference line, and opposite each other

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 Staggered intermittent weld dimensions are to be placed

on both sides of reference line, and offset from each other.

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 The fillet weld size is shown to the left of the symbol.

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Plug Weld Size.

Angle of Countersink.

Depth of Filling.

WELD PITCH )Spacing of Plug Welds.

Number of Plug Welds.

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Mechanical Methods:
C = Chipping
G = Grinding
H =Hammering
M = Machining
R = Rolling
U = Unspecified
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 Destructive Testing

 destroying, a part, or a portion thereof, to determine its properties

 Nondestructive Testing

 Does not affect the serviceability of the part after testing is completed

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 Mechanical Properties of Metals

 The important mechanical properties of metals
 Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Fatigue Strength

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Mechanical Test Samples

Tensile Specimens
CTOD Specimen

Bend Test
Specimen
Charpy Specimen

Fracture Fillet
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 Strength

 The property of metals that

describes their ability to carry a load

 Two common methods of

expression:

 Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)

 Yield strength (or yield point)

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 Tensile Testing

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 Metal Behavior Under Load

 Elastic - No permanent deformation

 Plastic - Permanent deformation.

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 Offset Method

 Used for Deterring Yield Point

 Usually Offset at 0.2% (0.002 IN/IN)

 Line Parallel to Elastic Limit

 Intersection With Curve Is Y. P

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 The result of the tensile test include

 Ultimate Tensile Strength

 Yield Strength

 Percent Elongation

 Percent Reduction of Area

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 Ultimate Tensile Strength

Maximum load applied = 22000 Ib.
Least cross sectional area = 0.5 in2

UTS = Maximum load applied

cross sectional area

UTS = 22000
0.5

UTS = 44000 psi= 44 ksi

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 Percent Elongation
Original gage length = 2.0 in.
Final gage length = 2.6 in.

%Elongation = final length - original length x 100

original length

%Elongation = 2.6 - 2.0 x 100 = 30%

0.2

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Stress-Strain Diagram
High and Medium Strength Steels
High Strength Steel
High Carbon Spring Steel

Medium Strength Steel

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 Hardness
 Ability to resist indentation

 hardness tests
 Brinell

 Rockwell

 Hardness Tests Microhardness

 Vickers

 Knoop
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 Indenters, and Shapes of Indentation

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 Brinell
 can use it DT or NDT

Approximate Tensile Strength = BHN X 500

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 Rockwell
 uses both minor and major load

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 Microhardness

 Two Major Types

 Vickers

 Knoop

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 Temperature Effects

 As metal temperatures increase:

Strength decreases

Hardness decreases

Ductility increases

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 Toughness
 “The ability to absorb energy”

 The common notch toughness or impact tests include

 Charpy V notch

 crack tip opening displacement (CTOD).

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 Charpy Testing

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 Charpy Testing
Transition Temperature Samples

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 Charpy Test Results

 Energy absorption - Ft. lbs.

 Lateral expansion - Mils

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 Ductility
 The ability of a metal to deform without breaking

 Brittle vs Ductile Failure

Ductile
Brittle
 Percent elongation
 Percent reduction of area

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 Transition Temperature
 The temperature at which a metal fracture mode changes from ductile

to brittle

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 Fatigue Strength
 The strength of a metal when exposed to
repeated reversals of cyclic stresses

 Endurance Limit
 “The maximum stress at which no failure
will occur, regardless of cycles”

 Only Ferrous alloys and titanium alloys

have Endurance Limit

 Other structural metals such as

aluminium and copper, do not have Typical S-N Curves
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 Soundness

 “Freedom from discontinuities”

 Soundness Testing

 Bend testing

 Nick-break

 Fillet break
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Wrap-around
Guided Bend Test Jig
Bend Test Jig

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Transverse Weld Bend Specimens

Root / face
“t” up to 12 mm
bend

Thickness of material - “t”

“t” over 12 mm
Side bend

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Bend Test Samples

Transverse Weld Bend Specimens

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Bend Test Samples

Longitudinal Weld Bend Specimens

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Face bend
Side bend

Root bend

Defect indication Acceptance for

Generally this minor ruptures on
specimen would be tension surface
unacceptable depends upon code
requirements

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Fillet Break - Sample Fracture

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Fillet Break Specimen - T-Joint

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Nick Break Test Samples

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Evaluation of Nick-Break
Test

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 Metallographic Testing

 Macroscopic – specimens examined at magnification of

10x or lower

 Microscopic - specimens examined at use magnifications

greater than 10X, usually 100X or higher.

