MODERN BUS STATION USING RF

A Major Project Phase - I report

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Academic
requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

Electrical & Electronics Engineering

by

A.MRUDULA (19H51A0253)
G.RAJASHEKAR (19H51A0272)
K.SAI RISHITHA (19H51A0280)
N.KAVYA (19H51A0291)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of

Mr .CH . SHANKAR RAO
Associate Professor, EEE dept

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
(NAAC Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade & NBA Accredited)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad)
KANDLAKOYA, MEDCHAL ROAD, HYDERABAD-501401
2022-23

1
 CMR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
(NAAC Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade &NBA Accredited)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad)
KANDLAKOYA, MEDCHAL ROAD, HYDERABAD-501401
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “ MODERN BUS STATION USING RF ”
is a bonafide work done by A.Mrudula(19H51A0253), G.Rajashekar(19H5AA0272),
K.Sai Rishitha(19H51A0280) , Manmohan kumar (19H51A0283) in partial
fulfillment of the academic requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of
Technology in Electrical & Electronics Engineering, submitted to the Department of
Electrical and Electronics Engineering, CMR College of Engineering & Technology,
Hyderabad during the period 2022-23.

Mr.Ch.SHANKAR RAO Prof . K.SOUJANYA

Associate Professor HOD, EEE Department

EEE Department CMRCET

Project Guide

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With great pleasure I want to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to all the
people who helped in making this project work a grand success.

We are highly indebted and grateful to our guide Mr. Ch. SHANKAR RAO Associate
Professor, Department of EEE, CMRCET for her excellent guidance and constant
encouragement throughout for the successful completion of the Project.

We are obliged and grateful to thank, Mrs.Prof.K.SOUJANYA, HOD, Department of

EEE, CMRCET, for her cooperation in all respects.

We would like to thank Major Dr.VA NARAYANA, Principal, CMRCET, for his
support in the course of this project work.

We would like to thank Sri Ch. GOPAL REDDY garu, Secretary& Correspondent of
CMRCET, for his cooperation in all respects during the course.

We would like to thank Mr. Ch. SHANKAR RAO Sir, project coordinator, Department
of EEE CMRCET for their valuable suggestions in each and every review during the
course of my project.

Finally, we would like to thank all teaching & non- teaching staff members of the
department, for their cooperation and support throughout the duration of our course.

DECLARATION

3
We hereby declare that results embodied in this Report of Project on “MODERN BUS
STATION USING RF” are from work carried out by using partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of B. Tech degree. We have not submitted this report to any
other university/institute for the award of any other degree.

DATE:

STUDENT NAME ROLL NUMBER SIGNATURE

A.MRUDULA 19H51A0253
G.RAJASHEKAR 19H51A0272
K.SAI RISHITHA 19H51A0280
N.KAVYA 19H51A0291

INDEX

4
CHAPTERS DESCRIPTION PAGE NO

ABSTRACT 6

1 INTRODUCTION 7

1.1 INTRODUCTION 8

1.2 OBJECTIVES 9
2 LITERATURE SURVEY 10

2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3 PROBLEM DEFINITION

3.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

3.2 EXISTING SOLUTIONS

4 COMPONENTS

5 BLOCK DIAGRAM

6 RFID

REFERENCES

ABSTRACT

5
With the title itself, one can understand that this project is exclusively used to give the
information of the forthcoming station to the passengers in the bus. Most of the passengers do
not bother about the stations arriving until their destination arrives. There may also be chances
like they miss their destination and have to get down at some other station and go back to reach
their destination. To get rid of this kind of problem, we have designed a project called MODERN
BUS STATION USING RF. This project uses wireless communication, RF. RF has the
advantages of fast communication for longer distances and reliability. The RF modules used here
are STT-433 MHz Transmitter along with an RF encoder HT12E, STR-433 MHz Receiver along
with an RF decoder HT12D. Every station will have the RF transmitter. The RF transmitter will
be interfaced to the controller through an RF encoder to encode the data received by the
controller and to transmit the data. Here in our project the RF transmitter continuously transmits
the predefined data. The RF receiver which interfaces the controller through an RF decoder will
be fixed in the train. Here the RF decoder is used to decode the signal received by the
transmitter. As the train moves and approaches the station, the RF receiver present in the train
will receive the information(predefined data) which is being continuously transmitted by the
transmitter and will pass the decoded data to the controller so that the controller performs the
predefined task of displaying the corresponding data on the LCD. Thus the passengers can know
the forthcoming station and act accordingly. Here in our project APR9600 voice module will
also be provided for the audio indication of station arrival. It gives the audio output of the
prerecorded voice whenever required, as per the code logic. As this is the prototype we will
consider 4 push buttons as inputs for four different stations. This project uses regulated 5V,
500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Full
wave bridge rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/12V step down
transformer.

6
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

7
  Automated fare collection (AFC) systems are used in many urban public transport
systems around the world. As the designation suggests, these are typically designed with
the specific purpose of automating the ticketing system, easing public transport use for
passengers and adding efficiency to revenue collection operations.
 In addition, AFC systems are used to enable integrated ticketing across different public
trans-port modes and operators in urban areas. This chapter gives you an introduction
about the Internet of Things and its real time applications.
 The main idea behind this project is to collect the fare automatically using the Internet of
Things in a cost efficient manner. Internet of Things allows objects to sensed and
controlled remotely across existing network infrastructure.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

8
 With the title itself, one can understand that this project is exclusively used to give the
information of the forthcoming station to the passengers in the bus.
 Most of the passengers do not bother about the stations arriving until their destination
arrives.
 There may also be chances like they miss their destination and have to get down at some
other station and go back to reach their destination.
 To get rid of this kind of problem, we have designed a project called MODERN BUS
STATION USING RF.

9
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

10
Literature review was carried out throughout the whole project to gain knowledge and improve
the skills needed to complete this project. The main sources for this project are previous related
projects, research thesis, books, journals and online tutorials. This chapter focuses on the basic
concepts and all fundamental theories which related to this project and the drawbacks of the
current system.

