oxford

big ideasaustralian curriculum

history 8

depth study option

o Renaissance Italy
c. 1400 – c. 1600

lisa murray | richard smith

depth study option
Renaissance Italy
(c. 1400–c. 1600)

Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper

The period of time between 1400 and 1600 was a time of stability and prosperity across much of what
has become modern-day Italy. It was at the centre of trade with the Middle East and Asia, and this
provided the right environment for the rebirth of ancient classical ideas and values. This period became
known as the Renaissance. Renaissance is a French word that means ‘rebirth’.

Italian merchants and bankers brought back exotic goods from their travels, as well as ideas from the
ancient classical sources preserved in the great libraries of Constantinople. When Constantinople fell to
the Ottoman Turks in 1453, many of the Greek scholars fled and found safety in Italy.

Wealthy citizens flaunted their money and power by becoming supporters, or ‘patrons’, of artists and
intellectuals. Because of this support, thinkers and scholars were able to spend their days avoiding
ordinary jobs, instead travelling around Italy, studying ancient ruins and rediscovering ancient Greek and
Roman texts.

The ideals and values of ancient classical philosophers, politicians, poets and writers inspired and
encouraged the thinkers of Renaissance Italy. Scholars studied and discussed these ideals and applied
them to their own world. They also shaped, moulded and developed new ideals and values of their own.

Key inquiry questions

1 How were societies in Renaissance Italy organised?

2 What developments and achievements characterised Renaissance Italy?

3 How did Renaissance culture spread and what is its legacy?

bigpicture
It is difficult to pinpoint an exact start or end point for the Renaissance. The
years 1400–1600 are generally given for this period but influences that brought
about the Renaissance started as early as 1200 and carried through into the later
period, now known as the Reformation. The main idea behind the Renaissance
was humanism. Humanism focused on human potential rather than on spiritual
thought. It involved scholars looking at learning in new ways, using evidence to
help their reason and logic. It was the basis for new economic, artistic, political
and social ideas that would encourage human development and exploration, and
redesign the existing Italian and European societies.
1
M
o
a
C
1453
Constantinople, the centre of the Byzantine Empire,
falls to the Ottoman Turks. Massive numbers of Greek people,
1397 bringing with them works of art and literature from
Giovanni de Medici moves to Florence.
ancient Greece, move to the Italian city-states.
He becomes involved in Florentine public
life and begins supporting the arts, laying
the groundwork for the Medici family’s
rise to power. 1503
Leonardo da Vinci begins work
on the Mona Lisa.
CE 1512
Michelangelo c
his paintings up
1413 ceiling of the S
Filippo Brunelleschi develops 1440
the geometrical theory of 1429 Johann Gutenberg
Cosimo de Medici takes
‘perspective’, changing the invents the printing
over his father’s business.
nature of art dramatically. press.
Within five years he runs
the city of Florence.

1501
The city of Florence
commissions Michelangelo
to sculpt his famous
statue of David.
 1527 1633
Galileo Galilei is charged with
The imperial army attacks the city of Rome after
heresy for his work on the
Pope Clement VII refuses to pay a ransom.
solar system, and put under
The city is taken in just over 12 hours in what would
house arrest for the rest of his life.
become known as the ‘sack of Rome’.
This symbolises the beginning of the decline of
Renaissance Italy.

1600
Galileo Galilei invents
1519 the first thermometer.
Leonardo da Vinci
dies in France, having
1517 established himself
Martin Luther posts his ‘95 Theses’ on the door
as a painter, sculptor,
of a church in Wittenburg, Germany, and ignites
engineer and scientist.
a movement which leads to a split in the Roman
1610
Catholic Church. Galileo Galilei invents the first telescope strong enough to observe
the Moon and other planets in the solar system, and confirms
that the theory of Copernicus was indeed true.

1543
Nicolas Copernicus publishes his book outlining
his radical theory that the Sun is actually at the
centre of the universe, not the Earth

completes
pon the
Sistine Chapel.

1513
Niccolo Machiavelli publishes
The Prince, arguing that it is
better for a ruler to be feared
than loved. It is considered
one of the most influential
political books of all time.

Vesalius publishes On the Structure of the

Human Body, changing anatomical studies
in medicine.

Source 1 Timeline of some key events for the Renaissance

1 How were societies in
Renaissance Italy organised?

Source 2 Santa Maria del Fiore Cathedral, a good example of the beauty and elegance of Renaissance Florence

Unlike many other countries in Europe, Italy was not a country ruled over by one king, but a group of
city-states all with their own type of government. There were five dominant city-states at the time of the
Renaissance:

Name of city-state Features

Kingdom of Naples The only city-state to officially have a king
The Papal States Rome – governed by the pope as head of the Church
Duchy of Milan Ruled over by a duke
Two republics: Governed by elected representatives –
Florence A council called the signoria in Florence
Venice A leader (doge – elected for life) and a council in Venice
 Republic of
Duchy of Venice
Milan

Republic
of Genoa Ottoman
Empire
Republic of Florence
Papal
Corsica Republic States
(Genoa) of Siena
Rome

Sardinia
Kingdom of
Naples

Kingdom of
Sicily

0 300 km

0908_SAL_BAH2 Italy Italy

Source 3 The main Italian city-states in Renaissance city states
30-1-2012

Life in Renaissance Italy

During the Renaissance, Italy had a large urban population, with seven of the biggest cities in Europe.
Towns and cities across the Italian peninsula tended to be surrounded by walls to keep out enemy
invaders. Inside the walls, the towns were centred on industry and market activities. In the cities,
social status went with a person’s occupation. At the top were the nobles, merchants, bankers and
public administrators, then there were the shopkeepers and craftsmen, and lastly, there were the many
unskilled workers.

Life for workers in the cities

In the poorer parts of the towns, streets were narrow and filthy, and workplaces were overcrowded. The air
was often foul because of the many dye works, tanneries and slaughterhouses where unskilled labourers
worked. Children of the poor would work alongside their parents or be sent out to work as soon as they
were old enough, some as young as seven years old. Poor hygiene was normal. It is little wonder that poor
workers (called the popolo minuto) would sometimes riot in protest at bad living and working conditions.
Source 4 An artist’s impression of a craftsman and his family working together in the city

Life for workers on the land

Workers on the land provided food for the cities and towns and were not any better off than workers in
the cities. They lived mostly in two-roomed cottages which they shared with their animals. All members
of the family worked side by side. Children would start to work as soon as they were strong and skilled
enough. Workers on the land worked from sunrise to sunset. Despite these long hours, many only barely
managed to survive.
Life for the wealthy
By contrast, wealthy nobles lived in great luxury. They had time to travel, become educated, and organise
artists to paint their portraits and architects to build and decorate their homes.

Source 5 A painting of the Medici villa of Poggio a Caiano by Giusto Utens. The villa was commissioned by Lorenzo de Medici in 1485.

Wealthy families had beautiful homes in the city, as well as country villas to go to when they wanted
to rest or escape the heat. Villas had beautiful gardens, with orchards, statues and fountains, where
visitors would eat great feasts or listen to music and poetry.
Women

Source 6 A young Renaissance woman from a wealthy family

Rich or poor, women could not vote. Those who worked usually worked as ribbon makers, dressmakers or
shopkeepers. However, with a few remarkable exceptions, they did not hold any positions in government.
Many of the rich nobles or merchants had their daughters educated as well as their sons, but they were
often educated in a convent and could not go out except for mass.