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 Photomacrograph
 Macroscopic - 10x or lower

 Macro specimen “for determining

such as depth of fusion ,depth of
penetration ,effective throat, weld
soundness, degree of fusion,
presence of weld discontinuities,
weld configuration, number of
passes”

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 Photomicrograph
 Microscopic - usually 100X or higher100X

 Micro specimen “used to determine

various features as well included are
microstructure constituents,
presence of inclusions, presence of
microscopic defects, and nature of
cracking”

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 Photomicrograph
 Microscopic of the welded joint
including:-
a) Base metal (BM).
b) Fusion Zone- Weld metal (WM).
c) Coarse grain heat affected zone
(CGHAZ).
d) Fusion line (FL).
e) Fine grain heat affected zone
(FGHAZ).

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 Chemical Properties

 Metals are mixtures of elements, and are referred to as

alloys

 Minor changes in alloy composition can have major

effects on alloy properties such as mechanical strength,

corrosion resistance
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 Common Steel Alloys

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 Effects of Carbon on the Properties of Iron

0.83 % Carbon (Eutectoid)*

Hardness
Tensile Strength

Ductility

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 % Carbon
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 Elements in Steels

 C - Most important  Mo - Hardenability

 S - Undesirable  Ni - Toughness, Ductility

 P - Undesirable  Al - Deoxidizer

 Si - Deoxidizer  V - Hardenability

 Mn - Combines with S  Nb - Stabilizer

 Cr - Hardenability, Corrosion Resistance

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 Alloying

 “Adding elements to change mechanical or physical properties”

 Two Methods of Alloying:

 Interstitial

 Substitutional

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 Interstitial Alloying
 Atoms Go Into the Space of the Atomic Structure

 Example - C Into Fe

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 Substitutional Alloying
 Add Atoms Almost the Same Size Which Replace the Other Element in That
Placement

 Example - Cr Into Fe

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 Dissolved Gases
 Hydrogen

 Oxygen

 Nitrogen

 Dissolved Gases in the molten weld metal can cause

 Embrittle ( crack) steels,

 Porosity

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 Stainless Steels
 The stainless steels are defined as having at least 12% chromium.
 The five main classes of stainless steels

 Ferritic- identified by “400” series grades, A 430

 Martensitic- identified by “400” series grades, A 416

 Austenitic-more common stainless steels, identified by the “200” and “300” series grades;
such as A 304 and A 316.

 Precipitation Hardening (PH)- One of the common PH stainless steels is a 17-4 PH grade.

 Duplex -are approximately half ferrite and half austenite at room temperature with
improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking. A popular duplex grade is

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 Sensitization of Austenitic Alloys

 “Formation of chromium carbides between
800 - 1600 degrees F”

 The most severe temperature for this

formation is about 1250°F,

 the chromium and carbon present in the

metal combine to form chromium
carbides.

 reduction of the chromium content within

the grain itself adjacent to the grain
boundary, called chromium depletion.

 reduced corrosion resistance

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 Sensitization of Austenitic Alloys

 Sensitization reduces the corrosion resistance in many environments

 In certain corrosion environments, the edges of the grains corrode at a high rate, and this
is called intergranular corrosion attack, or IGA

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 Sensitization of austenitic stainless steels during welding can be prevented by

several methods.
 Heat treatment ( SAWQ )

 Solution annealing + Water quenched

 Solution annealing, reheat treating the complete structure by heating to 1950°F–2000°F.