The number of developed and

developing countries have
started their research in transportation
system with advanced
technology in wireless
communication. The use of smart
phones, tablets and laptops human
beings are able to stay
connected to the Internet more often
than ever before. So there
is easy to access information
regarding bus. In this survey we
will shortly introduce the related work
has being carried out in

11
bus tracking using technologies like
GPS, RFID and Internet
of Things
The number of developed and developing countries have started their research in transportation
system with advanced technology in wireless communication. The use of smart phones, tablets
and laptops human beings are able to stay connected to the Internet more often than ever before.
So there is easy to access information regarding bus. In this survey we will shortly introduce the
related work has being carried out in bus tracking using technologies like GPS, RFID and
Internet of Things.

A. Tracking using GPS based technology

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) is widely used in tracking vehicles will help to locate the bus
by providing the latitude and longitude coordinates of the location [11]. Sutar et. al. gives IoT
based bus tracking system using GPS inbuilt Android smart phone which is equipped on the bus
for track the position of the bus and collected information then sent to the sever using 3G
network of the phone, the client can access the information from the server using android
application. [12]. Pham Oat et. al. developed vehicle tracking system using (u-blox NEO-6Q )
GPS receiver module to obtain a vehicle’s coordinate and transmit it using (u-blox LEON-G100)
GSM module and Arduino Uno microcontroller to the user’s phone through the mobile network.
[13]. Singla and Bhatia gives the system where current position of the bus is tracked by GPS and
coordinates of the bus location are sent through GPRS service provided by GSM network [14].
Lee et. al. implemented vehicle tracking system using smartphone application and GPS. In this
work the vehicle is equipped with GPS of smartphone for track location of bus and this
information is send to sever via GSM/GPRS network [11].

B. Tracking using RFID based technology

12
RFID based tracking is one of the best application of vehicle tracking. Maria Anu et. al.
discusses the bus location tracking system using RFID technology and display this information
in on the heading board at particular bus stops as well as local sever of main bus transport system
receives the location of buses [9]. Hatem and Habib developed bus management system using
RFID and Wireless Sensor Network (WSN); the detecting range between RFID reader and tag is
increased by using WSN network [15]. Oberli et. al. discusses performance evaluation for real-
time passenger recognition in intelligent public transportation systems using UHF RFID
technologies [16]. San Jose et. al. gives the design and implementation for urban transport routes
as a particular case and tracking objects using RFID system. [17].
On review above literature we conclude that all tracking methods mentioned above are costly
and power consuming. We have developed cost efficient technique for tracking the bus using
RFID integrated with IoT.

The number of developed and

developing countries have
started their research in transportation
system with advanced
technology in wireless
communication. The use of smart
phones, tablets and laptops human
beings are able to stay
connected to the Internet more often
than ever before. So there

13
is easy to access information
regarding bus. In this survey we
will shortly introduce the related work
has being carried out in
bus tracking using technologies like
GPS, RFID and Internet
of Things
The number of developed and
developing countries have
started their research in transportation
system with advanced
technology in wireless
communication. The use of smart
phones, tablets and laptops human
beings are able to stay
connected to the Internet more often
than ever before. So there

14
is easy to access information
regarding bus. In this survey we
will shortly introduce the related work
has being carried out in
bus tracking using technologies like
GPS, RFID and Internet
of Things

The number of developed and

developing countries have
started their research in transportation
system with advanced
technology in wireless
communication. The use of smart
phones, tablets and laptops human
beings are able to stay
15
connected to the Internet more often
than ever before. So there
is easy to access information
regarding bus. In this survey we
will shortly introduce the related work
has being carried out in
bus tracking using technologies like
GPS, RFID and Internet
of Things
The number of developed and
developing countries have
started their research in transportation
system with advanced
technology in wireless
communication. The use of smart
phones, tablets and laptops human
beings are able to stay

16
connected to the Internet more often
than ever before. So there
is easy to access information
regarding bus. In this survey we
will shortly introduce the related work
has being carried out in
bus tracking using technologies like
GPS, RFID and Internet
of Things

17
 CHAPTER-3
PROBLEM DEFINITION

3.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT:

 Mostly in metropolitan areas like densely populated cities people migrate for different
purposes for higher studies, work of labor, jobs etc.
 But it is not an easy task for every people to reach their destinations without any

18
 knowledge.
 Even they will face communication problem to take help from the others.
 Some of the passengers don’t even know where to get off at that stop, even if they pass
the stop.
 To get rid of this kind of problem, we have designed a project called MODERN BUS
STATION USING RF.

3.2 EXISTNG SOLUTIONS:

19
20
 CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS

4.COMPONENTS:
4.1 HARDWARE REQUIREMENT
 Micro controller unit

21
  Crystal:11.0592 MHz
 RF Encoder
 RF Decoder
 Max 232
 APR9600
4.1.1 MICRO CONTROLLER UNIT
ATMEGA328
Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on 8-bit ATmega328P microcontroller. Along
with ATmega328P, it consists other components such as crystal oscillator, serial communication,
voltage regulator, etc. to support the microcontroller. Arduino Uno has 14 digital input/output
pins (out of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog input pins, a USB connection, A
Power barrel jack, an ICSP header and a reset button.
The ATmega8 microcontroller contains 32 general purpose working registers. As shown in the
below figure these registers are directly connected to ALU. Two registers can carry one single
instruction consequently in one clock cycle.
Specifications:
Microcontroller ATmega328P – 8 bit AVR family microcontroller
Operating Voltage 5V
Recommended Input
7-12V
Voltage
Input Voltage Limits 6-20V
Analog Input Pins 6 (A0 – A5)
Digital I/O Pins 14 (Out of which 6 provide PWM output)
DC Current on I/O Pins 40 Ma
DC Current on 3.3V Pin 50 Ma
Flash Memory 32 KB (0.5 KB is used for Boot loader)
SRAM 2 KB
EEPROM 1 KB

22
Frequency (Clock Speed) 16 MHz

Table 4.1.1: Atmega328 specifications

Arduino:
Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use hardware and
software. It consists of a circuit board, which can be programmed (referred to as a
microcontroller) and a ready-made software called Arduino IDE (Integrated Development
Environment), which is used to write and upload the computer code to the physical board.
The key features are −
 Arduino boards are able to read analog or digital input signals from different sensors and
turn it into an output such as activating a motor, turning LED on/off, connect to the
cloud and many other actions.
 You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board via Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading software).
 Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need an extra piece
of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a new code onto the board. You can
simply use a USB cable.

 Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it easier to learn
to program.

 Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks the functions of the micro-
controller into a more accessible package.

ADVANTAGES OF ARDUINO

23
  It is cheap
 It comes with an open supply hardware feature that permits users to develop their own kit
 The software of the Arduino is well-suited with all kinds of in operation systems like
Linux, Windows, and Macintosh, etc.
 It also comes with open supply software system feature that permits tough software
system developers to use the Arduino code to merge with the prevailing programming
language libraries and may be extended and changed.
 For beginners, it is very simple to use.

Fig 4.1.1 A:Arduino Uno

24
 Power USB
1 Arduino board can be powered by using the USB cable from your computer. All you need
to do is connect the USB cable to the USB connection (1).

Power (Barrel Jack)

2 Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power supply by connecting it
to the Barrel Jack (2).

Voltage Regulator
3 The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given to the Arduino board
and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.

Crystal Oscillator
The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues. How does Arduino
4 calculate time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number printed on top of
the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is 16,000,000 Hertz or 16
MHz.

Arduino Reset
You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your program from the beginning. You can
5, 17
reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the reset button (17) on the board.
Second, you can connect an external reset button to the Arduino pin labelled RESET (5).

25
 Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)
 3.3V (6) − Supply 3.3 output volt
 5V (7) − Supply 5 output volt
 Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with 3.3 volt and 5
6, 7, 8,
volt.
9
 GND (8)(Ground) − There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which can
be used to ground your circuit.
 Vin (9) − This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external
power source, like AC mains power supply.

Analog pins
The Arduino UNO board has six analog input pins A0 through A5. These pins can read the
10
signal from an analog sensor like the humidity sensor or temperature sensor and convert it
into a digital value that can be read by the microprocessor.

Main microcontroller
Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller (11). You can assume it as the brain of
your board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the Arduino is slightly different from board
11 to board. The microcontrollers are usually of the ATMEL Company. You must know what
IC your board has before loading up a new program from the Arduino IDE. This
information is available on the top of the IC. For more details about the IC construction and
functions, you can refer to the data sheet.

ICSP pin
Mostly, ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of
12 MOSI, MISO, SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial
Peripheral Interface), which could be considered as an "expansion" of the output. Actually,
you are slaving the output device to the master of the SPI bus.

13 Power LED indicator

This LED should light up when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate that
your board is powered up correctly. If this light does not turn on, then there is something

26
 wrong with the connection.

TX and RX LEDs
On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They appear in
two places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate the pins
14
responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led flashes
with different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends on the
baud rate used by the board. RX flashes during the receiving process.

Digital I/O
The Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse
15 Width Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input digital pins to
read logic values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs,
relays, etc. The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM.

AREF
16 AREF stands for Analog Reference. It is sometimes, used to set an external reference
voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the upper limit for the analog input pins.

27
PIN DESCRIPTION OF ATMEGA328

Fig.4.1.1B: Pin description of ATMEGA328

APPLICATIONS

ATMEGA328 is commonly used in many projects and autonomous systems where a

simple, low- powered, low- cost microcontroller is needed. Perhaps the most common
implementation of this chip is on the popular Arduino development platform, namely the
Arduino UNO and Arduino Nano model

28
4.1.2 CRYSTAL:11.0592 MHz
Liquid Crystal Display
A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of
colour or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists
of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two
polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the
liquid crystals between them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The
liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the
other.
A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that
communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an
controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the contollers are
16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line
by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.
Many microcontroller devices use ‘smart LCD’ displays to output visual information.
LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is
even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They have a
standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display
requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For a 4-bit data
bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4). When the LCD
display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the operation of the
microcontroller.
Description Of 16x2:
This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. We will start with available.
somethingLine lengths of
simple. This example doesn’t use the Bi-directional feature found on newer ports, thus it should 8, 16,
work with most, if no all-Parallel Ports. It however doesn’t show the use of the Status Port as an 20, 24,
input. So what are we interfacing? A 16 Character x 2 Line LCD Module to the Parallel Port. 32 and
These LCD Modules are very common these days, and are quite simple to work with, as all the 40
logic required to run them is on board. charact
ers are
all
standar
29
d, in
one,
two
Fig 4.1.2: Schematic Diagram of LCD (16x2)

 Above is the quite simple schematic. The LCD panel’s Enable and Register Select is

connected to the Control Port. The Control Port is an open collector / open drain output.
While most Parallel Ports have internal pull-up resistors, there are a few which don’t.
Therefore by incorporating the two 10K external pull up resistors, the circuit is more
portable for a wider range of computers, some of which may have no internal pull up
resistors.
 We make no effort to place the Data bus into reverse direction. Therefore we hard wire
the R/W line of the LCD panel, into write mode. This will cause no bus conflicts on the
data lines. As a result we cannot read back the LCD’s internal Busy Flag which tells us if
the LCD has accepted and finished processing the last instruction. This problem is
overcome by inserting known delays into our program.
 The 10k Potentiometer controls the contrast of the LCD panel. Nothing fancy here. As
with all the examples, I’ve left the power supply out. You can use a bench power supply
set to 5v or use a onboard +5 regulator. Remember a few de-coupling capacitors,
especially if you have trouble with the circuit working properly.

5.2.2 16 x 2 Alphanumeric LCD Module :

 Intelligent, with built-in Hitachi HD44780 compatible LCD controller and RAM
providing simple interfacing
 61 x 15.8 mm viewing area
 5 x 7 dot matrix format for 2.96 x 5.56 mm characters, plus cursor line

30
  Can display 224 different symbols
 Low power consumption (1 mA typical)
 Powerful command set and user-produced characters
 TTL and CMOS compatible
 Connector for standard 0.1-pitch pin headers

Symbol Level Function

Pin
1 VSS - Power, GND
2 VDD - Power, 5V
3 Vo - Power, for LCD Drive
Register Select Signal
4 RS H/L H: Data Input
L: Instruction Input
H: Data Read (LCD->MPU)
5 R/W H/L
L: Data Write (MPU->LCD)
6 E H,H->L Enable
7-14 DB0-DB7 H/L Data Bus; Software selectable 4- or 8-bit mode
15 NC - NOT CONNECTED
16 NC - NOT CONNECTED

Table:7 16 x 2 Alphanumeric LCD Module Specifications

Features of LCD:
• 5 x 8 dots with cursor
• Built-in controller (KS 0066 or Equivalent)
• + 5V power supply (Also available for + 3V)
• 1/16 duty cycle
• B/L to be driven by pin 1, pin 2 or pin 15, pin 16 or A.K (LED)
• N.V. optional for + 3V power supply
Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 16×1 LCD, the address locations are:

31
Table:8 Address locations for a 1x16 line LCD

32
4.1.3 RF ENCODER:HT12E

The HT 12E Encoder ICs are series of CMOS LSIs for Remote Control system applications.
They are capable of Encoding 12 bit of information which consists of N address bits and 12-N
data bits. Each address/data input is externally trinary programmable if bonded out.