The main purpose of a woman’s life was to get married. Often, rich families would look for a suitable
husband when a girl was still very young. Dowries (gifts and money given to the husband’s family upon
marriage) were very important during this time in history. By 16, most girls from wealthy families were
married to a man considerably older than them. After marriage, women ran the household and took
orders from their husbands concerning all things.
One notable exception to this life of quiet seclusion was Isabella d’Este, who was a widow at a young
age and went on to become a famous celebrity of Renaissance Italy. She was well-educated, a patron of
many famous artists and a person of significant power and influence.
Overall, marriage was not for love, but rather to help a family improve its social standing or
consolidate its power by making alliances with other powerful families.
focus on...

contestability: Lucrezia Borgia(1480–1519)

Source 7 Lucrezia Borgia

The Borgias were a powerful family during the Renaissance with great influence in the Church and politics in both Italy and Spain. In their
quest for power, the Borgia family have been accused of adultery, theft, bribery and murder. Lucrezia Borgia was the illegitimate daughter of
Rodrigo Borgia, who was a cardinal and then pope in the 15th century. Lucrezia Borgia shows clearly how rich, ambitious nobles arranged
matches for their daughters – not for love, but to consolidate their power.
By the time Lucrezia was 12 years old she had been engaged twice, but her father Rodrigo changed his mind about the need for these
marriages. When Rodrigo Borgia became Pope Alexander VI, he arranged for his daughter to marry a member of a powerful ruling Milanese
family, Giovanni Sforza. Lucrezia would go on to marry three times, and each marriage was arranged by her father and brother Cesare to help
them become more powerful and influential. They are believed to have murdered her second husband.
What is contestable is the extent to which Lucrezia was active in their murderous deeds. She is a good example of how people from the
past can be regarded by historians in different ways. It is, of course, more interesting to think of her as a beautiful but dangerous and bad
woman plotting with her murderous father and brother to poison those they wanted to get rid of. There were even rumours that Lucrezia wore
a hollow ring to keep poison in. However, it is significant that not much is known about her, and there is absolutely no evidence to prove she
was an active participant in her family’s criminal ways. In fact, after the death of her father, brother and last husband (Alfonso I d’Este, Duke of
Ferrara, in 1534), she ruled Ferrara and gained a reputation as a generous, intelligent and much respected woman.

Check your learning

1 Name the five city-states which were dominant at the time of the Renaissance and the governing body that ruled each one.
2 Explain who the popolo minuto were and why they would often riot.
3 How was the life of a noble different to that of a worker? Write down in point form the different activities a noble could be
involved in.
4 Women today generally marry because they fall in love. Was this the same for women in Renaissance Italy?
A closer look at Florence

Source 8 A map of Florence in 1595

Florence is located on the banks of the Arno River in the territory of Tuscany (see Source 3). During the
1400s, Florence was a very prosperous and successful centre of trade. Merchants traded woollen cloth,
jewellery and metalwork for luxury goods from Asia and the Middle East (including spices such as pepper
and cinnamon, perfumes, silk, dye, pearls and precious metals).

As the merchants became more prosperous, they began to lend money, and Florence soon became
the financial centre of Europe. The currency of Florence was the florin. Admired for the purity of the gold
used to make it, the florin was popular with traders.
Source 9 Gold florins with Cosimo de Medici’s face on them

The Renaissance in Florence

As a centre for the European wool trade, the political power of Florence was held by the wealthy
merchants who dominated the industry and by the bankers who supported them. These people built
enormous mansions and contributed to the construction of grand cathedrals and public buildings in the
city. The new buildings showed off the prosperity of the city. In fact, wealthy merchants competed with
each other to see who could commission the grandest buildings or the finest works of art. These attitudes
led to the support of a growing number of artists and scholars in Florence, making the city a significant
cultural centre for the Renaissance.

Although this situation led to improved living conditions for the craftsmen, artisans and merchants,
the largest section of the population was still the urban poor. This was made up of semi-skilled workers,
many who worked in the cloth-making industry or as domestic servants.

Guilds
Guilds were associations for each of the different types of merchants, artists or craftsmen. They educated
apprentices and made sure they reached a certain standard of skill and knowledge. Guilds also made sure
goods and services were of a good standard or quality. They set the working hours and set up markets
and feast days. They supported workers when they were sick and provided funerals when they died. Each
guild had their own badge with a distinctive coat of arms on it to identify members.
Source 10 A stone carving of the Guild of Stone and Wood Masters at work

Florence had 21 guilds. Seven of these were more highly regarded, with richer and more powerful
members. They were often patrons of artists, and often held positions in the government of the city.
They were referred to as the popolo grasso (literally meaning ‘fat people’ because of their wealth).

Source 11 The names and occupations of the major Florentine guilds

Seven major guilds of Florence Speciality

Arte di Calimala dyers and workers of cloth; cloth merchants
Arte della Lana wool manufacturers and merchants
Arte dei Giudici e Notai judges, lawyers and notaries
Arte del Cambio bankers and money changers
Arte della Seta silk weavers and merchants
Arte dei Medici e Speziali doctors; pharmacists; included painters
Arte dei Vaiai e Pellicciai furriers and skinners (makers and merchants of furs)
 The other 14 guilds were of a lesser standing. A sculpture showing one of the more minor guilds, the
Maestri di Pietri e Legname, (Masters of Stone and Wood) is shown in Source 10.
You may have noticed that painters are included in the guild of the doctors and pharmacists. This
seems strange, but makes sense when you realise that artists bought their pigments from pharmacists (or
apothecaries as they were known at the time). All guild members could vote.
The rest of the working population in Florence (and by far the majority) were known as popolo minuto
(meaning ‘little people’ or lower classes). They could not vote. Working conditions for the popolo minuto
were harsh, and life was difficult.

Check your learning

1 What were guilds? What was their role in Renaissance Italy?
2 Which guild did painters belong to?

Government in Florence
The main government of Florence was known as the signoria. Its nine members, known as the Priori, were
chosen from the city’s merchant guilds. The signoria was selected for a term of two months. Selections
were made by putting the names of all guild members over 30 years of age in a leather bag and then
drawing names out at random. As long as these men were not in debt, had not already served a recent
term, and had no relation to the names of men already drawn, they were eligible for office.

The signoria was required to consult two other elected councils collectively known as Collegi. These
two councils were made up of a further 28 representatives (mostly bankers, merchants and landowners).
Other councils were elected for special circumstances such as in time of war or to deal with security issues
in the city.

Influential families in Florence

Despite the fact that Florence was a republic, a great deal of power was held in the hands of a few
powerful families. By the 15th century, a number of families had made their fortunes through banking,
including the Medici, Strozzi and Pazzi families. These families had influence and control over the
signoria and the councils that made the important decisions in the city. They competed with each other
to retain their powerful hold on the city.
significantindividuals
The Medici family
The Medicis were the most influential family in Florence. They made their money through making woollen cloth and
banking. In 1434 the Medici family, by influencing signoria members, had effectively gained control of the government.
Despite the appearance of a republic continuing throughout the 15th century and a brief loss of power from 1498 to
1512, the Medicis were to rule Florence for 300 years. During the Renaissance, the two most significant members of
the Medici family were Cosimo Medici and his grandson, Lorenzo de Medici.

Source 12 The Medici coat of arms

Cosimo de Medici (1389–1464)

Cosimo de Medici was the first member of the Medici family to play a powerful role in Florence. He was careful to let
the people believe they still lived in a republic by not taking any position of power within the government. Instead, he
used his wealth to bribe those who did have positions of power and kept their loyalty. He often gave to charities or
gave gifts of food to the poor when times were hard.
Cosimo de Medici made Florentines proud of their grand city and artistic achievements by paying for public
buildings, churches, monasteries and beautiful works of art. He founded an academy where the teachings of the
ancient Greeks were studied, and paid for the first public library in Europe to be built in the monastery of San Marco.
Cosimo was particularly popular with the people, not least because he did a lot to make Florence in the 1400s a
peaceful and prosperous place to live. When he died he was given the title ‘Father of his Country’.
Nevertheless, like all powerful families in positions of power during Renaissance Italy, he dealt ruthlessly with his
enemies in order to maintain power. Many were driven into exile or had property confiscated.
Lorenzo de Medici (1449–1492)

Source 13 Lorenzo de Medici (the Magnificent)

Cosimo’s grandson was probably the most famous member of this family. He was referred to as Lorenzo the
Magnificent (Il Magnifico).
Interested in business, government, literature, art, music, science and philosophy, Lorenzo de Medici wrote
poetry and songs and was a good sportsman. Lorenzo de Medici was a particularly generous patron to some of the
most famous artists of his time – Michelangelo, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci, among many others. He built up a
remarkable collection of books and gave money to the University of Florence. Lorenzo, like his grandfather, worked
hard to maintain peace and prevent wars breaking out with foreign invaders. This won him the respect of leaders
of other city-states. He took part in politics, though reluctantly, to maintain the family’s power and influence and
to protect the interests of family and friends. However, he neglected the banking side of the family affairs and this
eventually led to the failure of the Medici bank.