 Following rapidly quenched in water to avoid reformation of the chromium carbides, to Maximize
Corrosion Resistance

 Stabilized grades

 Use of Stabilizers (T & Nb )

 When titanium is added, we have the austenitic stainless alloy 321; when niobium is added, we
have the 347 grade

 Low carbon grades

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 Distortion
 Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the

material are free to move i.e. not restrained

 Restrained materials result in low distortion

but high residual stress

 Highly restrained joints also have a higher Angular Distortion

crack

 The action of residual stress in welded joints

is to cause distortion
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 Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way

 Pre-set or Offsetting:
 The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of trial and error.

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 Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way

 Back-step welding technique

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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 Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way

 Clamping and jigging:

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 Residual Stresses
 Residual Stress Caused by the Heating, Melting and Cooling and Solidifying of

Metals

 Remain after welding is completed (residual stress)

 Can cause distortion

 welding stress exceeds yield strength of material

 Can cause cracking

 welding stress exceeds tensile strength of material

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 Residual Stresses
 Relieved Residual Stresses by three methods

 Thermal - Controlled Heating and Cooling (PWHT)

 Vibratory Treatment - High Frequency Probes

 Mechanical Treatment ( Peening) - Use of Heavy

Pneumatic Hammer

 Most Stress Relief Done Thermally (PWHT), but

Peening During Welding Can Be Effective, As Is

Vibratory Stress Relief.

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 Heat Treatments For Steels

All heat treatments applied to metals are cycles of 3 elements.

1) Heating
2) Soaking
3) Cooling
Temp
2

1 3

Time
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 Heat Treatments For Steels

 Preheating

 Stress Relieving

 Normalizing

 Annealing

 Quenching and Tempering

 Others

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 Preheat
 Preheat with higher carbon content or increased workpiece thickness, a higher
preheat and inter-pass temperature should be used to

 Decrease the weld cooling rate

 Reduces distortion

 Reduces hydrogen

 control the weld hardness

 Minimize the risk of cracking.

 The primary purpose of preheating is to minimize the risk of hydrogen cracking.

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 Preheat for steel

C.E. Preheat Temperature
< 0.45 Optional
0.45 - 0.60 2000 - 4000 F
>0.60 4000 - 7000 F
 Carbon Equivalent ( C.E.)
CE = % C + % Mn + % Ni + % Cr + % Cu + % Mo
6 15 5 13 4
 The carbon equivalent determine hardenability of that steel.
 The carbon equivalent unit is employed
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to predict the tendency to Martensite
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 Heat Treatments For Steels

 Used after welding to release residual stresses, caused by welding operations
PWHT:
 Steels is heated BELOW its LCT, or Lower critical temperature
 Temperature: 550-650 C no phase transformation
 Cooling: Hold, furnace or controlled cooling
 Relieves residual stresses , reduces hydrogen levels, prevents stress
corrosion cracking

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 Heat Treatment for steel

Annealing: Used to make metals soft and ductile
 Steels is heated above its UCT, or upper critical temperature
 Temperature: 920°C hold for sufficient time (full austenitization)
 Cooling: Hold (soaked ) for 1 hour/25mm , slow cooling in furnace
 Produces a coarse grain structure & low toughness

Normalising: Used to make steels tough

 Steels is heated above its UCT, or upper critical temperature
 Temperature: 920°C hold for sufficient time (full austenitization)
 Cooling: Hold (soaked ) for 1 hour/25mm , slow cooling in air
 Produces a fine grain structure with good toughness
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 Heat Treatment for steel

Quenching: Used to make some steels harder

 Steels is heated above its UCT, or upper critical temperature
 Temperature: 920°C hold for sufficient time (full austenitization)
 Cooling: Fast cool, quench in water, oil.
 Produces high tensile strength and hardness.

Used after Quenching to balance the properties of Toughness &

Tempering: Hardness
 Steels is heated BELOW its LCT, or Lower critical temperature
 Temperature: 550°C to 700°C hold for sufficient time
 Cooling: slow cooling in air
 Produces Increases toughness of quenched steel, relieves residual stres
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A B

(A) Normalised
(B) Fully Annealed
(C) Water-quenched
(D) Water-quenched & tempered
D
C

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 Discontinuity Versus Defect

 An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as
 a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics.

