'Is Marketing a Science?

'' Revisited
WELDON J. TAYLOR SCIENCE of the postmodern world will put the "Is Mar-
keting a Science?" debate in a new perspective. The change
should relieve some of the tension of the "schizophrenia" resulting
from the two opposing views.
Tomorrow's science will maximize the advantage of the market-
ing concept as an approach to the study of marketing. It will
forsake for the moment the hope that the universe can be described
into predictable patterns. It will embrace the reality of a dynamic
world which can be explained in terms of science only provisionally.
History of "Is Marketing a Science?"
In 1948 Lyndon 0. Brown, in support of the emphasis given
for many years by the American Marketing Association, published
an article entitled "Toward a Profession of Marketing."^ He
made no claims for marketing as a science; but he urged the
accumulation of a body of knowledge, the development of an
analytical approach, and the sharpening of research as a basic
tool for management. Nonetheless, his paper ignited the embers
of the "Is Marketing a Science?" debate.-
Probably the best report on the contemporary score is by
Robert D. Buzzell.'* However, in measuring the achievements in
marketing against the standards of a science, he finds much to
be desired. One of the contributions in Buzzell's article is a
succinct and accurate phrasing of the standards of a science:^
The term "marketing con-
. . . a classified and systematized body of knowledge,
cept" probably stimulates . . . organized around one or more central theories and a num-
more Interest today than ber of general principles,
"marketing principles." . . . usually expressed in quantitative terms,
Does this less definitive , . . knowledge which permits the prediction and, under some
approach impair the hopes circumstances, the control of future events.
of those who aspire to have
marketing accepted as a sci- 1 Lyndon 0. Brown, "Toward a Profession of Marketing," JOURNAL
ence? Or is it conceivable OF MARKETING, Vol. 13 (July, 1948), pp. 27-31.
- Articles which appeared as a chain reaction to Brown's were Wroe
that the term "science" Alderson and Reavis Cox, "Towards a Theory of Marketing," JOURNAL
itself should be viewed in a OF MARKETING, Vol. 13 (October, 1948), pp. 137-151; Roland S. Vaile,
new perspective? "Towards a Theory of Marketing—a Comment," JOURNAL OF MARKET-
ING. Vol. 13 (April, 1949), pp. 520-522; Neal E. Miller, "Social Sci-
This article favors the lat- ence and the Art of Advertising," JOURNAL OF MARKETING. Vol. 14
ter thesis. And this view (January, 1950), pp. 579-584; Robert T. Bartels, "Can Marketing
Be a Science?" JOURNAL OF MARKETING. Vol. 15 (January, 1951),
should encourage marketing pp. 319-328; Kenneth D. Hutchinson, "Marketing As a Science: An
men to employ more scien- Appraisal," JOURNAL OF MARKETING, Vol. 16 (January, 1952), pp.
tific resources in quest of 286-293; S. F. Otteson, editor. Marketing: Current Problems and
Theories (Bloomington: University of Indiana, 1952), pp. 11-18.
more effective marketing
management. 3 Robert D. Buzzell, "Is Marketing a Science?" Harvard Business Re-
view, Vol. 41 (January-February, 1963), pp. 32-34, 36, 40, 166, 168,
and 170.
Joumat of Marketing. Vol. 29 (July.
1965), pp. 49-53. * Same reference as footnote 3, at p. 32.