Check your learning

1 Explain what was most significant about Cosimo de Medici’s role in the government of Florence?
2 List as many things as you can that Cosimo de Medici did for Florence.
3 By what other name was Lorenzo de Medici also known as?
Power plays – the Pazzi Conspiracy
Just as there was rivalry between the city-states in Renaissance Italy, there was even more intense rivalry
between the powerful families within the city-states’ walls. Other influential families wanted to have
total control, and plotted to get rid of the ruling family. The Medicis were ruthless rulers and came down
hard on any opposition. One example of this was the failed Pazzi Conspiracy.

On Easter Sunday in 1478, a member of the Pazzi family tried to kill Lorenzo de Medici and his brother
Giuliano in Florence Cathedral. The Pazzis had the backing of powerful members of the Church in Rome.
The attempt failed and in five days of street fighting, 85 relatives and friends of the Pazzis were murdered
or hanged without trial.
Having got rid of all conspirators, the Medicis were back in control. The ruthless style of rulers at this
time inspired Niccolo Machiavelli to write his book, The Prince.

focus on...

perspectives: Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527)

Source 14 Niccolo Machiavelli

Niccolo Machiavelli was a politician and writer. He held government positions in Florence and was involved in foreign
affairs from 1498 to 1512. In 1512, with the return to power of the Medici family, he lost his position in government,
was accused of conspiracy and imprisoned. In 1513, after his release, Machiavelli wrote a book called The Prince. He
based a lot of what he wrote on his observations of the Medicis and other city-state rulers of the time. The Prince is
written as a kind of instruction manual or words of advice to men who want to become rulers.
 Machiavelli’s advice centres around the idea that although it is better to be a good and virtuous ruler upholding
good Christian values, the reality of life is that most men are not good or virtuous, and so a ruler needs to be able
to use deceit, cruelty and even murder to make sure he can keep his position of power. He argued that it was more
important to pretend to be good than to actually be good. In fact, it was probably better if the people feared their ruler
because then they were more likely to respect him and remain loyal. Machiavelli was recommending that a ruler use
any means necessary to get a result that was good for his community and city-state.
However, there has been much debate over the centuries about whether or not Machiavelli wanted us to take
him seriously. Some thought that Niccolo Machiavelli really believed the exact opposite to the advice he gave, and by
seeming to support oppressive rulers, he was in fact trying to get us to see how bad they are.

Check your learning

1 What were the two areas in which Florence was particularly successful during the 1400s?
2 How were members selected for the signoria?
3 Where did Niccolo Machiavelli get his inspiration for The Prince?
bigideas
1 How were societies in Renaissance Italy
organised?
Remember
1 Who were the ruling family in Florence during the Italian Renaissance?
2 What does the term popolo grasso mean? Who does it refer to?
3 Can you name two groups of people in Renaissance Florence who did not vote?
4 Where did the nobles go to relax?
5 What was given to the family of the husband by the girl’s family upon marriage?

Understand
6 Discuss as a class Machiavelli’s advice to rulers.
7 Research another of the main five Italian city-states and find out:
a who it was ruled by
b the type of government
c any speciality trade items
d its significance during the Renaissance.
8 What were the two main groups of workers in Renaissance Florence? For each group write down how many
there were; what each group was called and whether or not they could vote.
9 Investigate one of the major Florentine guilds (see Source 11) and present your findings to the class.
10 Draw a Venn diagram like the one shown below to compare and contrast Cosimo and Lorenzo de Medici’s
achievements.

Cosimo de Medici Lorenzo de Medici

Apply
11 Imagine you are a teenager in Florence during the Renaissance. You have two friends – one is a member of
the popolo grasso (noble), and the other is a member of the popolo minuto (unskilled worker). Team up with
a partner, and each choose one of these friends (one of you should choose the noble and one of you should
choose the unskilled worker). Then take turns to talk about a visit you had to your chosen friend’s house,
describing what the house was like and what it revealed about their life.
Analyse
12 Write up a report for a newspaper about the event that occurred on Easter Sunday, 1478. You can choose
whether you support the Medici family or Pazzi family. With this bias in mind, talk about what you think of the
power of the Medicis.

Evaluate
13 Do some research to find out how Lucrezia Borgia has been portrayed in films and books over the centuries.
Most of these secondary sources depict her as a beautiful but dangerous woman, plotting together with her
father and brother. Discuss as a class why you think she is often portrayed in this way, despite the fact that
there is no real historical evidence to support this view.
14 The Medicis have been hailed as the great heroes of the Renaissance as well as the great villains. Do some
further research into the Medicis, and explain the reasoning behind each view. Which do you support, and
why?

Create
15 Look at the example of a guild coat of arms in Source 15. Using this as an idea, and with reference to Source
10, design your own guild coat of arms.

Source 15 The guild coat of arms for the Stone and Wood Masters
2 What developments and
achievements characterised
Renaissance Italy?

Source 16 Before the Renaissance, the Church controlled learning – the Piccolomini library at the Cathedral of Siena

The development of the Renaissance in Italy was due to a number of different historical, geographical, social,
economic and cultural factors. After a century of war, famine and struggle, there was finally a time of peace at
the beginning of the 1400s. This meant that all sorts of activities, which had all but stopped during the period of
conflict, could begin again.
Because many city-states were positioned on important trade routes to Asia and the Middle East,
business grew and prospered in cities such as Florence and Venice. Trade not only exposed merchants
to new exotic goods (such as spices, fruits and metals), but also introduced them to new ideas and
knowledge.

Libraries in the city of Constantinople had preserved classical Greek and Latin texts. After the fall of
Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, Greek scholars became refugees. Many travelled to Italy
to resettle, bringing many of these important classical manuscripts with them. Some became teachers,
holding Greek classes and teaching the philosophy of the ancient Greek thinkers such as Plato.

New ideas from important classical philosophers and writers stimulated the minds of many who no
longer had to plan for war, instead having leisure time to learn, think and discuss new ideas. Of course,
some ancient classical ideas were known to a few in Italy before the 1400s, but most of that learning
had been controlled by the Church. It was only monasteries that housed the rare and expensive
manuscripts that had been copied by hand. Very few ordinary people were able to read or write.

Factors influencing the Renaissance

The invention of the printing press
All this changed in 1440 when a German goldsmith by the name of Johannes Gutenberg invented a
printing press modelled on the presses used to press wine grapes and olive oil seeds. He also worked out a
way to use moveable type.

Source 17 Johannes Gutenberg at his printing press

 The influence this humble machine had on Europe, and in fact the development of the modern world, cannot
be underestimated. Now, new ideas as well as the important classical texts could be translated and mass produced.
One thousand copies of a book could be printed in the time it took for one monk to copy a text. It was a breathtaking
development and probably did more than any other factor to bring about the spread of the Renaissance – not only
within Italy, but across all of Europe. At the end of the 1400s, printing had spread to about 270 cities in central, western
and eastern Europe.

Source 18 A young ‘Renaissance man’ reading – detail from a fresco at Villa Barbaro

Italian city-states were centres of early printing. By 1500 there were print shops established in 77 cities and towns.
Many people wanted to take advantage of this development, and so learned to read. Books were translated and written in
the state language.
All this meant that the control the Church had over knowledge and education was weakened. People could choose for
themselves what to read and what to learn.
Indeed, these developments contributed to changes in the very structure of society. The plague had killed off one-
third of the population, and so skilled workers were needed. Because wages and conditions were quite good, many took
up the opportunity of moving into the prosperous cities to learn a trade. The wealthy set up schools to teach their own
children and soon these grew to include others, even some far less fortunate. This led to the emergence of a new ‘middle
class’.

Check your learning

1 How did trade help the Renaissance to develop in Italy?
2 How did the Roman Catholic Church control learning during the Middle Ages?
3 Explain why the invention of the printing press was so significant in terms of the development of the Renaissance in Italy.
Rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman ideas

Source 19 Plato and Aristotle – from the painting The School of Athens by Raphael

Italian city-states were situated in the exact location where the great civilisation of ancient Rome had
once existed. This meant that there were ruins and relics all over the place to remind the people of the
1400s of their cultural heritage.