 A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.

 Defect is
 a flaw or flaws
 by nature or accumulated effect renders a part or product unable to
meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications.
 the term designates rejectability.
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1) Incomplete root penetration.

2) Lack of root fusion.
3) Root concavity.
4) Burn through.
5) Excess penetration.
6) Root piping.
7) Oxidized Root (Root Coking)

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1) Incomplete root penetration.

DEFINITION:
Failure of weld metal to extend into the root of a joint.
CAUSES:
1) Root faces too large
2) Root gap too small
3) Electrode diameter too large
4) Incorrect electrode angle
5) Arc length too long
6) Travel speed too high for current

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1) Incomplete root penetration.

Note: two straight edges

equal to the root gap
preparation. Also absence
of weld metal
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2) Incomplete root fusion.

DEFINITION:
Lack of union at the root of the weld.
CAUSES:
1) Amperage too low / too high
2) Contaminated weld preps

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Weld Root Imperfections

Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration

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Weld Root Imperfections

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3) Concave root (suckback).

DEFINITION:
A shallow groove that may occur in the root of a butt weld.
CAUSES:
1) Root face too large
2) Low arc energy
3) Excessive back purge
4) Excessive root grinding

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3) Concave root (suckback).

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4) Excessive Root Penetration.

DEFINITION:
Excess weld metal protruding through the root
of a fusion weld made from one side only
CAUSES:
1) Excessive amperage during welding of root
2) Excessive root gap
3) Poor fit up
4) Excessive root grinding
5) Improper welding technique

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4) Excessive Root Penetration.

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5) Burn Through.
DEFINITION:
A localized collapse of the molten pool due to
excessive penetration, resulting in a hole in
the weld run.
CAUSES:
1) Excessive amperage during welding of root
2) Excessive root grinding
3) Improper welding technique
4) Slow travel speed
5) Large root gap/small root face (irregular fit up)

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5) Burn Through.

Burn Through

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6) Root Piping (Hollow Bead)

ROOT PIPING (HOLLOW BEAD)

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7) Oxidized Root (Root Coking).

DEFINITION:
During TIG , Purging gas used
to Prevent Oxidation in the root area
during welding stainless steel, titanium
and other corrosion-resistant materials
CAUSES:
1) Loss or insufficient back purging gas
2) Most commonly occurs when welding
stainless steels
3) Purging gases include argon, helium
and occasionally nitrogen
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1) Lack of side wall fusion.

2) Lack of inter run fusion.
3) Porosity.
4) Slag inclusions.
5) Tungsten Inclusion

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1) Lack Of Side Wall Fusion.

DEFINITION:
Lack of union in a weld.
CAUSES:
1) Contaminated weld prep.
2) Amperage too low (Insufficient heat input )
3) flooding the joint with too much weld metal
(blocking Out)
4) improper joint design

Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled

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2) lack of interun fusion

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3) Porosity.
Clustered porosity
DEFINITION:
 A group of gas pores, formed by entrapped
gas during the solidification of molten
metal. Linear porosity

Piping porosity or worm holes

or blow holes

POROSITY
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4) Slag inclusions
DEFINITION:
Slag entrapped within the weld
CAUSES:
1) improper techniques.
2) improper manipulation of the welding
electrode
3) insufficient cleaning between passes.

Slag Inclusion
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5) Tungsten inclusions
DEFINITION:
A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically GTAW & PAW only)
CAUSES:
1) amperage too high,
2) electrode tip not snipped,
3) electrode contact with the weld pool.

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1) Arc strikes.
2) Spatter.
3) Porosity.
4) Crater pipe.
5) Undercut.
6) Overlap.
7) Incompletely filled groove (Underfill).
8) Excess weld metal.
9) Poor weld profile.
10) Misalignment (hi-lo)
11)Surface cracks.
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1) Arc Strike (STRAY FLASH)

DEFINITION:
A localized coalescence outside the weld zone
CAUSES:
1) Accidental striking of the arc onto the
parent material
2) Faulty electrode holder
3) Poor cable insulation
4) Poor return lead clamping.

