Indian Cuisine
Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian
subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these
cuisines vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.
Indian food is also heavily influenced by religion, in particular Hinduism and Islam, cultural choices
and traditions.
Historical events such as invasions, trade relations, and colonialism have played a role in
introducing certain foods to this country. The Columbian discovery of the New World brought a
number of new vegetables and fruit to India. A number of these such as potatoes, tomatoes,
chillies, peanuts, and guava have become staples in many regions of India.
Indian cuisine has shaped the history of international relations; the spice trade between India and
Europe was the primary catalyst for Europe's Age of Discovery.Spices were bought from India
and traded around Europe and Asia. Indian cuisine has influenced other cuisines across the
world, especially those from Europe (especially Britain), the Middle East, Southern African, East
Africa, Southeast Asia, North America, Mauritius, Fiji, Oceania, and the Caribbean.
History
Indian cuisine reflects an 8,000-year history of various groups and cultures interacting with the
Indian subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day
India. Later, trade with British and Portuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian
cuisine
Prehistory and Indus Valley Civilization
After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between Fertile Crescent and Indus Valley (IV)
seems to have occurred as a consequence of the Neolithic Revolution and the diffusion of
agriculture. Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley,
and wheat and barley began to be grown. Sesame, and humped cattle were domesticated in the
local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and
herding in South Asia. From circa 4500 to 1900 BC the rulers of Lower Mesopotamia were
Sumerians who spoke a non-Indo-European and non-Semitic language, may have initially come
from India and may have been related to the original Dravidian population of India.
By 3000 BCE, turmeric, cardamom, black pepper and mustard were harvested in India.
From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur in Mesopotamia have been
found, as well as Clove heads which are thought to originate from the Moluccas in Maritime
Southeast Asia were found in a 2nd millennium BC site in Terqa. Akkadian Empire records
mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from Meluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha
being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilization.
Vedic age
The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word
"pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya
Smṛti. Ayurveda, ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to the wellness,
and it includes food, dhyana (meditation) and yoga.
Antiquity
Early diet in India mainly consisted of legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy products, and
honey.[citation needed] Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils (dal), whole-wheat
flour (aṭṭa), rice, and pearl millet (bājra), which has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent
since 6200 BCE.
Over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during the Śramaṇa movement
while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown
throughout the year.
A food classification system that categorised any item as saatvic, raajsic, or taamsic developed
in Yoga tradition.The Bhagavad Gita proscribes certain dietary practices
Consumption of beef is taboo, due to cows being considered sacred in Hinduism.Beef is generally
not eaten by Hindus in India except for Kerala, parts of southern Tamil Nadu and the north-east.
Foods mentioned in ancient Indian scripture
Pomegranate
While many ancient Indian recipes have been lost in history, one can look at ancient texts to see
what was eaten in ancient and pre-historic India.