Features

 18 PIN DIP, Operating Voltage: 2.4V ~ 12.0V

 Low Power and High Noise Immunity CMOS Technology
 Capable of Decoding 12 bits of Information
 8 ~ 12 Address Pins and 0 ~ 4 Data Pins
 Received Data are checked 2 times, Built in Oscillator needs only 5% resistor
 VT goes high during a valid transmission
 Low Standby Current and Minimum Transmission Word
 Easy Interface with and RF or an Infrared transmission medium
 Minimal External Components

Applications

 Burglar Alarm, Smoke Alarm, Fire Alarm, Car Alarm, Security System
 Garage Door and Car Door Controllers
 Cordless telephone
 Other Remote Control System

Fig 4.1.3: RF Encoder

33
4.1.4 RF DECODER:HT12D

The HT 12D ICs are series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system applications. This ICs are
paired with each other. For proper operation a pair of encoder/decoder with the same number of
address and data format should be selected. The Decoder receive the serial address and data from
its corresponding decoder, transmitted by a carrier using an RF transmission medium and gives
output to the output pins after processing the data.

Features

 12-bit Decoder IC to be used with HT12E

 Decoded data has 4 Data bits and 8 Address bits (8+4=12-bits)

Applications

 Burglar alarm system

 Smoke and fire alarm system
 Garage door controllers
 Car door controller

Fig 4.1.4: RF Decoder

34
4.1.5 MAX 232

The MAX232 is an integrated circuit by Maxim Integrated Products, now a subsidiary of Analog

Devices, that converts signals from a TIA-232 (RS-232) serial port to signals suitable for use
in TTL-compatible digital logic circuits. The MAX232 is a dual transmitter / dual receiver that
typically is used to convert the RX, TX, CTS, RTS signals.[1]
The drivers provide TIA-232 voltage level outputs (about ±7.5 volts) from a single 5-volt supply
by on-chip charge pumps and external capacitors. This makes it useful for implementing TIA-
232 in devices that otherwise do not need any other voltages. The receivers translates the TIA-
232 input voltages (up to ±25 volts, though MAX232 supports up to ±30 volts) down to standard
5 volt TTL levels.[1] These receivers have a typical threshold of 1.3 volts and a
typical hysteresis of 0.5 volts.[1]
The MAX232 replaced an older pair of chips MC1488 and MC1489 that performed similar RS-
232 translation. The MC1488 quad transmitter chip required 12 volt and −12 volt power, [2] and
MC1489 quad receiver chip required 5 volt power.[3] The main disadvantages of this older
solution was the ±12 volt power requirement, only supported 5 volt digital logic, and two chips
instead of one.

Applications
The MAX232(A) has two receivers that convert from RS-232 to TTL voltage levels, and two
drivers that convert from TTL logic to RS-232 voltage levels. As a result, only two out of all RS-
232 signals can be converted in each direction. Typically, the first driver/receiver pair of the
MAX232 is used for TX and RX signals, and the second one for CTS and RTS signals.
There are not enough drivers/receivers in the MAX232 to also connect the DTR, DSR, and DCD
signals. Usually, these signals can be omitted when, for example, communicating with a PC's
serial interface, or when special cables render them unnecessary. If the DTE requires these
signals, a second MAX232 or some other IC from the MAX232 family can be used.

Fig 4.1.5:MAX 232

4.1.6 APR9600

35
The APR9600 provided all the necessary features for recording and playing the audio with very
fewer external components at a very low cost. May be many of you are aware that the APR9600
audio recorder and playback IC is no longer manufacured!. The chip was manufactured by a
Taiwan based company called APLUS Integrated Circuits Inc. I have searched for it in retail
shops all across SP road Bangalore but the vendors said that the chip is no longer manufactured.
Features:

 Single chip, high quality voice recording and playback solution

 User friendly, Easy to use operation
 Non – Volatile – flash memory technology, no battery backup required
 4-8 Khz sampling rate
 Audio output to drive a speaker or audio out for public address system
 Can record voice with the help of on-board microphone or via any audio input

Speaker

8 Ohm 10W Speaker

8 Ohm Speaker Pinout

Features and Specification

 Nominal Size: 20 mm

36
  Impedance: 8 Ohm ± 15% at 1 KHz 1V
 Resonant frequency: 750 Hz± 150 Hz at 1V
 Sound pressure level: 86 dB/w ± 3 dB
 Response: 10 dB (max)
 Input power: 0.5W
 Handling capacity: 1W
 Operation must be normal at program source of 0.5W
 Buzz, rattle, etc. must be normal at sine wave of 2 V
 Magnet Size:  8 x 1 mm
 Heat test: 60 ± 2° C
 Humidity test: 40 ± 2° C

8 Ohm Speakers with different power rating

0.5W, 2W, 10W, 25W, 40W and other.

Brief about 8 ohm Speaker

The purpose of speaker is to produce audio output that can be heard by the listeners. Speakers
are the transducers that used to convert the electromagnetic waves into sound waves. It receives
audio input from computer or audio receivers. The input fed to speaker is in analog or digital
form. Analog speakers simply amplify electromagnetic waves into sound waves while digital
first convert the signal into analog and then amplify it.

Sound produced by the speaker is defined by frequency and amplitude, where frequency
determines how high or low the pitch of the sound is. Amplitude or loudness of the speaker is
defines by the change in the air pressure created by the speaker’s sound waves.