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2) Spatter
DEFINITION:
Small particles (droplet) of weld metal
expelled from the welding operation
which adhere to the base metal surface
CAUSES:
1) Excessive arc energy
2) Arc - blow
3) Damp electrodes

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3) Surface porosity
DEFINITION:
A gas pore is a cavity generally under 1.5mm in
dia. Porosity is a group of gas pores.
CAUSES:
1) Excessive arc energy
2) Arc - blow
3) Damp electrodes

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4) Crater pipe
DEFINITION:
A depression due to shrinkage at the end of a
weld run, where the source of heat was
removed.
CAUSES:
1) Too fast a cooling rate

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5) Undercut.
DEFINITION:
A groove cut at the toe of the weld
and left unfilled.
CAUSES:
1) High welding speed
2) Wrong electrode angle
3) Excessive weaving
Undercut

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5) Undercut.

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5) Undercut.

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6) Overlap
DEFINITION:
When the face of the weld COLD LAP/OVERLAP
extends beyond the weld toe.
CAUSES:
1) Slow travel speed
2) High amperage
3) Welding technique

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7) Incompletely filled groove (Underfill).

DEFINITION:
The weld surface is below the
adjacent surfaces of the base
metal .
CAUSES:
1) Improper welding
techniques
2) Travel speed too high

Incompletely Filled Groove/lack

of sidewall fusion
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8) Excess weld metal.

DEFINITION:
Additional weld metal, at either the root
or the face, which may or may not
be acceptable. Excess weld metal can
cause a poor toe blend.
CAUSES:
1) Slow travel speed
2) Incorrect welding technique

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8) Excess weld metal.

WELD APPEARANCE - TOE BLEND
>3mm
 3mm

GOOD POOR
> 3mm > 3mm +
cold lap

POOR POOR

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9) Poor Profile .
DEFINITION:
A non uniform/irregular appearance at either
the weld face or root. Can include excessive
root penetration/cap height Poor profile /
and poor cap profile. bulbous contour
CAUSES:
1) Poor welding technique.
2) Too slow/fast travel speed
3) Arc blow

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9) Poor Profile .
WELD APPEARANCE - WIDTH

REGULAR IRREGULAR

IRREGULAR IRREGULAR
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9) Poor Profile .
Incorrect Weld Profile

Overlap of a weld

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10) Misalignment (hi-lo).

DEFINITION:
Amount a joint is out of alignment at the root.

CAUSES:
1) Carelessness. Also due to joining different thicknesses (transition thickness)

Linear Misalignment

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11) Cracks.
DEFINITION:
A linear discontinuity produced by fracture.
Welds, Cracks
Longitudinal (centerline) Longitudinal (HAZ)

Transverse Crack Crater

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11) Cracks.
Longitudinal Crack

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11) Cracks.
Transverse Crack

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11) Cracks.
Toe Cracks

• Toe cracks occurring in service

are often the result of fatigue
loading of welded components.

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Hot Crack Vs. Cold Crack.

• Hot Crack is intergranular.
• Cold crack may be intergranular or transgranular.
Transgranular Intergranular

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Underbead Cracks
 Underbead crack is located in HAZ.

 Adjacent to the weld fusion line and running parallel to the

weld interface.

 It takes hours after welding to appear (Delayed cracks).

 So if expected, final inspection should not be performed until

48 to 72 hours after the weld has cooled to ambient
temperature.

 High strength steels (HSLA) ,T&Q steel are susceptible to this

cracking type.


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They result from the presence of hydrogen in the weld zone.
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• Hydrogen could come from filler metal, base metal, surrounding

atmosphere or organic contamination.

Cellulosic electrodes produce

hydrogen as a shielding gas Hydrogen absorbed in
a long, or unstable arc

Hydrogen produced from

oil, or paint on plate Hydrogen crack

H2 H2

Martensite forms from γinfo@eliteservices-int.com

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Underbead Cracks
 Best techniques for the prevention of underbead cracking is:

 To eliminate sources of hydrogen when welding susceptible materials.

 With SMAW low hydrogen electrodes may be used.