In peacetime, those with the leisure and money to afford it could travel around, studying and
observing these great remnants of the ancient world. Many had been buried or ruined over centuries
of neglect, but with a fresh surge of interest in ancient Greece and Rome, these forgotten treasures took
on a new importance. In 1462 the pope passed a law making it illegal for people to damage or remove
these ancient monuments. Many artists, sculptors and architects drew a great source of inspiration and
knowledge from these relics.
This surge of interest is what the Renaissance was named for. Renaissance is a French word meaning
‘rebirth’. The greatness of ancient Greece and Rome was ‘rediscovered’. Ideas from long ago excited the
minds of those who lived centuries later. Within 60 years, all the remaining classical texts had been
reprinted.
Plato and Aristotle were ancient Greek thinkers of particular interest to many people during the
Renaissance. Italians living in city-states in the 1400s read the works of these two great thinkers who
described a golden age of culture. Plato and Aristotle wrote about people’s ability to reason and develop
ideas for a better life. They had tried to understand human beings, and celebrated what they could
achieve.
 This was a different way of thinking about the world to that of medieval times. In medieval societies,
the Church taught that people were on Earth for a short time to live a good life according to God’s laws so
that they could earn a place in heaven for eternity.

Humanism
The great philosophers, thinkers and writers of ancient Greece and Rome focused on human beings and
the great things they were capable of. These ideas came to form the Renaissance idea of humanism – a
cultural and educational movement that changed the perspective of a small minority of intellectuals
in Italy during the 1400s and 1500s. The contributions of these thinkers of the humanist movement
influenced the development of ideas in the arts and sciences during the Renaissance.

Key thinkers of the humanist movement

Francesco Petrarch
Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374), a poet and scholar who travelled Italy looking for Greek and Roman
texts, was a considerable influence on the development of the Renaissance in Italy. He considered that
the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman ideas was going to provide a light to help people emerge
from the ‘Dark Age’ that was medieval society.

Source 20 Francesco Petrarch was a leading humanist scholar

Pico della Mirandola
Another influential humanist of the time was Giovanni (Pico) della Mirandola (1463–1494), an Italian
Renaissance philosopher who wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man in 1486. This key text of the Italian
Renaissance focused on the human quest for knowledge and celebrated the amazing capacity of humans
to achieve great things. Pico believed it was up to individuals whether they failed or succeeded, but the
potential was there.

Source 21 Portrait of a humanist by Giovanni Bellini, c.1475–1480

In the 1400s, the word ‘humanism’ was derived from the Italian word ‘umanista’, meaning a teacher or
scholar of classical Greek and Latin literature.
Baldassare Castiglione

Source 22 Baldassare Castiglione by Raphael

Baldassare Castiglione (1478–1529) wrote a book discussing what the ideal courtier should behave like.
The Book of the Courtier was published in 1528, and immediately became very popular.

The ideal courtier had many talents. He had knowledge of a vast array of subjects and skills in artistic
and practical matters. He could speak well, sing, recite poetry, talk about classical literature, and paint.
At the same time he was an excellent sportsman, and aware of how to behave socially. In The Book of the
Courtier, Castiglione spoke against some of the more crude contemporary social habits such as spitting on
the floor, eating without utensils and wiping your nose on a sleeve.
However, despite his many talents, the ideal courtier should not show off, but give the impression that
there was little effort involved in anything he did. The ideal courtier was confident, but modest, detached
and cool, an attitude Castiglione called ‘sprezzatura’. The ideal courtier was an excellent example of what
became known as the ‘Renaissance man’.
Source 23 People of the court of the Sforza family

The Renaissance man

A Renaissance man can be described as a man who was educated and talented in a wide range of fields. A
good example of the Renaissance man was Leo Battista Alberti (1404–1472), an author, architect, artist,
poet, priest, linguist, philosopher and cryptographer (involved with secret codes). However, as you
will see, Alberti was not alone in achieving such a vast array of talents and skills in Renaissance Italy. As
Alberti was believed to have said, ‘a man can do all things if he will’.

Check your learning

1 Name two ancient classical thinkers that were important to the humanists of Renaissance Italy.
2 What did Pico della Mirandola believe about human beings?
3 List in bullet points what sorts of talents the ideal courtier would have. What particular significance does
Castiglione’s ideal courtier have for Renaissance Italy?
4 Leo Battista Alberti is a good example of what? Explain why.
Key developments of the Renaissance
Developments in painting, sculpture and architecture
Artists during the Italian Renaissance adopted new approaches in terms of techniques, materials and
subject matter. The most famous and most accomplished Renaissance artists include Leonardo da Vinci,
Michelangelo and Raphael.

Source 24 Detail from the Procession of the Magi by Benozzo Gozzoli, painted 1459–1460

Painting, sculpture and architecture all influenced each other, and the developments were the same
more or less across the three disciplines. Much of this is no doubt because many artists had expertise in
all three areas.
The works of the ancient Greeks and Romans influenced subject matter. In medieval times, art had been
almost exclusively religious in theme. From the beginning of the Renaissance, more and more paintings
would depict the myths and stories of ancient Greece and Rome. However, this did not mean that
religion was less of a subject than it had been. Particularly popular during the Renaissance were paintings
of the Madonna and child, scenes from the life of Christ or lives of the saints.

The role of the artist

Source 25 Self-portrait of Raphael (on the left) from the painting The School of Athens

At the beginning of the 1400s, artists and sculptors were in reality little more than stonemasons,
plasterers or craft workers who performed small menial tasks such as painting furniture or making
jewellery. With the rise in trade, many of those who became rich had money to spend on works of art
that would beautify their homes, glorify their cities, and impress those around them. Many of the works
of art that were commissioned from artists were grand and imposing. They demanded great skill and
talent. As a result, artists earned the public’s respect and admiration. Artists began to sign their work
and even did self-portraits. Often they would include themselves in the paintings they created, standing
alongside their patrons.

Leading painters and sculptors established workshops where paintings or monuments were crafted,
materials made and stored, and where assistants and apprentices were trained. Often, the master-painter
would complete the most important parts of the work and let his students do some of the less important
features. Many workshops developed their own specialty.
The importance of patrons

Source 26 Lorenzo de Medici in his role as patron of artists and scholars

We have already read about how Lorenzo de Medici was a generous patron of various artists. Indeed, most of the Medicis were
great patrons, as were other wealthy families of various city-states.

Wealthy patrons played a very significant role in artists’ lives. A patron not only commissioned work, but often gave the
artist or sculptor a place to live, as well as money, time and encouragement to travel, study and explore.
Wealthy patrons provided plenty of different work opportunities for artists, sculptors and architects. Often they paid
for religious buildings or altarpieces. It is believed that many patrons who were bankers felt they needed to pay penance for
engaging in money lending – an activity looked down on by the Church. Patrons commissioned civic monuments or art pieces
to glorify their city-state and enhance their reputation.
At the same time, wealthy families had their own homes – grand palaces and country villas – which needed decorating.
They paid artists to create elaborately designed gardens and statues for their country retreats, as well as paintings on panels
which were placed on walls and furniture. Works of art were also commissioned to commemorate important occasions in
family life, like weddings, births and deaths.
 Because of the generosity and endless supply of work, artists felt obliged to flatter their patrons by
including the family crest or even the family themselves in the works they painted. A good example of
this is Source 27 which shows a fresco painted by Domenico Ghirlandaio for the Tournabuoni family
to be placed in their chapel. The Tournabuonis were managers of one of the branches of the powerful
Medici bank.

Source 27 The Birth of the Virgin by Domenico Ghirlandaio, showing the patron’s family members to the left of the Virgin and child,
painted c. 1485–1490

Individual patrons could be from the most powerful families or simply people who worked for them.
In fact, some less wealthy people could be patrons but they may not have been able to afford the work of
a great master and may have had to settle for a less well-known artist. Individuals could also join together
(this was called a confranternity) in order to afford to pay for a particular piece of work.
 Apart from these individuals, there were various other ways in which artists could receive patronage.
Guilds were an important source of commissions. In 1399 all the major guilds in Florence commissioned
various sculptors to make statues to fill each of the 14 niches (insets in the wall) in the Orsanmichele, or
Businessmen’s Church (Source 28).