We all know that, speakers have few different parameters like impedance, power handling, size,
frequency response. Here, impedance tells you that how much current will flow through a
speaker at a certain voltage. Like this speaker has 8 ohms of impedance and comes with a power
handling capacity of 1W.

37
 

How to Use a Speaker?

In the below circuit diagram of Audio amplifier, speaker does not respond to high frequency.
If there is no voltage at control PIN 5 speaker doesn’t produce sound. By creating some noise
near Condenser Mic, then that sound converts into electrical signal using the transistor and then
fed to the PIN 5 of 555 timer IC. When there is voltage at PIN 5, output pulse width increases for
a moment and get detected by the speaker and produce sound.

In the circuit R2 and R3 resistor used for provide biasing to transistor and R1 for condenser mic,
you can also test the circuit by blowing the air over the condenser mic, the speaker will generate
sound accordingly.

38
2D-model

FIG 4.1.6: APR9600

39
4.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT
• Arduino software
• Proteus simulation
• Programming language

4.2.1 Arduino software:

Arduino is an open-source prototyping platform based on easy-to-use hardware and
software. Arduino boards are able to read inputs - light on a sensor, a finger on a button, or
a Twitter message - and turn it into an output - activating a motor, turning on an LED,
publishing something online. You can tell your board what to do by sending a set of
instructions to the microcontroller on the board. To do so you use the Arduino
programming language (based on Wiring), and the Arduino Software (IDE), based on
Processing. Over the years Arduino has been the brain of thousands of projects, from
everyday objects to complex scientific instruments. A worldwide community of makers -
students, hobbyists, artists, programmers, and professionals

- has gathered around this open-source platform, their contributions have added up to an
incredible amount of accessible knowledge that can be of great help to novices and experts
alike. Arduino was born at the Ivrea Interaction Design Institute as an easy tool for fast
prototyping, aimed at students without a background in electronics and programming. As
soon as it reached a wider community, the Arduino board started changing to adapt to new
needs and challenges, differentiating its offer from simple 8-bit boards to products for IoT
applications, wearable, 3D printing, and embedded environments. All Arduino boards are
completely open- source, empowering users to build them independently and eventually
adapt them to their particular needs. The software, too, is open-source, and it is growing
through the contributions of users worldwide.

40
 Why Arduino?

Thanks to its simple and accessible user experience, Arduino has been used in
thousands of different projects and applications. The Arduino software is easy-to-use for
beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users. It runs on Mac, Windows, and Linux.
Teachers and students use it to build low cost scientific instruments, to prove chemistry
and physics principles, or to get started with programming and robotics. Designers and
architects build interactive prototypes, musicians and artists use it for installations and to
experiment with new musical instruments. Makers, of course, use it to build many of the
projects exhibited at the Maker Faire, for example. Arduino is a key tool to learn new
things. Anyone - children, hobbyists, artists, programmers - can start tinkering just
following the step by step instructions of a kit, or sharing ideas online with other members
of the Arduino community. There are many other microcontrollers and microcontroller
platforms available for physical computing. Parallax Basic Stamp, Net media's BX-24,
Phidgets, MIT's Handyboard, and many others offer similar functionality. All of these tools
take the messy details of microcontroller programming and wrap it up in an easy-to-use
package. Arduino also simplifies the process of working with microcontrollers, but it offers
some advantage for teachers, students, and interested amateurs over other systems:

 Inexpensive - Arduino boards are relatively inexpensive compared to other microcontroller

platforms. The least expensive version of the Arduino module can be assembled by hand, and
even the pre-assembled Arduino modules cost less than$50
 Cross-platform - The Arduino Software (IDE) runs on Windows, Macintosh OSX, and Linux
operating systems. Most microcontroller systems are limited to Windows.
 Simple, clear programming environment - The Arduino Software (IDE) is easy-to-use for
beginners, yet flexible enough for advanced users to take advantage of as well. For teachers, it's
conveniently based on the Processing programming environment, so students learning to
program in that environment will be familiar with how the Arduino IDE works.

41
 Open source and extensible software - The Arduino software is published as open source tools,
available for extension by experienced programmers. The language can be expanded through C+
+ libraries, and people wanting to understand the technical details can make the leap from
Arduino to the AVR C programming language on which it's based. Similarly, you can add AVR-
C code directly into your Arduino programs if you want to.
 Open source and extensible hardware - The plans of the Arduino boards are published under a
Creative Commons license, so experienced circuit designers c an make their own version
 Of the module, extending it and improving it. Even relatively inexperienced users can build the
breadboard version of the module in order to understand how it works and save money
 Getting Started with Arduino and Genuino products:-

Install the Arduino Software (IDE) on Windows PCs-

…This document explains how to install the Arduino Software (IDE) on Windows machines.

 Download the Arduino Software(IDE)

 Proceed with board specific instructions.
How to Download the Arduino Software (IDE):

Get the latest version from the download page. You can choose between the Installer (.exe)
and the Zip packages. We suggest you use the first one that installs directly everything you
need to use the Arduino Software (IDE), including the drivers. With the Zip package you
need to install the drivers manually.

When the download finishes, proceed with the installation and please allow the driver
installation process when you get a warning from the operating system.

Installation:
In this section, we will learn in easy steps, how to set up the Arduino IDE on our
computer and prepare the board to receive the program via USB cable.

42
Step 1 − First you must have your Arduino board (you can choose your favorite board)
and a USB cable. In case you use Arduino UNO, Arduino Duemilanove, Nano, Arduino
Mega 2560, or Diecimila, you will need a standard USB cable (A plug to B plug), the
kind you would connect to a USB printer as shown in the following image.

In case you use Arduino Nano, you will need an A to Mini-B cable instead as shown in
the following image.

Step 2 − Download Arduino IDE Software.

You can get different versions of Arduino IDE from the Download page on the Arduino
Official website. You must select your software, which is compatible with your
operating system (Windows, IOS, or Linux). After your file download is complete, unzip
the file.

43
Step 3 − Power up your board.

The Arduino Uno, Mega, Duemilanove and Arduino Nano automatically draw power
from either, the USB connection to the computer or an external power supply. If you
are using an Arduino Diecimila, you have to make sure that the board is configured to
draw power from the USB connection. The power source is selected with a jumper, a
small piece of plastic that fits onto two of the three pins between the USB and power
jacks. Check that it is on the two pins closest to the USB port.