 Preheat may help eliminate this cracking problem.

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11) Cracks.
Toe Cracks

• Toe cracks occurring in service

are often the result of fatigue
loading of welded components.

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11) Cracks.
Solidification Cracking Fe Steels

Liquid Iron Sulphide films

Solidification crack

Contractional strain
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11) Cracks. Prevention of Solidification Cracking

Add Manganese to weld metal *
Spherical Mn Sulphide balls
form between solidified grains

Cohesion and strength

between grains remains

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1) Lamination
2) Seams During rolling at mill
3) Laps
4) Delamination laminations that have separated due to stresses.
5) Lamellar tears During welding or after welding

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1) Lamination
DEFINITION:
 “A discontinuity with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the
worked surface of a metal”
 If there is slag or blowholes in the part, it will elongate forming Lamination.

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1) Lamination

Plate Lamination
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2) Delamination
DEFINITION:
 “Delaminations are laminations that have separated due to stresses.”

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3) Seams
DEFINITION:
 Straight Line longitudinal crevices or openings that may appear on surface.
 They differ from laminations in that they are open to the rolled surface of the
metal instead of the edge.

6/28/2019 Cluster Seams

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4) Laps
DEFINITION:
 Laps are the result of overfilling in the mill passes that causes fins or projections

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5) Lamellar tears
DEFINITION:
 Lamellar tears are discontinuities that occur during or after welding.
 They usually appear as a stair step defect caused by contraction forces during
solidification.
 They may extend over long distances and are deeper than heat-affected zone
cracks.

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NDT

Surface Surface/sub-surface and

Volumetric

1.Visual Testing(VT) 1.Radiography Testing(RT)

2.Magnetic Particle Testing (MT) 2.Ultrasonic Testing(UT)
( surface and near surface , applied on only ferromagnetic material)
3. Penetrant Testing (PT) (any defects open to surface)
4. Eddy Current (ET) ( surface and near surface)

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☼ Visual examination
 is the most extensively used NDE method for welds.
 The oldest and most widely used inspection techniques
 The eyes of inspector are the only ‘equipment’ used for the
inspection
 Applicable to virtually any material at any stage of
manufacture at any point in its service life
 VT is commonly performed on castings, forgings, and
welds and it is performed after machining processes as
well.
 It includes either the direct or indirect observation of the
exposed surfaces of the weld and base metal.
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☼ Direct visual examination

 is conducted when access is sufficient
to place the eye within 6 in. through
24 in. (150 mm through 600 mm) of
the surface to be examined and at
an angle not less than 30 degrees to
the surface as illustrated in Figure.

 Mirrors may be used to improve the

angle of vision.

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• Codes and specifications may list compliance with these requirements as

mandatory.
• Some requirements listed in this article include the following.
ASME • a) A written procedure is required for examinations.
• b) The minimum amount of information that is to be included in the
Section V, written procedure.
• c) Demonstration of the adequacy of the inspection procedure.
Article 9, lists • d) Personnel are required to demonstrate annually completion of a J-1
Jaeger-type eye vision test.
requirements • e) Direct visual examination requires access to permit the eye to be
within 6 in. through 24 in. (150 mm through 600 mm) of the surface, at
for visual an angle not less than 30 degrees.
• f) The minimum required illumination of the part under examination.
examination. • g) Indirect visual examination permits the use of remote visual
examination and devices be employed.
• h) Evaluation of indications in terms of the acceptance standards of the
referencing code.

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☼ Optical Aids
 Optical aids used in visual inspection
include the following.
a) Lighting
 the inspection surface illumination is of
extreme importance.
 Adequate illumination levels should be
established in order to ensure and effective
visual inspection.
 Standards such as ASME Section V Article 9
specify lighting levels of 100 foot-candles
(1000 lux) at the examination surface.
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 Effective program of visual inspection

 It has been proven that EFFECTIVE program of visual inspection will discover

vast majority of the defects which would be found later using expensive NDE

methods

 This only possible when the VT is accomplished:

 BEFORE, DURING and AFTER welding

 By a trained and qualified inspector (that’s why AWS developed the CWI program)

 Proper tools
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 Why VT is very cost effective:

 Relative simplicity
 It is least expensive inspection method
 Minimal amount of equipment required
 Minimize the repair time and cost;
 It allows for detection and correction of many discontinuities before weld
completion
 Application of VT
 Before welding
 During welding
 After welding
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☼ Optical Aids
 Optical aids used in visual inspection
include the following.

b) Mirrors
 valuable to the inspector allowing them to
look inside piping, threaded and bored
holes, inside castings and around
corners if necessary.