Barley—(known as Yava in both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit) is mentioned many times in
Rigveda and other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India
Betel leaf—primary use is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut or tobacco, where it is mainly
used to add flavour; may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste
Breadfruit—fritters called jeev kadge phodi in Konkani[18] or kadachakka varuthath[19] in
Malayalam are a local delicacy in coastal Karnataka and Kerala
Chickpeas—popular dishes are made with chickpea flour, such as mirchi bajji and mirapakaya
bajji
Curd—a traditional yogurt or fermented milk product, originating from the Indian subcontinent,
usually prepared from cow's milk, and sometimes buffalo milk, or goat milk
Figs—cultivated from Afghanistan to Portugal, also grown in Pithoragarh in the Kumaon hills of
India; from the 15th century onwards, also grown in areas including Northern Europe and the New
World
Ghee—a class of clarified butter that originated in ancient India, commonly used in the Indian
subcontinent, Middle-Eastern cuisine, traditional medicine, and religious rituals
Grape wine—first-known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BC
writings of Chanakya
Honey—the spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in ancient India was documented in
both the Vedas and the Ayurveda texts
Mango—the Jain goddess Ambika is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree
Mustard—brown mustard is a spice that was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization and is one
of the important spices used in the Indian subcontinent today
Pomegranate—in some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Hindi: anār) symbolizes prosperity
and fertility, and is associated with both Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord Ganesha (the
one fond of the many-seeded fruit)
Rice—cultivated in the Indian subcontinent from as early as 5,000 BC
Rice cake—quite a variety are available[23]
Rose apple—mainly eaten as a fruit and also used to make pickles (chambakka achar)
Saffron—almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west to Kashmir in the east
Salt—considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious
ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings; in Jainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice
with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion, and salt is sprinkled on a person's
cremated remains before the ashes are buried
Sesame oil[—popular in Asia, especially in Korea, China, and the South Indian states of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, where its widespread use is similar to that of olive
oil in the Mediterranean
Sorghum—commonly called jwaarie, jowar, jola, or jondhalaa, sorghum is one of the staple
sources of nutrition
Sugar—produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, its cultivation spread from there
into modern-day Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass
Sugarcane—the earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India; the
earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
Turmeric—used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking
Middle Ages to the 16th Century
During the Middle Ages, several Indian dynasties were predominant, including the Gupta dynasty.
Travel to India during this time introduced new cooking methods and products to the region,
including tea.
India was later invaded by tribes from Central Asian cultures, which led to the emergence of
Mughlai cuisine, a mix of Indian and Central Asian cuisine. Hallmarks include seasonings such
as saffron.[25]
Colonial Period
The Portuguese and British during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and
foods from the New World and Europe. The new-world vegetables popular in cuisine from the
Indian subcontinent include tomato, potato, sweet potatoes, peanuts, squash, and chilli. Most
New world vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, Amaranth, peanuts and cassava based
Sago are allowed on Hindu fasting days. Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822. In the
late 18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a Scottish Robert Lindsay mentions a Sylheti
man called Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of
Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom
Ingredients
Staple foods of Indian cuisine include pearl millet (bājra), rice, whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), and a
variety of lentils, such as masoor (most often red lentils), tuer (pigeon peas), urad (black gram),
and moong (mung beans). Lentils may be used whole, dehusked—for example, dhuli moong or
dhuli urad—or split. Split lentils, or dal, are used extensively.[29] Some pulses, such as channa
or cholae (chickpeas), rajma (kidney beans), and lobiya (black-eyed peas) are very common,
especially in the northern regions. Channa and moong are also processed into flour (besan).
Many Indian dishes are cooked in vegetable oil, but peanut oil is popular in northern and western
India, mustard oil in eastern India,[25] and coconut oil along the western coast, especially in
Kerala and parts of southern Tamil Nadu.[30][self-published source?] Gingelly (sesame) oil is
common in the south since it imparts a fragrant, nutty aroma.[31]
In recent decades, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, and soybean oils have become popular
across India.[32] Hydrogenated vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular
cooking medium.[33] Butter-based ghee, or deshi ghee, is used commonly.
Many types of meat are used for Indian cooking, but chicken and mutton tend to be the most
commonly consumed meats. Fish and beef consumption are prevalent in some parts of India, but
they are not widely consumed except for coastal areas, as well as the north east.[citation needed]
Lentils are a staple ingredient in Indian cuisine.
The most important and frequently used spices and flavourings in Indian cuisine are whole or
powdered chilli pepper (mirch, introduced by the Portuguese from Mexico in the 16th century),
black mustard seed (sarso), cardamom (elaichi), cumin (jeera), turmeric (haldi), asafoetida (hing),
ginger (adrak), coriander (dhania), and garlic (lasoon).
One popular spice mix is garam masala, a powder that typically includes seven dried spices in a
particular ratio, including black cardamom, cinnamon (dalchini), clove (laung), cumin (jeera), black
peppercorns, coriander seeds and anise star.