Connect the Arduino board to your computer using the USB cable. The green power
LED (labeled PWR) should glow.

Step 4 − Launch Arduino IDE.

After your Arduino IDE software is downloaded, you need to unzip the folder. Inside the
folder, you can find the application icon with an infinity label (application.exe). Double-
click the icon to start the IDE.

44
Step 5 − Open your first project.

Once the software starts, you have two options −

 Create a new project.

 Open an existing project example.

To create a new project, select File → New.

45
To open an existing project example, select File → Example → Basics → Blink.

46
Here, we are selecting just one of the examples with the name Blink. It turns the LED
on and off with some time delay. You can select any other example from the list.

Step 6 − Select your Arduino board.

To avoid any error while uploading your program to the board, you must select the
correct Arduino board name, which matches with the board connected to your
computer.

Go to Tools → Board and select your board.

47
Here, we have selected Arduino Uno board according to our tutorial, but you must
select the name matching the board that you are using.

Step 7 − Select your serial port.

Select the serial device of the Arduino board. Go to Tools → Serial Port menu. This is
likely to be COM3 or higher (COM1 and COM2 are usually reserved for hardware serial
ports). To find out, you can disconnect your Arduino board and re-open the menu, the

48
entry that disappears should be of the Arduino board. Reconnect the board and select
that serial port.

Step 8 − Upload the program to your board.

Before explaining how we can upload our program to the board, we must demonstrate
the function of each symbol appearing in the Arduino IDE toolbar.

49
A − Used to check if there is any compilation error.

B − Used to upload a program to the Arduino board.

C − Shortcut used to create a new sketch.

D − Used to directly open one of the example sketch.

E − Used to save your sketch.

F − Serial monitor used to receive serial data from the board and send the serial data
to the board.

Now, simply click the "Upload" button in the environment. Wait a few seconds; you will
see the RX and TX LEDs on the board, flashing. If the upload is successful, the
message "Done uploading" will appear in the status bar.

Note − If you have an Arduino Mini, NG, or other board, you need to press the reset
button physically on the board, immediately before clicking the upload button on the
Arduino Software.

Connecting a Battery
For stand-alone operation, the board is powered by a battery rather than
through the USB connection to the computer. While the external power can be
anywhere in the range of 6 to 24 V (for example, you could use a car battery), a
standard 9 V battery is convenient. While you could jam the leads of a battery snap into
the Vin and Gnd connections on the board, it is better to solder the battery snap leads to

50
a DC power plug and connect to the power jack on the board. A suitable plug is part
number 28760 from www.jameco.com. Here is what this looks like.

Fig.6.1: Arduino with battery

Disconnect your Arduino from the computer. Connect a 9 V battery to the

Arduino power jack using the battery snap adapter. Confirm that the blinking program
runs. This shows that you can power the Arduino from a battery and that the program
you download runs without needing a connection to the host PC .
Moving On
Connect your Arduino to the computer with the USB cable. You do not need
the battery for now. The green PWR LED will light. If there was already a program
burned into the Arduino, it will run.
Start the Arduino development environment. In Arduino-speak, programs are called
“sketches”, but here we will just call them programs.
In the editing window that comes up, enter the following program, paying attention to
where semi-colons appear at the end of command lines.
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
Serial.println("Hello World");
}
void loop() {}

51
4.2.2 Proteus:
Proteus:
Proteus is a simulation and design software tool developed by Lab centre
Electronics for Electrical and Electronic circuit design. It also possess 2D CAD drawing feature.
It deserves to bear the tagline “From concept to completion”.
About Proteus
It is a software suite containing schematic, simulation as well as PCB designing.
ISIS is the software used to draw schematics and simulate the circuits in real time. The
simulation allows human access during run time, thus providing real time simulation.
ARES  is used for PCB designing. It has the feature of viewing output in 3D view of the
designed PCB along with components.
The designer can also develop 2D drawings for the product.
Features
ISIS has wide range of components in its library. It has sources, signal generators,
measurement  and analysis tools like oscilloscope, voltmeter, ammeter etc., probes for real time
monitoring of the parameters of the circuit, switches, displays, loads like motors and lamps,
discrete components like resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, digital and analog
Integrated circuits, semi-conductor switches, relays, microcontrollers, processors, sensors etc.
ARES offers PCB designing up to 14 inner layers, with surface mount and through hole
packages. It is embedded with the foot prints of different category of components like ICs,
transistors, headers, connectors and other discrete components. It offers Auto routing and manual

52
routing options to the PCB Designer. The schematic drawn in the ISIS can be directly transferred
ARES.
Starting New Design
Step 1: Open ISIS software and select New design in File menu

Fig Proteus File Menu

Step 2: A dialogue box appears to save the current design. However, we are creating a new
design file so you can click Yes or No depending on the content of the present file. Then a Pop-
Up appears asking to select the template. It is similar to selecting the paper size while printing.
For now, select default or according to the layout size of the circuit.

53
Fig Proteus Default Template Select
 
Step 3: An untitled design sheet will be opened, save it according to your wish, it is better to
create a new folder for every layout as it generates other files supporting your design. However,
it is not mandatory.

Fig Proteus Design Sheet

54
Step 4: To Select components, Click on the component mode button.

Fig Component Mode

Step 5: Click on Pick from Libraries. It shows the categories of components available and a
search option to enter the part name.

55
Fig Pick from Libraries
Step 6: Select the components from categories or type the part name in Keywords text box.

Fig Keywords Textbox

Example shows selection of push button. Select the components accordingly.

56
Fig Push Button Selection
Step 7: The selected components will appear in the devices list. Select the component and place
it in the design sheet by left-click.

57
Fig Component Selection
Place all the required components and route the wires i.e., make connections.
Either selection mode above the component mode or component mode allows to connect
through wires. Left click from one terminal to other to make connection. Double right-click on
the connected wire or the component to remove connection or the component respectively.

58
Fig Component Properties Selection
Double click on the component to edit the properties of the components and click on Ok.

Fig Component Properties Edit

Step 8: After connecting the circuit, click on the play button to run the simulation.

59
Fig Simulation Run
In this example simulation, the button is depressed during simulation by clicking on it to
make LED glow.