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☼ Optical Aids
 Optical aids used in visual inspection include the following.
c) Magnifiers

 helpful in bringing out small details and defects.

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☼ Optical Aids
 Optical aids used in visual inspection
include the following.

d) Borescopes and Fiberscopes

 widely used for examining tubes, a deep
hole, long bores, and pipe bends, having
internal surfaces not accessible to direct
viewing metal.

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☼ Weld Examination Devices

 Typical inspection tools for weld inspection include the
following.
c) Digital pyrometer or temperature sensitive crayons

 measures preheat and interpass temperatures.

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 Penetrant examination is a sensitive method of detecting and locating

discontinuities, provided the discontinuities are clear and open to the surface.

 Method
 The method employs a penetrating liquid dye which is applied to the properly cleaned
surface to be examined and which enters the discontinuity.
 After a suitable dwell time, the excess penetrant is removed from the surface and the part is
dried.
 A developer is then applied which acts as a blotter, drawing the penetrant out of the
discontinuity.
 The penetrant, drawn from an opening on the surface, indicates the presence and location
of a discontinuity
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Method

Apply Penetrant Clean then apply Developer Result

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 basic classifications of the penetrant method

There are two basic classifications of the penetrant method, both
using a similar principle.
 One uses a visible dye and the other uses a fluorescent dye which is only visible
with exposure to ultraviolet light.
 Visible penetrant is usually red in color to provide a contrast against the white
developer background. Normal white light is usually sufficient to view the
discontinuities.
 Fluorescent penetrants provide a greenish yellow indication against a dark
background when viewed in a darkened area under a black (ultraviolet) light
source. The fluorescent method is more sensitive due to the fact that the human
6/28/2019 eye can more easily discern a fluorescent indication.
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PT Types
Visible dye
Fluorescent dye
Three removal systems:
 Solvent
 Water
 Emulsifiable
Solvent removal , Visible dye type
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 These Are the Medias by Which They Can Keep

Permanent Records.

 Sketches

 Photographs

 Lift off tapes

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 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

1) Low operator skill level 1) Highly clean metal

2) All materials (Non Porous) 2) Open Surface flaws only

3) Low cost method 3) Somewhat slow

4) Simple equipment

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 Application
 Magnetic particle inspection may be applied to detect surface and near surface
defects in ferromagnetic materials only .

 Method
 Clean area to be tested
 Apply contrast paint
 Apply magnetism to the component
 Apply ferromagnetic ink to the component during magnetising
 Interpret the test area
 Post clean and demagnetise (if required)
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 Method

Contrast paint Magnet & Ink Result

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 Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability

 If the magnetic field is parallel to the defect, the field will see little disruption
and no flux leakage field will be produced.

 An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the

defect is necessary to form an indication.

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 Circumferential Magnetization
 Circular magnetic fields are produced by
1) passing current through the part
2) A headshot on a wet horizontal test unit an
3) Prods
4)Central conductors

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 longitudinal Magnetization
 a longitudinal magnetic fields are produced by

1) Permanent magnets and Electromagnetic yokes

2) Coils & Solenoids

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Question
? From the previous slide regarding the optimum test sensitivity, which
kinds of defect are easily found in the images below?

Cracks at 90° to line force will show Cracks at parallel to line force will not
show

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Question
? From the previous slide regarding the optimum test
sensitivity, which kinds of defect are easily found in the
images below?

6/28/2019 Longitudinal (along the axis)

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Question
? From the previous slide regarding the optimum test
sensitivity, which kinds of defect are easily found in
the images below?