Source 28 A view of the Orsanmichele (or Businessmen’s Church) in Florence showing a number of statues in niches placed on the
outside of the building

The ruling council and other governing bodies were also patrons, and commissioned works to
beautify government buildings or council rooms. Michelangelo’s David (Source 29) was commissioned by
the city of Florence in 1501, during one of the periods it was able to banish the Medicis and rule as a true
republic. As such, it came to symbolise the great heroism of a small republic against other powerful city-
states and the powerful Medicis.
Source 29 David by Michelangelo outside the signoria

By far the greatest patronage of all came from the Roman Catholic Church. The Church
commissioned large buildings, statues, and paintings for altarpieces. Popes commissioned decoration
for their residences, the Vatican Palace or even individual portraits. Some of the Renaissance popes
commissioned famous artists to build elaborate tombs for them when they died. Source 30 is an example
of this even though it was never finished. Michelangelo’s most famous Church commission was the work
that he did on the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican (Source 36), between 1508 and 1512, for Pope Julius II.
Source 30 Tomb of Pope Julius II by Michelangelo (1453–1513)

Source 31 St Peter’s Basilica in Rome was built for the Church during the Renaissance

Check your learning

1 Why did well-known artists set up workshops during Renaissance Italy.
2 What were the different types of patronage in Renaissance Italy?
3 When did the city of Florence commission Michelangelo to sculpt David and why?
The development of technique

Perspective
Perspective is a way in which the illusion of three-dimensional space can be represented on a flat surface.
It involves mathematical calculations centred on a vanishing point. Figures or buildings further away in
the painting are painted smaller in order to be seen as they would in reality.

Piero della Francesca (1416–1492) was one of the first painters to apply the new technique (see Source
32). You can see that Francesca has carefully analysed architectural spaces, and his understanding of
perspective makes the buildings appear three-dimensional.

Source 32 Flagellation of Christ by Piero della Francesca, c. 1450–1459

Naturalism
Naturalism is the accurate representation of objects, particularly the human body. The development in
the techniques used by sculptors of Renaissance Italy is a clear example of how strong the influence of
ancient Greek and Roman ideals was. Taking the lead from the relics that remained, sculptors started
to sculpt life-like figures ‘in-the-round’ (see Source 33). This was a dramatic departure from the shallow
relief sculpture of medieval times. The focus was on the beauty of the human form.

Paintings often had figures within them in a pose derived from a classical statue. Botticelli was the
first Renaissance artist to paint a full-length female nude (see Source 35). Depicting the nude human
body, whether using marble or paint, demands a thorough knowledge of how the human body looks and
moves. Many Renaissance sculptors and artists began to use live models.

Another painting technique developed by Renaissance artists to help achieve this realism was
chiaroscuro (light-dark). Just as linear perspective gave the illusion of three-dimensional space, chiaroscuro
gave the illusion of three-dimensional figures by using shadow and tone to add depth and volume.
Source 34 is a good example of this technique.

Many artists of the Renaissance observed nature very closely and included great detail and accurate
perspective in the background of what they painted. The backgrounds of medieval art had been, by and
large, mostly gold leaf. More and more, landscape became an important feature. However, most often
it was the landscape around them at the time that was shown, rather than depicting backgrounds true
to the time that the subjects of the painting lived in. For example, many biblical figures were painted as
comfortably placed in different contemporary Italian settings, mixing with ordinary citizens of the day,
whether wealthy families or lowly shepherds.
Source 33 David by Donatello, c. 1430–1432. Donatello was the first artist Source 34 St Sebastian by Sandro
to sculpt a life-sized nude sculpture since classical times. Botticelli c. 1474

Source 35 In Botticelli’s Birth of Venus, the nude figure of Venus stands with more weight on one leg, copying the stance
used so often in ancient Greek and Roman sculptures.
focus on...

significance: Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel (1508–1512)

In 1508 Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julius II to paint the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. He made over 200
preliminary drawings and full-sized outlines, which were laid against the wet plaster and traced with a stylus. He was believed to have
painted it all on his own over four years with little break. Some believe he dismissed his apprentices when he found their work too
inferior. Whether or not Michelangelo worked alone is contestable. Perhaps assistants helped with the practical matters – like mixing
paint or preparing the plaster. It is believed he painted from a standing position, which ultimately caused him a lot of discomfort.
Michelangelo’s subject was taken from stories in the Bible. The main panels in the centre of the ceiling depict scenes from the
Book of Genesis, including God creating Adam; the creation of the sun and moon, and the creation of Eve and Noah after the flood.
His work within the Sistine Chapel was an incredible achievement, even just in the very enormity of the task. There are 336
figures on 1300 square metres of ceiling. The finished work is breathtaking, with all the different figures of varying ages, body types
and expressions depicted with accuracy and proportion. There is a great sense of movement and drama throughout. Gods and
supernatural beings are depicted in a very human way.

Source 36 Two views of the Sistine Chapel by Michelangelo

Check your learning

1 What were the two main art techniques that were developed during the Renaissance?
2 How did sculpture change during the Italian Renaissance?
3 What are some of the differences between the backgrounds used in medieval painting
and those of the paintings during the Italian Renaissance?
4 How did artists of the Italian Renaissance portray religious subjects?
significantindividuals
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
Leonardo da Vinci was a true genius. One of the greatest artists of the Italian Renaissance, he is responsible for
painting the most famous painting of all time, the Mona Lisa. Yet he is far more than that. An artist, scientist and
inventor in the main, he is one of the best examples of a ‘Renaissance man’.

Source 37 A statue of Leonardo Da Vinci at the Uffizi Gallery in Florence

Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks

There are now about 13 000 pages that have been collected from Leonardo da Vinci’s notebooks. Within them,
da Vinci wrote about and sketched whatever he was working on or thinking about. There are notes on art, geology,
mathematics, engineering, irrigation, music and botany. There are drawings of fossils and plants; studies of how faces
look when they’re angry; sketches of all sorts of inventions big and small and studies of how water behaves in different
situations.
The inventions are probably what have fascinated most people of the 20th and 21st centuries. Many sketches
involve how to make existing machinery more efficient. Some are small, like the machine for grinding and polishing
lenses (in glasses); some are large, like the giant crossbow. Some would have seemed bizarre during da Vinci’s time
but are now part of our modern world – a calculator, a robot, even an idea for concentrated solar power. Some, like
the lens-grinding machine and the automated bobbin winder, have come into practical use.
 There are numerous drawings of war machines and weapons, which he prepared for the rulers of cities that were
either at war or preparing to go. There are also lots of sketches of ideas for defending the city from attack. There are
notes and drawings on all sorts of irrigation schemes, and sketches of new musical instruments which Leonardo was
thinking of inventing.
There are a few particular obsessions which stand out. All his life, Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by flight. He
did sketch after sketch and noted down his thoughts about how birds managed to fly. He was determined to invent a
machine that would enable man to fly, and within his notes there are drawings of a parachute, a glider and a strange-
looking machine that looks like a helicopter (Source 38).
He not only drew detailed drawings of bones, muscles and internal organs, but spent a lot of his time investigating,
thinking and theorising about how they might work. As a successful artist, he was able to gain access to various
hospitals where he could dissect corpses of different ages and sex. He investigated the anatomy and physiology of
the human body so thoroughly that he almost discovered how blood circulates through the body.

Source 38 A drawing of an airscrew within one of Leonardo’s notebooks. Source 39 A drawing of anatomical studies by Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo's airscrew is thought by some to be the first helicopter

What has fascinated all who look at the notebooks is the fact that da Vinci’s notes are written as ‘mirror-writing’.
That is, they can only be read when reflected in a mirror. Even though there have been all sorts of theories put forward
to explain this, the most logical explanation for it is da Vinci’s left-handedness. It was easier for him to write from right
to left.
Important artworks
The Last Supper (1495–1498)
The Last Supper was painted as a fresco on the wall of the dining hall in the Santa Maria delle Grazie monastery.
Harmony, balance and perspective were all important features of this work, as with other Italian Renaissance art.
Christ is in the centre of the painting, and on either side there are six disciples, all in groups of three. The moment
depicted in the painting is the very moment when Jesus has informed his disciples that he knows that one of them
will betray him. While the figure of Jesus sits calmly in the middle, the disciples huddle in groups talking intently about
who it could be. Da Vinci was interested in how artists could best display inner feelings, and believed the best way
was to do it by gesture and movement. This was an important aspect of Leonardo da Vinci’s technique and had a big
influence on other artists.
Every movement of the hand, every position of the body, has something to say about each individual disciple.
There is some controversy about exactly which figure represents which disciple. However, there is no mistaking Judas,
the disciple who will betray Jesus. Judas is the only figure leaning forward on the table (in the group on Christ’s left),
clutching a bag of coins and looking somewhat guilty.