60
Fig Simulation Animating
Simulation can be stepped, paused or stopped at any time.

Fig Simulation Step-Pause-Stop Buttons

61
4.2.3 Programming Language: Embedded C
This is the most widely used programming language for embedded
processors/controllers. Assembly is also used but mainly to implement those portions of
the code where very high timing accuracy, code size efficiency, etc. are prime requirements.
Embedded C is perhaps the most popular languages among Embedded Programmers for
programming Embedded Systems. There are many popular programming languages like
Assembly, BASIC, C++ etc. that are often used for developing Embedded Systems but
Embedded C remains popular due to its efficiency, less development time and portability.

62
 CHAPTER-5
BLOCK DIAGRAM

63
5.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

TRANSMITTER SIDE-

POWER
SUPPLY

RF
SWITCH 1 ENCODER
HT12E

MICRO
SWITCH 2
CONTROLLER RF
TRANSMITTER

SWITCH 3

SWITCH 4

64
RECEIVER SIDE-

POWER LCD
SUPPLY
DISPLAY

RF MICRO
DECODER CONTROLLER
HT12D APR 9600

RF
RECEIVER SPEAKER

65
 CHAPTER-6
RFID

6.1 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification):

66
Introduction
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology has been attracting considerable attention
with the expectation of improved supply chain visibility for both suppliers and retailers. It will
also improve the consumer shopping experience by making it more likely that the products
they want to purchase are available.
Recent announcements from some key retailers have brought the interest in RFID to the
forefront. This guide is an attempt to familiarize the reader with RFID technology so that they
can be asking the right questions when considering the technology.
What is RFID?
RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a method of identifying unique items using radio
waves. Typical RFID systems are made up of 2 major components: readers and tags. The reader,
sometimes called the interrogator, sends and receives RF data to and from the tag via antennas.
A reader may have multiple antennas that are responsible for sending and receiving the radio
waves. The tag, or transponder, is made up of the microchip that stores the data, an antenna, and
a carrier to which the chip and antenna are mounted.
RFID technology is used today in many applications, including security and access control,
transportation and supply chain tracking. It is a technology that works well for collecting
multiple pieces of data on items for tracking and counting purposes in a cooperative
environment.
Is All RFID Created Equal?
There are many different versions of RFID that operate at different radio frequencies. The choice
of frequency is dependent on the requirements of the application.
Three primary frequency bands have been allocated for RFID use.
Low Frequency (125/134 KHz):
Most commonly used for access control and asset tracking.
Mid-Frequency (13.56 MHz):
Used where medium data rate and read ranges are required.
Ultra High-Frequency (850 MHz to 950 MHz and 2.4 GHz to 2.5 GHz): offer the longest
read ranges and high reading speeds.

Applications for RFID within the supply chain can be found at multiple frequencies and

67
different RFID solutions may be required to meet the varying needs of the marketplace.
Many of today’s RFID technologies cannot reliably cover areas wider than 4 to 5 feet,
making them unsuitable for wide openings that are the norm in manufacturing,
distribution and store
receiving dock environments. Since UHF (Ultra High Frequency) can cover portals up to 9 feet
wide it is gaining industry support as the choice bandwidth for inventory tracking
applications including pallets and cases.
Technology providers are developing readers that work with multiple system protocols and
frequencies so that users will be able to choose the RFID products that work best for their
market and products.

RFID tags are further broken down into two categories:

Active RFID Tags are battery powered .They broadcast a signal to the reader and can transmit
over the greatest Distances (100+ feet).Typically they can cost $4.00 - $20.00 or more and are
used to track high value goods like vehicles and large containers of goods. Shipboard containers
are a good example of an active RFID tag application

Passive RFID Tags do not contain a battery. Instead, they draw their power from the reader.
The reader transmits a low power radio signal through its antenna to the tag, which in turn
receives it through its own antenna to power the integrated circuit (chip). The tag will briefly
converse with the reader for verification and the exchange of data. As a result, passive tags can
transmit information over shorter distances (typically 10 feet or less) than active tags. They have
a smaller memory capacity and are considerably lower in cost ($1.00 or less) making them ideal
for tracking lower cost items.

There are two basic types of chips available on RFID tags, Read-Only and Read-
Write. Read only chips are programmed with unique information stored on them during
the manufacturing process. The information on read-only chips can never be changed.
With Read-Write chips, the user can add information to the tag or write over existing
information when the tag is within range of the reader. Read-Write chips are more expensive

68
that Read Only chips. Another method used is something called a "WORM" chip (Write Once
Read Many). It can be written once and then becomes "Read only" afterwards. This is a
desirable format since companies will be able to write an EPC (electronic product code) to the
tag when the product is produced and packaged.

How Will RFID Affect Our Industry?

RFID is expected to provide huge advantages to manufacturers by offering the tools to better
plan production and respond more quickly to market demand. It will facilitate automation of
inventory counts and speed shipping and receiving at the distribution level. For retailers, it will
help to reduce stock-outs, enable product tracking and potentially reduce theft and streamline the
POS function. RFID will also open other merchandising opportunities and help with the overall
consumer buying experience.

Due to the current cost of the technology (both tags and infrastructure), the initial phase of
adoption for retailers is at carton and pallet marking applications. The current technology being
adopted for carton and pallet labeling is passive UHF tags (850 MHz – 950 MHz). As the cost of
tags and readers comes down, a wider adoption at the item marking level will develop.
In order for RFID to grow quickly, it is important that standards be developed so that the
technology providers are working toward a common goal of providing low cost and compatible
technologies. Not only will it drive down costs, but standards will also help users to reap the
greatest benefit from their investment by providing value throughout the whole supply chain.

Potential Issues That Need Consideration When Choosing The Type Of RFID And
Method For Application To Your Products Or Packaging.
Enthusiasm within the RFID industry has resulted in much hype about the technology over the
past several years. As a result, it is important to embrace the technology with a bit of caution.
The following are some of the issues that require close scrutiny when investigating RFID:
Tag Cost – This should not to be confused with chip cost. Although the goal is to bring the cost
of the tag (chip and antenna) down to 5 cents, this goal is in the future since it both assumes
manufacturing breakthroughs and is predicated on consumption in the billions of tags per year.
Today, the cost is closer to "less than 50 cents" for a read/write solution in high (millions)

69
volume. Ultimate tag cost will also be very much dependent on the type of chip required (read
only versus read/write), size of the antenna needed and how it is packaged to meet a specific
application.

