Indian cuisine

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For the cuisine of Indigenous people of the Americas, see Indigenous cuisine of the Americas.
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Indian cuisine

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Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian
subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these
cuisines vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits.

Indian food is also heavily influenced by religion, in particular Hinduism and Islam, cultural choices
and traditions.[1][2] Historical events such as invasions, trade relations, and colonialism have played a
role in introducing certain foods to India. The Columbian discovery of the New World brought a
number of new vegetables and fruits. A number of these such as potatoes, tomatoes, chillies,
peanuts, and guava have become staples in many regions of India.[3]

Indian cuisine has shaped the history of international relations; the spice trade between India and
Europe was the primary catalyst for Europe's Age of Discovery.[4] Spices were bought from India and
traded around Europe and Asia. Indian cuisine has influenced other cuisines across the world,
especially those from Europe (Britain in particular), the Middle East, Southern African, East Africa,
Southeast Asia, North America, Mauritius, Fiji, Oceania, and the Caribbean.[5][6]

World Wildlife Fund (WWF)’s Living Planet Report released on 10 October 2024 emphasized India’s
food consumption pattern as the most sustainable among the big economies (G20 countries).[7]

History
Main article: History of Indian cuisine
Indian cuisine reflects an 8,000-year history of various groups and cultures interacting with the Indian
subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later,
trade with British and Portuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine.[8][9]

Prehistory and Indus Valley civilization

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See also: Meluhha, Indus–Mesopotamia relations, and Indian maritime history

After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between Fertile Crescent and Indus Valley
civilizations seems to have occurred as a consequence of the Neolithic Revolution and the diffusion of
agriculture. Wheat and barley were first grown around 7000 BCE, when agriculture spread from the
Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley. Sesame and humped cattle were domesticated in the local
farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in
South Asia. By 3000 BCE, turmeric, cardamom, black pepper and mustard were harvested in India.

From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur in Mesopotamia have been
found, as well as Clove heads which are thought to originate from the Moluccas in Maritime
Southeast Asia were found in a 2nd millennium BC site in Terqa. Akkadian Empire records mention
timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from Meluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being
generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilization.

Vedic age

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The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word
"pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya Smṛti.
Ayurveda, ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to the wellness, and it
includes food, dhyana (meditation) and yoga.

Antiquity
Early diet in India mainly consisted of legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy products, and honey.
[10] Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils (dal), whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), rice, and pearl
millet (bājra), which has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent since 6200 BCE.[9] The Sangam
literature, which is specific to South India, mentions that fish, crab, forest cattle, pork, monitor lizard,
and poultry were consumed in the region together with a variety of millets, sago, sugarcane, dairy
products, honey, and rice.[11]

Over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during the Śramaṇa movement[12]
[13] while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown
throughout the year.

A food classification system that categorised any item as saatvic, raajsic, or taamsic developed in Yoga
tradition.[14][15] The Bhagavad Gita proscribes certain dietary practices (chapter 17, verses 8–10).
[16]

Consumption of beef is taboo, due to cows being considered sacred in Hinduism.[17] Beef is generally
not eaten by Hindus in India except for Kerala, parts of southern Tamil Nadu and the north-east.[18]

Ingredients mentioned in ancient Indian scripture

Pomegranate
While many ancient Indian recipes have been lost in history, one can look at ancient texts to see what
was eaten in ancient and pre-historic India.

Barley[19]—(known as Yava in both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit) is mentioned many times in Rigveda
and other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India
Betel leaf[20]—primary use is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut or tobacco, where it is mainly
used to add flavour; may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste
Breadfruit—fritters called jeev kadge phodi in Konkani[21] or kadachakka varuthath[22] in Malayalam
are a local delicacy in coastal Karnataka and Kerala
Chickpeas[23]—popular dishes are made with chickpea flour, such as mirchi bajji and mirapakaya bajji
Curd—a traditional yogurt or fermented milk product, originating from the Indian subcontinent,
usually prepared from cow's milk, and sometimes buffalo milk, or goat milk
Figs[19]—cultivated from Afghanistan to Portugal, also grown in Pithoragarh in the Kumaon hills of
India; from the 15th century onwards, also grown in areas including Northern Europe and the New
World
Ghee—a class of clarified butter that originated in ancient India, commonly used in the Indian
subcontinent, Middle-Eastern cuisine, traditional medicine, and religious rituals
Grape wine[24]—first-known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BC
writings of Chanakya
Honey[25]—the spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in ancient India was documented in
both the Vedas and the Ayurveda texts
Mango—the Jain goddess Ambika is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree
Mustard[19]—brown mustard is a spice that was cultivated in the Indus Valley civilization and is one
of the important spices used in the Indian subcontinent today
Pomegranate—in some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Hindi: anār) symbolizes prosperity and
fertility, and is associated with both Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord Ganesha (the one fond
of the many-seeded fruit)
Rice—cultivated in the Indian subcontinent from as early as 5,000 BC
Rice cake—quite a variety are available[26]
Rose apple—mainly eaten as a fruit and also used to make pickles (chambakka achar)
Saffron[27]—almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west to Kashmir in the east
Salt[27]—considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious
ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings; in Jainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a
pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion, and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated
remains before the ashes are buried
Sesame oil[27]—popular in Asia, especially in Korea, China, and the South Indian states of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, where its widespread use is similar to that of olive oil in the
Mediterranean
Sorghum[23]—commonly called jwaarie, jowar, jola, or jondhalaa, sorghum is one of the staple
sources of nutrition
Sugar—produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, its cultivation spread from there into
modern-day Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass
Sugarcane[23]—the earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India; the
earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts
Turmeric[24]—used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking
Middle Ages to the 16th century
During the Middle Ages, several Indian dynasties were predominant, including the Gupta dynasty.
Travel to India during this time introduced new cooking methods and products to the region,
including tea.[citation needed]

India was later invaded by tribes from Central Asian cultures, which led to the emergence of Mughlai
cuisine, a mix of Indian and Central Asian cuisine. Hallmarks include seasonings such as saffron.[28]

Colonial Period
The Portuguese and British during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and foods
from the New World and Europe. The new-world vegetables popular in cuisine from the Indian
subcontinent include maize, tomato, potato, sweet potatoes, peanuts, squash, and chilli. Most New
World vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, Amaranth, peanuts and cassava based Sago are
allowed on Hindu fasting days. Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822.[29] In the late
18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a Scottish Robert Lindsay mentions a Sylheti man called
Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of Indian cuisine in
the United Kingdom.[30][31]

Bhang eaters in India c. 1790. Bhang is an edible preparation of cannabis native to the Indian
subcontinent. It was used by Hindus in food and drink as early as 1000 BCE.[32]

A page from the Nimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi, book of delicacies and recipes. It documents the fine
art of making kheer.

Medieval Indian Manuscript Nimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi (circa 16th century) showing samosas

being served.

Prawn with a Rohu fish, Kalighat Painting. Freshwater fishes and crustaceans are staple diet in eastern
regions, prominently in Bengal.
Ingredients

Spices at a grocery store in India

Staple foods of Indian cuisine include pearl millet (bājra), rice, whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), and a variety
of lentils, such as masoor (most often red lentils), tuer (pigeon peas), urad (black gram), and moong
(mung beans). Lentils may be used whole, dehusked—for example, dhuli moong or dhuli urad—or
split. Split lentils, or dal, are used extensively.[33] Some pulses, such as channa or cholae (chickpeas),
rajma (kidney beans), and lobiya (black-eyed peas) are very common, especially in the northern
regions. Channa and moong are also processed into flour (besan).