Longitudinal (along the axis) Transverse (perpendicular the axis)

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 Magnetic Particles  MT Equipment

 ferromagnetic iron oxides AC / DC bench units

Dry or wet AC yokes

 Types AC / DC yokes

Color dyed
AC / DC prods
Fluorescent

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AC / DC coils 351

 These Are the Medias by Which They Can Keep

Permanent Records.

 Sketches

 Photographs

 Lift off tapes

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 Magnetic Particles
Advantages Disadvantages

1) Low operator skill level 1) Fe Magnetic metal only

2) Rapid 2) De-magnetize may be required

3) Relatively cheap 3) Can cause arc strikes #

4) Portable 4) Poor with thick coatings

# When using the straight current prod technique

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 Overview of Radiographic Testing

 X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object

 Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependent upon the density

of the material through which it is travelling

 Thinner areas and low density materials show as darker areas on the
radiograph
 Thicker areas and High density materials show as lighter areas on a
radiograph

 Applicable to metals, non-metals and composites

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Method

Load film Exposure to Radiation Interpret Graph

Radioactive source Developed
Graph
IQI

Film cassette Latent image on the film

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 Areas of high radiation transmission, or low absorption, appear as dark areas on the
developed film.
 Areas of low radiation transmission, or high absorption, appear as light areas on the developed
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Source

High dense
discontinuity Low dense
discontinuity

Lighter region Film

on radiograph

Darker region
on radiograph

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Metal Densities
Grams/cubic centimeter
Aluminum 2.70
Steel 7.87
Copper 8.96
Lead 11.34
Tungsten 19.30

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Flaw Orientation

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Flaw Orientation

0o 10o 20o
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Radiographic Techniques

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Radiographic Techniques

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Radiographic Techniques

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Radiographic Techniques

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Radiographic Sensitivity ( 2% thickness test object)

 Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) (Penetrameters)

Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

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Radiographic Sensitivity
Placement of IQI

Hole Type IQI

Wire Type IQI

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Advantages Disadvantages

1) A permanent record 1) High operator skill

2) Most materials 2) Difficult interpretation
3) Little surface preparation 3) Requires access to both sides
4) Flaw orientation
5) Safety requirements*

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Main Features:
 Surface and sub-surface detection

 This detection method uses high frequency sound waves, typically above 2MHz to
pass through a material

 A probe is used which contains a piezo-electric crystal to transmit and receive

ultrasonic pulses and display the signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display.

 a piezo-electric crystal “Refers to materials which can convert electrical energy

to mechanical energy and vice versa.”

 For ultrasound to enter a material ,a couplant must be introduced between the probe
and specimen
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Method

Apply Couplant Sound wave Result*

CRT display

Signal rebounded
from Lack of fusion

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Digital
Pulse echo
UT Set,
signals
A scan Display

Compression probe checking the material ThicknessThickness

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 Longitudinal (straight beam)-Compression Probe

 Thickness measurement defect Back wall
initial pulse echo echo
 Lamination check

Material Thk
defect

0 10 20 30 40 50

Compression Probe CRT Display

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UT Set
A Scan
Display

Angle Probe
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 Shear (angle beam) Probe

 Weld check initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

½ Skip CRT Display

initial pulse

defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50

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UT Advantages UT Limitations
 A true volumetric test • Highly skilled operator
 One side access • Smooth surfaces
 Very accurate • Groove welds > 1/4” thick
 Deep penetration - 200”
 Critical flaws found
 Equipment fully portable

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Eddy Current Testing

“Based on the principle of eddy currents being formed in conductive
materials in the presence of an AC coil and changes in those eddy
currents by material changes.”

Induced Eddy Currents

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ET application
 Flaw detection

 Metal thickness

 Coating thickness

 Metal hardness

 Heat treatment
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ET Advantages ET Limitations
 No contact required with part  Highly skilled operator
 No couplant required  “Too sensitive”
 Readily Automated  Shallow penetration - 3/16”
 Applicable to all metals  Calibration standards
required
 Requires surface cleanliness
 Magnetic materials more
difficult
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