Source 40 The Last Supper

Mona Lisa (1503–1505)
This is da Vinci’s most famous painting. Such a calm and graceful figure, there have been many different ideas
about who she in fact was. It is now accepted that Mona Lisa was Lisa del Giocondo, the wife of a wealthy
Florentine merchant.

Source 41 Mona Lisa

The Mona Lisa is a good example of two related techniques that da Vinci was the first to use. He did not paint
outlines, so much as blend the paint in such a way that light and shade distinguished different aspects. This
became known as ‘sfumato’ (Italian for smoke). This is how da Vinci himself described his blurred outlines.
Da Vinci became the master of atmospheric perspective, which can be seen if you look at the background of the
picture. This was an effect that he noted occurred in reality – the further the landscape receded, the paler and more
indistinct it became. Da Vinci was one of the first to use this technique. Now of course, the Mona Lisa is not so
much famous for Leonardo da Vinci’s technique, but more for that mysterious smile.

Check your learning

1 Leonardo da Vinci is often referred to as a ‘Renaissance man’. Explain why.
2 What sorts of interests did Leonardo da Vinci write about and sketch in his notebooks?
3 How did Leonardo da Vinci learn about anatomy and the human body?
Developments in medicine and science
During the Renaissance, great advances occurred in geography, astronomy, chemistry, physics and
mathematics. The rediscovery of ancient scientific texts led to the development of new ideas, and the
printing press meant these ideas were spread quickly. The work of three men in particular would have a
lasting effect on science – Andreas Vesalius, Nicolas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei.

Vesalius
At the beginning of the Renaissance period, the main medical textbook which existed was based on a
translation of bits from the work of the ancient Greek Galen (129–200 CE), who mainly dissected the
bodies of pigs and apes, not humans. This was because dissection had been banned in ancient Rome.
Galen also wrote that he believed dissection of human bodies was of the utmost importance in studying
medicine, and wished he had had the opportunity.

Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), Professor of Anatomy at the University of Padua, was determined to do
something about the lack of anatomical knowledge. At the time, the Catholic Church did not approve of
dissection because of the belief in the sacred nature of the dead.

Source 42 An anatomical diagram of a man's abdominal cavity, with the intestines removed to illustrate the organs of the cavity. Illustrated
in Andreas Vesalius' De humani corporis fabrica

However, with the help of a local judge, Vesalius was able to obtain the bodies of criminals. His
students would collect the bodies at night from the gallows. Vesalius gave lectures and used the dissected
bodies to clearly illustrate the ideas which he talked about. He commissioned artists to draw detailed
drawings of parts of the bodies and how they worked based on his lectures.
In 1543 Vesalius published De humani corporis fabrica (‘On the structure of the human body’),
changing the course of anatomical studies in medicine forever. Andreas Vesalius is regarded as the
founder of modern human anatomy.
Copernicus
Nicolas Copernicus was a Polish astronomer. Copernicus’ theory stated that the Sun was the centre of
the universe, and Earth, Moon and planets revolved around it. This was a radical departure from the
belief held at the time that the Earth was at the centre and was stationary while the other planets moved
around it. Known as the geocentric or Ptolemaic system, this was a belief that had existed since the 2nd
century CE.

Source 43 (a) The geocentric (Earth-centred) system of universe, showing all the planets circling the Earth; (b) Copernican view of the
structure of the solar system showing the Earth and planets revolving around the Sun. This view still holds today.

The Earth-centred theory was embraced by the Roman Catholic Church as there were references in
the Bible supporting it. To disagree with it amounted to nothing less than heresy (having beliefs that
went against those of the Church). The consequences of heresy could be serious. Copernicus delayed
the publication of his book because he knew it could lead to trouble. It was published in 1543, only a few
hours before he died.
Galileo
Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Tuscany, in 1564, and as a young man studied mathematics and physics.
In 1589 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics at the University of Padua and became known for his
experiments in studies of motion.

The first practical telescope was invented by Hans Lippershey in the Netherlands in 1608. Galileo,
excited by this new object, began to make his own telescopes. He started to improve upon the degree of
magnification within the telescope. By 1610 he had developed a magnifying power strong enough to
observe the Moon and other planets.
Galileo spent night after night observing the night sky and started to discover many new things. He
found many stars previously unknown. He discovered the four satellites of Jupiter, and named them after
the Medicis, who he hoped would give him patronage (Cosimo II de Medici did!). Galileo discovered the
Milky Way was made up of separate stars. He saw the rings of Saturn, and worked out the phases of Venus
and Mars.
What was even more significant was that his observations and discoveries were proof that Copernicus
was right. What Galileo saw through his telescope could only make sense if the Earth, Moon and other
planets orbited around the Sun.

Source 44 A painting of Galileo explaining moon topography

In 1632 Galileo published his ideas in a book called Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World, with
permission from the pope. But after the book’s publication, Pope Urban VIII withdrew his support for
Galileo.
In 1633 Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy. Threatened with torture unless he
publicly recanted (took back) his beliefs, Galileo gave in, and was put under house arrest for the rest of his
life. He continued to work on problems of physics and mechanics. Nevertheless, his controversial book
(which had been put on the Church’s Index of Forbidden Books) was finally published in 1638 in Holland.
Source 45 Galileo standing trial before the Church

Galileo Galilei’s legacy is remarkable. His achievements in astronomy not only changed the very way
we understand the Universe, but they lay the foundations for something even more significant. What he
did was help to free the study of science from the constraints of religion and philosophy. It was a major
development in human thought.
At the same time his work in physics helped Isaac Newton and Einstein in their great discoveries.
Overall, his way of working out problems – questioning what he saw with logic and reason and using
mathematics to calculate his findings – changed the way scientists did things. In terms of our modern
scientific method, he was the world’s first scientist.

Check your learning

1 Before Andreas Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body in 1543, what was anatomical
knowledge based on?
2 Why do you think Vesalius had only criminals to dissect?
3 What is the significant difference between the Copernican system and the Ptolemaic system? Which one
did the Roman Catholic Church support?
4 Did Galileo invent the telescope?
5 What is significant about the date 1633 in terms of Galileo Galilei?
bigideas
2 What developments and achievements characterise
Renaissance Italy?
Remember
1 What is the significance of the fall of Constantinople in 1453, in terms of the development of the Renaissance in Italy?
2 Explain what effect the invention of the printing press had on the control the Church had over learning.
3 The term Renaissance means ‘rebirth’. What was reborn in Renaissance Italy?
4 What Italian word does ‘humanism’ come from and what does it mean?
5 Name three great artists of the Renaissance.
6 Why did artists paint the likeness of their patrons in many of their works?

Understand
7 Draw a flow chart to represent how an increase in trade among Italian merchants would have led to the growth
of patronage of humanistic thinkers and artists.
8 Explain why Copernicus’ ideas were so challenging to the established ideas of the time.
9 Discuss as a class who could be considered a patron of art today. Think of families such as the Myers and Pratts.
10 In small groups, brainstorm about individuals of modern times who could be called ‘Renaissance men’. For example, Madonna
is a singer but she has also written books and directed films among other things.

Apply
11 Imagine you are studying to be a doctor at the time of the Renaissance in Italy. You have been to your first lecture by Andreas
Vesalius where he has talked about how he is going to teach anatomy. Write a diary entry to talk about that lecture.
12 Imagine you are a painter in a workshop in Renaissance Italy. All the artists are gossiping about Leonardo da Vinci.
In small groups, role-play this scene.
13 Interview an older family member who did not use computers or mobile phones when they were growing up, and find out what
impact these technological developments have had for them. In small groups, discuss your findings, and compare and contrast
these with the impact of the invention of the printing press in 1440.

Analyse
14 ‘Renaissance artists did not paint religious scenes.’ Is this statement true or false? Give reasons for your answer.
15 How was the Renaissance artist different in personal style from his medieval predecessors?

Evaluate
16 Research female artists of the Renaissance. Explain why there are no famous women artists of this time.