Each culinary region has a distinctive garam masala blend—individual chefs may also have their
own. Goda masala is a comparable, though sweet, spice mix popular in Maharashtra. Some
leaves commonly used for flavouring include bay leaves (tejpat), coriander leaves, fenugreek
(methi) leaves, and mint leaves. The use of curry leaves and roots for flavouring is typical of
Gujarati and South Indian cuisine.[37] Sweet dishes are often seasoned with cardamom, saffron,
nutmeg, and rose petal essences.
Phirni
Phirni and kheer are two of the most popular rice puddings in India.
Many Indian desserts, or mithai, are fried foods made with sugar, milk or condensed milk.
Ingredients and preferred types of dessert vary by region. In the eastern part of India, for example,
most are based on milk products.
Many are flavoured with almonds and pistachios, spiced with cardamon, nutmeg, cloves and black
pepper, and decorated with nuts, or with gold or silver leaf. Popular Indian desserts include
rasogolla, gulab jamun, jalebi, laddu, and peda.[219]
Beverages
Non-alcoholic beverages
Tea is a staple beverage throughout India, since the country is one of the largest producers of tea
in the world. The most popular varieties of tea grown in India include Assam tea, Darjeeling tea
and Nilgiri tea. It is prepared by boiling the tea leaves in a mix of water, milk, and spices such as
cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger. In India, tea is often enjoyed with snacks like biscuits
and pakoda.[citation needed]
Coffee is another popular beverage, but more popular in South India.[citation needed] Coffee is
also cultivated in some parts of India. There are two varieties of coffee popular in India, which
include Indian filter coffee and instant coffee.[citation needed]
Lassi is a traditional dahi (yogurt)-based drink in India.[220] It is made by blending yogurt with
water or milk and spices. Salted lassi is more common in villages of Punjab and in Porbandar,
Gujarat.[citation needed] Traditional lassi is sometimes flavoured with ground roasted cumin.
Lassi can also be flavoured with ingredients such as sugar, rose water, mango, lemon, strawberry,
and saffron.[221]
Sharbat is a sweet cold beverage prepared from fruits or flower petals.[222] It can be served in
concentrate form and eaten with a spoon, or diluted with water to create a drink. Popular sharbats
are made from plants such as rose, sandalwood, bel, gurhal (hibiscus), lemon, orange, pineapple,
sarasaparilla and kokum, falsa (Grewia asiatica). In Ayurveda, sharbats are believed to hold
medicinal value.[223]
Thandai is a cold drink prepared with a mixture of almonds, fennel seeds, watermelon kernels,
rose petals, pepper, poppy seeds, cardamom, saffron, milk and sugar. It is native to India and is
often associated with the Maha Shivaratri and Holi or Holla mahalla festival. Sometimes bhaang
(cannabis) is added to prepare special thandai.
Other beverages include nimbu pani (lemonade), chaas, badam doodh (almond milk with nuts
and cardamom), Aam panna, kokum sharbat, and coconut water.
Modern carbonated cold drinks unique to southern India include beverages, such as panner soda
or goli soda, a mixture of carbonated water, rose water, rose milk, and sugar, naranga soda, a
mixture of carbonated water, salt and lemon juice, and nannari sarbath, a mixture with
sarasaparilla.
Sharbats with carbonated water are the most popular non-alcoholic beverages in Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. Street shops in Central Kerala and Madurai region of Tamil Nadu are well known for
these drinks which are also called kulukki sarbaths in Kerala.
Darjeeling tea in varieties.
Malai Lassi served at an Indian restaurant.
Indian filter coffee is popular in Southern India.
Badam milk
Holi Special Chilled Thandai
Alcoholic beverages
Beer
Bastar Beer prepared from Sulfi
Most beers in India are either lagers (4.8 percent alcohol) or strong lagers (8.9 percent). The
Indian beer industry has witnessed steady growth of 10–17 percent per year over the last ten
years. Production exceeded 170 million cases during the 2008–2009 financial year. With the
average age of the population decreasing and income levels on the rise, the popularity of beer in
the country continues to increase.