Tag Size – Tag size is dependent on the read range desired. Although the chips are very tiny,
they will not operate without being mounted to an antenna. The size of the antenna will
determine the read distance performance of the tag so understanding the size of the antenna
needed for the application is more important than the size of the chip alone.

Infrastructure Cost – Much focus appears to be placed on the tag cost since it is a recurring
expenditure. Reader cost and infrastructure costs for implementing RFID must also be looked at
very closely as well. Both the software systems requirements and physical environment, in which
RFID is intended to be used, are critical to the ultimate performance of a system and may require
changes to accommodate using it effectively. As an example, RFID chips cannot be read through
metal objects. Other forms of electromagnetic interference may also impede performance of he
technology and require changes to the physical environment where RFID will be used. The
number and types of readers will also be a major expenditure depending on your application.

Read Distances – Read distances for RFID are very much dependent on the frequency chosen
for the application. Tag orientation also affects the read range as the range diminishes as the tag
is rotated from
being perpendicular to the path to the reader. Reading reliability is quite good when labels are
alone in a reader field like cases on a conveyor line, but less certain when the labels are
randomly oriented as with labeled cases on a skid. The antenna size (both on the tag and the
readers) will also be a determining factor. Hand held readers are not capable of using as much
power as stationary readers and as a result provide shorter read distances.

70
Government Regulation – Governments around the world regulate the use of the frequency
spectrum. Different countries have already assigned certain parts of the spectrum for other
uses and as a result, there is virtually no part of the spectrum that is available everywhere in
the world for use by RFID. This means that a RFID tag may not work in all countries. As an
example if you choose the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) frequency that
Operates at 915MHz in the U.S. and you ship your product to Europe, they may not be able to
be read it since Europe operates in the UHF spectrum at 869 MHz. This is an important
consideration when operating in a global environment.

Anti-Collision – This is an important feature of RFID chips/readers since it will allow multiple
tags to be read while grouped in one reader field. It is not available on all RFID tags but is an
important feature if you are planning to use RFID for inventory counts, shipping and receiving
where multiple tags need to be read at the same time.

Privacy Issues – Consumer groups have expressed concern over the potential (real or imagined)
privacy invasion that might result with widespread RFID item marking. These groups are
pushing for legislation that will require manufacturers to advise consumers that the products
contain RFID devices and must provide a means so that the devices can be disabled at point of
purchase. These issues are most prevalent at the item marking level and will have little impact on
the implementation of carton and pallet labeling.
RFID
Glossary of Commonly Used Terms:
Active Tag – An RFID tag that uses a battery to power its microchip and communicate with a
reader. Active tags can transmit over the greatest distances (100+ feet). Typically they can cost
$20.00 or more and are used to track high value goods like vehicles and large containers of
merchandise.

Agile Reader – A reader that can read different types of RFID tags – either made by different
manufacturers or operating on different frequencies.

Antenna – A device for sending or receiving electromagnetic waves.

1
Anti-Collision – A feature of RFID systems that enables a batch of tags to be read in one
reader field by preventing the radio waves from interfering with one another. It also prevents
individual tags from being read more than once.

Automatic Data Capture (ADC) – Methods of collecting data and entering it directly into a
computer system without human intervention. Automatic Identification (Auto-ID) Refers to
any technologies for capturing and processing data into a computer system without using a
keyboard. Includes bar coding, RFID and voice recognition.

Auto-ID Center – A group of potential RFID end users, technology companies and
academia. The Auto-ID center began at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)
and is now a global entity. It is focused on driving the commercialization of ultra-low cost
RFID solutions that use Internet like infrastructure for tracking goods throughout the global
supply chain. The Auto-ID Center organization is now EPC global.

Electronic Product Code (EPC)

A standard format for a 96-bit code that was developed by the Auto-ID Center. It is designed
to enable identification of products down to the unique item level. EPC’s have memory
allocated for the product manufacturer, product category and the individual item. The benefit
of EPC’s over traditional bar codes is their ability to be read without line of sight and their
ability to track down to the individual item versus at the SKU level.

EPC global – The association of companies that are working together to set standards for
RFID in the retail supply chain. EPC global is a joint venture between EAN International
and the Uniform Code Council, Inc.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
A method of identifying items uniquely using radio waves. Radio waves do not require line
of site and can pass through materials like cardboard and plastic but not metals and some
liquids.

Read Range
The distance from which a reader can communicate with a tag. Several factors including

2
frequency used orientation of the tag, power of the reader and design of the antenna
affect range.

Reader
Also called an interrogator. The RFID reader communicates via radio waves with the RFID
tag and passes information in digital form to the computer system. Readers can be configured
with antennas in many formats including handheld devices, portals or conveyor mounted.

Read Only Tags

Tags that contain data that cannot be changed. Read only chips are less expensive than read-
write chips.

Read-Write Tags
RFID chips that can be read and written multiple times. Read/Write tags can accept data at
various points along the distribution cycle. This may include transaction data at the retail point
of sale. They are typically more expensive than read only tags but offer more flexibility.

RFID Transponder
Another name for a RFID tag. Typically refers to a microchip that is attached to an antenna,
which communicates with a reader via radio waves. RFID tags contain serial numbers that are
permanently encoded, and which allow them to be uniquely id
"WORM" Chip (Write Once Read Many) and then becomes "Read only" afterward.
Even limited to character based modules, there is still a wide variety of shapes
and sizes available. Line lengths of 8,16,20,24,32 and 40 characters are all standard, in
one, two and four line versions.
Several different LC technologies exists. “supertwist” types, for example, offer
Improved contrast and viewing angle over the older “twisted nematic” types. Some
modules are available with back lighting, so that they can be viewed in dimly-lit
conditions. The back lighting may be either “electro-luminescent”, requiring a high
voltage inverter circuit, or simple LED illumination.

3
REFERENCE:
[1]W. Wang, J. P. Attanucci, and N. H.M. Wilson, ―Bus passenger origindestination estimation
and related analyses using automated data collection systems,‖ J. Public Transp., vol. 14, no. 4,
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