Create
17 Make a sketch of an invention and explain how it works. It would be better if it was something for use in the future, for example
a flying car. If possible, you can even make a model. Show your finished product to the class (even if it is only the sketch).
3 How did Renaissance culture
spread and what is its legacy?

Source 46 The design of the Chateau de Fontainebleau in France was influenced by the Italian Renaissance

The ideas of the Renaissance moved to northern Europe where they took on new life. The printing
press was the key to the spread of Renaissance culture throughout northern Europe (Holland, England,
Germany and France). However, it was an uneven spread, and influenced different countries in
different ways and at different times.

Humanist thinking spread through northern Europe and influenced those wanting religious reform,
leading to the Reformation. The new techniques in art developed by the Italian artists influenced the
art of northern Europe, where artists adapted these techniques to create works in their own distinct
styles. Renaissance architects received commissions from nobles in other European countries, taking
their style beyond Italian borders.
Humanist ideas spread through northern Europe
One of the most influential men of this time was Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), a Dutch Catholic
priest who was interested in the humanism of Renaissance Italy in terms of what it meant for religion. He
prepared new translations of both the Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. He was not happy
with the behaviour of the men of the Roman Catholic Church.

Source 47 Desiderius Erasmus

During the Middle Ages, the Church owned large amounts of land and charged its own rents and
taxes. As the Church became wealthier and more powerful, some within the Church abused their
positions. Some monks and abbots were reported to be breaking their vows of poverty and chastity
and taking advantage of their local communities. Of course, there were many who took their positions
seriously, but the abuses caused many ordinary men and women to become increasingly disillusioned
with the Church.
Erasmus wanted to reform the Church ‘from the inside’. He still believed in the basic structure and
many elements of the Church, but he wanted certain abuses and some of the more rigid beliefs to be
stopped. In 1513 he wrote The Praise of Folly in which he made fun of all sorts of people’s behaviour,
including the priests. It was very popular and due to the invention of the printing press, many copies
were printed and read. It became a bestseller because it tapped into public anger with the corruption in
parts of the Church.
 Renaissance popes are often referred to as ‘Renaissance princes’ because they led lavish lifestyles and
spent their money on building grand monuments, entertaining at elaborate feasts and decorating their
palaces. Some popes, like Leo X (of the Medici family), cared more about enjoying themselves than being
the head of the Church. Many gave important Church positions, such as cardinal, not to men of great
faith and religious knowledge, but to their own sons. These Church appointments had become more
political than religious in nature. Even Rodrigo Borgia, the father of Lucrezia, who had committed so
many crimes, became Pope Alexander VI in 1492.

Source 48 A painting by Raphael titled Leo X and the Cardinals, 1518.

Leo X was a Medici and the cardinals were his sons.
The Reformation

Source 49 German Dominican Friar Johann Tetzel selling ‘indulgences’

Such lavish lifestyles needed great amounts of money to maintain. In 1517 Pope Leo X had run out of
money to finish building St Peter’s Basilica, and so came to an arrangement with Archbishop Albert of
Mainz in Germany to start selling ‘indulgences’.

At a time when people believed that after death they went to heaven or hell, indulgences were a way
of helping make sure that individuals could eventually pay for their sins and go to heaven. Traditionally,
indulgences were gained by special prayers or going on a pilgrimage. But at this time, a preacher by the
name of Johann Tetzel went around preaching sermons about the terrors of hell, and convincing people
that they could free not only themselves, but their deceased relatives as well, by buying ‘indulgences’.
Men like Erasmus were angry that the Church would do such a thing in the name of God. Another
priest, Martin Luther (1483–1546) in Germany, who had been influenced by Erasmus, was very angry
about the selling of ‘indulgences’. He had been to Rome, and had been very upset at the lavish lifestyle of
the popes. Martin Luther believed that a good Christian need live by faith alone. God would be merciful
to anyone who really believed and tried their best. He thought that the Bible and Christian services
should be in a language the people understood. He went on to state that the vast number of archbishops
and bishops was unnecessary. Let us take a closer look at what Martin Luther did about his anger.
focus on...

significance: Martin Luther and the ‘95 Theses’

Simply wanting to express his anger and criticism, Martin Luther went up to the church in Wittenberg on All Saint’s Eve in 1517, and
nailed a list of his arguments on the front door (called the ‘95 Theses’). This simple action changed the course of history. The people,
angry at what was happening in the Church, had only needed someone or something to focus on in order to channel their anger. Martin
Luther’s action was like a match lighting a fire. Everyone wanted a copy of Luther’s arguments, and their voices of support for Luther
grew louder until they finally reached the ears of the leaders of the Church in Rome. Luther was summoned, and asked to take back
what he had written, just as we have seen happened with Galileo. This happened at the council of princes (Diet) in the city of Worms.

Source 50 Martin Luther posting his ‘95 theses’

Unlike Galileo, Luther refused to back down. He was excommunicated (which meant he could no longer take part in church
services), and although they promised him safe passage home, he was certain to be imprisoned or killed when he got there. Some
supporters kidnapped him on the way and took him to safety in the Castle of Wartburg. There he spent his time translating the Bible
into German.
In 1524 rebellion started among the German peasants. Because of their protests they became known as ‘Protestants’, and so
began a series of religious wars between Catholics and Protestants throughout Germany, France and Spain. They went on for two
centuries and resulted in what was to become known as the Reformation. The Reformation split the Church into two groups: Protestant
and Catholic. The rulers of Denmark (then including Norway) and Sweden (then including Finland) became Lutherans.

Check your learning

1 How did Erasmus want to reform the Roman Catholic Church?
2 What book did Erasmus write and what made it so popular?
3 What were ‘indulgences’?
4 What did Martin Luther believe?
How did Italian Renaissance art and architecture influence northern
Europe?
The Reformation had a dampening effect on the influence of Italian Renaissance art. As we have seen, the themes of the
Italian Renaissance were largely religious, even though there were new themes such as classical mythology and portraiture
introduced. The Reformation, by its very nature, discouraged religious painting, and in England and northern Netherlands, it
almost stopped completely.

Nevertheless, the developments and changes in technique achieved during the Italian Renaissance were so great that they
could not help but influence painters of all different countries from the 1500s on. Many of the great works of art by painters
who came after the Italian Renaissance show this influence. Rembrandt (1606–1669), Rubens (1577–1640) and Albrecht Durer
(1471–1528) were among the many who learned much about perspective, chiaroscuro and the depiction of the human form
from the painters and sculptors of the Italian Renaissance.

Source 51 Study of a man aged 93 by Albrecht Durer, painted 1521

In France, King Francis I (1494–1547) heard about the exciting developments in art, sculpture and architecture early on. As
the wealth of the Italian nobles and merchants declined in the city-states, many artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, were
encouraged by Francis I to move to France in the 1520s and 1530s. The influence of Renaissance Italy on France can be seen
mainly in the architecture, like the magnificent royal chateau of Fontainbleau (see Source 46), outside Paris (known as the
‘new Rome’), and the rebuilding of the Louvre Museum.
The English Renaissance

Source 52 Henry VIII, a true ‘Renaissance prince’, by Hans Holbein, 1540 Source 53 A performance of Romeo and Juliet by
Shakespeare at the Globe Theatre in London

Henry VIII of England was a true ‘Renaissance prince’. Well-educated in the humanities, he also
excelled at sport, wrote poetry, and composed and played music. He surrounded himself with men
who were important humanist scholars, like Thomas Linacre (1460–1524; his doctor and tutor to his
son) and Thomas More (1478–1535; Lord Chancellor – a high-ranking politician). Linacre had been
the one to invite Erasmus to England. Thomas More held discussions at his home with family and
friends where they would debate Christian and classical texts.

Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth I (1478–1535), who became queen, was tutored by a Renaissance
scholar, and her prosperous and stable reign was to be called the English Renaissance. However, the
form the English Renaissance took was quite different from the Italian Renaissance. The English
Renaissance became famous for its poetry, music and drama. Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist of
that time was influenced by the Italian Renaissance. Many of his plays are set in Italy.

Check your learning

1 What effect did the Reformation have on Renaissance art in particular countries?
2 In what area was the influence of Renaissance art particularly seen?
3 List the ways King Henry VIII was a true ‘Renaissance prince’.
4 How was the Renaissance carried on in Elizabethan England?
Factors contributing to the end of the Renaissance in Italy
The Italian Wars (1494–1559)
Up until the end of the 1400s, the Italian city-states had fought among themselves in an effort to strengthen their power and
expand their territory. However, these conflicts escalated when the Duke of Milan asked for help from the French against the
Venetians in 1494. This started a long period of war in Italy involving foreign powers and resulted in greater instability in the
region.