Others
Nepalese chhaang brewed from rice Other popular alcoholic drinks in India include fenny, a Goan
liquor made from either coconut or the juice of the cashew apple. The state of Goa has registered
for a geographical indicator to allow its fenny distilleries to claim exclusive rights to production of
liquor under the name "fenny."
Hadia is a rice beer, created by mixing herbs with boiled rice and leaving the mixture to ferment
for around a week. It is served cold and is less alcoholic than other Indian liquors. Chuak is a
similar drink from Tripura.
Palm wine, locally known as neera, is a sap extracted from inflorescences of various species of
toddy palms.
Chhaang is consumed by the people of Sikkim and the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region of West
Bengal. It is drunk cold or at room temperature in summer, and often hot during cold weather.
Chhaang is similar to traditional beer, brewed from barley, millet, or rice.
Kallu (Chetthu Kallu) is a popular natural alcohol extracted from coconut and pine trees in Kerala.
It is sold in local Kallu shops and is consumed with fried fish and chicken. Its alcoholic content is
increased by addition of distilled alcohol.
Eating habits
Paan is often eaten after a meal.
Indians consider a healthy breakfast important. They generally prefer to drink tea or coffee with
breakfast, though food preferences vary regionally. North Indian people prefer roti, parathas, and
a vegetable dish accompanied by achar (a pickle) and some curd. Various types of packaged
pickles are available in the market. One of the oldest pickle-making companies in India is
Harnarains, which started in the 1860s in Old Delhi.
People of Gujarat prefer dhokla and milk, while south Indians prefer idli and dosa, generally
accompanied by sambhar or sagu and various chutneys.
Traditional lunch in India usually consists of a main dish of rice in the south and the east, and
whole-wheat rotis in the north. It typically includes two or three kinds of vegetables, and
sometimes items such as kulcha, naan, or parathas. Paan (stuffed, spiced and folded betel
leaves) which aids digestion is often eaten after lunch and dinner in many parts of India.
Indian families often gather for "evening snack time", similar to tea time to talk and have tea and
snacks.
Dinner is considered the main meal of the day. Also, many households, especially in north and
central India, prefer having sweets after the dinner (similar to the Western concept of dessert after
meals).
Dietary restrictions
In India people often follow dietary restrictions based on their religion or faith:
Hindu communities consider beef taboo since it is believed that Hindu scriptures condemn cow
slaughter. Cow slaughter has been banned in many states of India. However, these restrictions
are not followed in the North-Eastern states, West Bengal and Kerala.
Vaishnavism followers generally are strict lacto-vegetarians due to an emphasis on Ahimsa. They
also do not consume garlic and onions because they are advised against it in the Bhagavad Gita.
Jains follow a strict form of lacto-vegetarianism, known as Jain vegetarianism, which in addition
to being completely lacto-vegetarian, also excludes all root vegetables such as carrots and
potatoes because when the root is pulled up, organisms that live around the root also die.
Muslims do not eat pork or pork products.
Except in certain North-Eastern regions, canines are not considered suitable for consumption.
Etiquette
Eating by hands
Traditionally, meals in India are eaten while seated either on the floor, or on very low stools or
mattress. Food is most often eaten with the hands rather than cutlery.
Often roti is used to scoop curry without allowing it to touch the hand. In the wheat-producing
north, a piece of roti is gripped with the thumb and middle finger and ripped off while holding the
roti down with the index finger.
A somewhat different method is used in the south for dosai, adai, and uththappam, where the
middle finger is pressed down to hold the bread and the forefinger and thumb used to grip and
separate a small part. Traditional serving styles vary regionally throughout India.
Contact with other cultures has affected Indian dining etiquette. For example, the Anglo-Indian
middle class commonly uses spoons and forks, as is traditional in Western culture.
In South India, cleaned banana leaves, which can be disposed of after meals, are used for serving
food. When hot food is served on banana leaves, the leaves add distinctive aromas and taste to
the food.[236] Leaf plates are less common today, except on special occasions.