Source 54 The ‘sack of Rome’ in 1527 devastated the city, with churches ransacked and citizens robbed, tortured and killed

By the end of the Italian Wars, the independence of most of the city-states was over, and foreign rulers effectively controlled
most of Italy.

New trade routes

At the same time, Italian city-states were losing their dominance over trade and finance in Europe. New trade routes were
discovered which moved the centre of wealth and power from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic.

When the Ottoman Turks took over the city of Constantinople in 1453, they cut off Europe from trade with the East. New
trading routes were needed, but the land route to India and China was very slow, and payments had to be made to Arab traders
along the way. So began an Age of Exploration, in which the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, British and French braved the
difficulties of sea travel to find unknown lands.
Source 55 Sixteenth-century engraving showing mythical sea creatures early explorers feared Source 56 Vasco da Gama
as they sailed into unmapped waters

The Portuguese tried time and time again, and finally succeeded when in 1498 Vasco da Gama sailed
around the bottom of Africa to India. Christopher Columbus, with Spanish patronage, sailed across
the Atlantic to the West Indies and South America, and discovered the ‘New World’ (which is what the
Americas – North, South America and the West Indies – were called).

Now Northern Italy was no longer at the centre of European trade. Wealthy merchants became
fewer in number; there was not as much money to spend on art and architecture. Atlantic ports, such as
Lisbon, Seville and London, grew in wealth and power. Antwerp, the principal port of the Low Counties,
became the financial centre of the European economy, and soon the richest city in Europe.
The Italian Wars had brought the end of stability and independence, and new trade routes had meant
a decline in wealth and power. The Renaissance in Italy was fading, but the ideas and culture it had
fostered had spread throughout northern Europe.

Check your learning

1 Why is it difficult to put a precise date on the end of the Renaissance in Italy?
2 What were two factors that contributed to the decline of the Renaissance in Italy?
3 How long did the French invasions in Italy go on for? Who led them?
4 What two factors encouraged the ‘Age of Exploration’?
5 Who finally succeeded in finding a new trade route to India?
The legacy of Renaissance Italy
Although the Renaissance only involved the elite of the population, it greatly affected the minds of
people throughout the centuries that followed, and paved the way for the emergence of our modern
world.

Source 57 The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci, 1492

The legacy of Renaissance humanism in education has probably been the most enduring. The rebirth
of ancient Greek and Roman studies led to a remodelling of the curriculum centred on the humanities
and this became the standard in schools for many centuries to come. Universities sprang up all over
Europe, inspired by the love of learning that the Renaissance brought with it.
The developments in art, sculpture and architecture changed the ways in which artists painted. The
Italian Renaissance produced some of the most famous artists and the greatest paintings of all time –
Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, the statue of David and St Peter’s Basilica.
Source 58 A room devoted to the Mona Lisa at an exhibition on Leonardo da Vinci in Costa Rica in 2011

Some of the classic Renaissance texts have influenced many over the centuries. The Book of the Courtier
was translated into six languages and went on to influence the courts of many other European countries
for centuries. The idea of the ‘Renaissance man’ has become part of our cultural language.
Many of the ideas Machiavelli talked about in his book The Prince, written so long ago, are still talked
about today, particularly in terms of politics. The book is still in print and still studied at universities.
The term ‘Machiavellian’ is used often to describe a politician who will do anything to get to the top and
stay there. From Henry VIII to the mobsters of 20th century America, Machiavelli’s The Prince has been a
strong influence on those in positions of power.
The greater part of the legacy left by Renaissance Italy concerns the humanism that was at its very
core of ideals and values, especially the belief in human beings and the great things they were capable of,
and the celebration of potential and opportunity.
The Renaissance’s legacy has probably been greatest in the field of medicine and science. Galileo’s
legacy in particular is remarkable. His achievements in astronomy not only changed the very way we
understand the universe, but lay the foundations for something even more significant. In terms of our
modern scientific method, he was the world’s first scientist.
bigideas
3 How did Renaissance culture spread and what is its
legacy?
Remember
1 What was the significant change in the 1500s in the types of wars fought by the city-states?
2 What happened to Rome in 1527?
3 What different nationalities were involved in the Age of Exploration?
4 Name two popes known as ‘Renaissance princes’.
5 Name two priests who influenced the Reformation.
6 What single event can be said to have begun the Reformation?

Understand
7 Why was the creation of universities an obvious result of the effect of humanism?
8 How did the Reformation affect Italian Renaissance art?

Apply
9 Identify plays written by Shakespeare that were set in Italy or based on old Italian stories.
10 In what ways did Renaissance art influence northern European artists?

Analyse
11 Create a table to compare and contrast the sorts of changes to the Church, Erasmus and Martin Luther wanted to bring about.
12 Create a Venn diagram to show the differences and similarities between key features of the Italian Renaissance compared to
the English Renaissance.

Italian Renaissance English Renaissance

Create
13 Research Thomas More’s Utopia. Write a few paragraphs explaining its significance to Renaissance England.
14 Research the life of Martin Luther, and find out about some of the concerns he expressed within the ‘95 Theses’.
Write a short biography outlining the most important aspects of his life and his impact upon world religion.
acknowledgements
The author and the publisher wish to thank the following copyright holders for reproduction of their material.
Images: Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, opening image, Source 1 (1429); Corbis/ Tom Grill, Source 1 (1501);
AKG Images, Source 1 (1517); The Bridgeman Art Library/ Giraudon, Source 1 (1543); AKG Images/ Johann Brandstetter,
Source 1 (1610); Shutterstock/ Rechitan Sorin, Source 2; Corbis/ The Gallery Collection, Source 4; The Bridgeman Art
Library, Source 5; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Sources 6, 7; The Bridgeman Art Library, Source 8; Corbis/ Ted
Spiegel, Source 9; Shutterstock/ M.bonotto, Source 10; The Bridgeman Art Library/ Alinari, Source 12; Corbis/ The Art
Archive/ Alfredo Dagli Orti, Source 13; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Source 14; Corbis/ David Lees, Source 15;
Corbis/ Alinari Archives, Source 16; Corbis/ Stefano Bianchetti, Source 17; Corbis/ Araldo de Luca, Source 18; Wikimedia
Commons/ Public Domain, Source 19; Corbis/ The Art Archive, Source 20; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Sources
21, 22; The Bridgeman Art Library/ Giraudon, Source 23; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Sources 24, 25; Corbis/
The Art Archive/ Alfredo Dagli Orti, Source 26; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Source 27; Corbis/ Alinari Archives,
Source 28; Corbis/ Tom Grill, Source 29; © Jean-Christophe BENOIST. This file is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution 3.0 Unported license, Source 30; Getty Images/ Latitudestock, Source 31; Wikimedia Commons/ Public
Domain, Source 32; Corbis/ Arte & Immagini srl, Source 33; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Sources 34, 35; Corbis/
SuperStock/ Peter Barritt, Source 36 (ceiling); Getty Images/ Ed Freeman, Source 36 (walls and ceiling); Shutterstock/ Elena
Korn, Source 37; Corbis/ PoodlesRock, Source 38; The Bridgeman Art Library/ The Royal Collection © 2011 Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth II, Source 39; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Sources 40-43; Corbis/ National Geographic Society,
Source 44; Getty Images/ DEA Picture Library, Source 45; Getty Images/ David Burton, Source 46; Wikimedia Commons/
Public Domain, Source 47; Corbis/ Summerfield Press, Source 48; Corbis/ Bettmann, Source 49; AKG Images, Source 50;
Corbis/ The Gallery Collection, Source 51; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Source 52; Corbis/ Robbie Jack, Source
53; Wikimedia Commons/ Public Domain, Source 54; Corbis/ Stapleton Collection, Source 55; Wikimedia Commons/
Public Domain, Sources 56, 57; Corbis/ Epa/ Jeffrey Arguedas, Source 58.
Every effort has been made to trace the original source of copyright material contained in this book. The publisher will
be pleased to hear from copyright holders to rectify any errors or omissions.