49
 50 Journal of Marketing, July, 1965

Yet today there is little if any central core of Many of the basic theories describing the ulti-
theory or durable principle in marketing. Quantita- mate nature of the universe have been shot through
tive formulas applied to marketing that are part of with conflict and diversity. The cosmic break-
an enduring theory or generalization are rare. The through shattered the dream of the scientist who
background in which the process occurs changes too hoped that he and his colleagues were making sig-
rapidly for a stable philosophy of prediction to nificant progress in cataloging the unknowns of the
emerge.5 universe into laws and principles.
On the other hand, the scientific forces arrayed Indeed, the scientific millennium, the quest for
to further the scientific objectives of marketing are which began in the seventeenth century, was visual-
formidable. During the last decade there has ized as a period when the basic questions about
emerged a new attitude toward the meaning of both the universe and its nature would be settled. Today
science and marketing that may provide a new bal- the scientific millennium is viewed as a period when
ance to the arguments. a maximum number of trained minds exercising
scientific skill will achieve greater speed in finding
Innovations in the Concept of Science significant and useful relationships in an infinite
The change in attitude toward science is de- unknown.
scribed by Huston Smith, Professor of Philosophy Conant's Contribution
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.^ He James Bryant Conant, renowned chemist and for-
states that "our generation is playing a crucial part mer President of Harvard University, describes
in the radical revolution of thought, the development different boundaries of science; and his definition
of the postmodern mind and a new view of reality." meets the demands of the new cosmic reality: "Sci-
He says that this century will ". . . rank with the ence is an interconnected series of concepts and
fourth century which witnessed the triumph of conceptual schemes that have developed as a result
Christianity, and the seventeenth, which signalled of experimentation and observation and are fruitful
the dawn of human science. . . ."^ This change, of further experimentation and observations."^'*
according to him, despairs of the hope that science
as presently conceived can bring life and its physi- He continues. "Science is a speculative enter-
cal environment into an orderly focus. prise [italics added]. The validity of a new idea and
the significance of a new experimental finding are
Professor Smith asks "how are we to picture an to be measured by the consequences—consequences
electron traveling two or more different routes in terms of other ideas and experiments. Thus con-
through space concurrently or passing from orbit ceived, science is not a quest for certainty; it is
to orbit without traversing the space between them rather a quest which is successful only to the degree
at all? What kind of model can we construct of a that it is continuous."11
space that is finite yet unbounded, or of light which
is both wave and particle?"s Conant points to the disillusionment that came
about in the 1930s, wherein physicists had to for-
He quotes P. W. Bridgman of Harvard, who
sake their previous belief that experiments could
suggests that "we have reached the limit of the find unchanging principles and reliable answers to
vision of the great pioneers of science, the vision, many problems. He says, "This episode in itself is
namely, that we live in a sympathetic world in that for me sufficient justification for treating all scien-
it is comprehensible by our minds."^ tific theories and explanations as highly provisional
5 Some of the more recent references, in addition to [italics added]-"i2
Buzzell's, treating the subject of marketing as a sci-
ence are Joseph W. Newman, "New Insights, New 10 James Bryant Conant, Science and Common Sense
Progress for Marketing," Harvard Business Review, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951), p. 25.
Vol. 35 (November-December, 1957), pp. 95-102; 11 Same reference as footnote 10, at pp. 25-26.
Alfred R. Oxenfeldt, "Scientific Marketing Ideal and
Ordeal," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 39 (March- 12 Same reference as footnote 10, at p. 28.
April, 1961), pp. 51-64; Harlan D. Mills, "Marketing
as a Science," Hai-vard Business Review, Vol. 39 • ABOUT THE AUTHOR. Weldon J. ^
(September-October, 1961), pp. 137-141; Edward C. Taylor is Dean of the College of Business
Bursk, Text and Cases in Marketing: A Scientific at Brigham Young University. He holds
Approach (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- an M.B.A. from the Harvard Graduate
Hall, Inc., 1962) ; E. B. Weiss, "Will Marketing Ever School of Business Administration, and a
Become a Science?" Advertising Age (August 20, Ph.D. from the New York University
1962), pp. 64-65; H. W. Huegy, editor. The Con- Graduate 5chool of Business Adminis-
ceptunl Framework for a Science of Marketing (Ur- tration.
bana, Illinois: University of Illinois, 1963). He is coauthor of MARKETING —
Huston Smith, "The Revolution in Western Thought," AN INTEGRATED ANALYTICAL AP-
Sat2irday Evening Post (August 28, 1961), pp. 28-29, PROACH. He has served as consultant
and 59-60. for supermarkets, associated wholesale groups, department stores,
munrc.palities, publication associations, and broadcasters. His
Same reference as footnote 6, at p. 59.
most recent assignment was that of marketing consultant to the
Same reference as footnote 6, at p. 59. National Institute of Management Development of the United
Same reference as footnote 6, at p. 59. Arab Republic.
 'Is Marketing a Science?" Revisited 51
Conant's first requirement for a valid science con- search for laws, principles, and central theories.
sists of conceptual schemes that are fruitful. Such Yet the great returns that will accrue to marketing
schemes or plans contribute to the increasing flow scientists lie in three overlapping areas.
of other such schemes or plans. Unlike the general First is the development of conceptual schemes
principle, they may become obsolete and be sup- that will open new frontiers in marketing knowledge
planted by those which include or transcend them. and suggest additional avenues for observation and
Their test as a part of a valid science is in their experiment. The results of these developments will
fruitfulness as a basis for new concepts. be of sufficient merit that they will be recorded,
The second criterion for scientific endeavor is that analyzed, and published.
it would tend to ". . . lower the degree of empiricism Second, the marketing scientist will draw on the
or to extend the range of theory."^^ in other words, fruitful conceptual schemes and develop others that
science should make possible the predicting of out- extend beyond fruitfulness to usefulness. Useful-
comes. ness consists of a quality which makes the market-
Conant states that by the application of basic ing manager better able to predict the outcome of
theory the surveyor can describe a variety of areas his commitment and more successful in his enter-
having no similarity as to boundaries. On the other prise than he would have been without such knowl-
hand, the recipe of the chef is good for only one edge.
dish. If he attempts to discover another tasty dish, Third, the marketing scientist constantly will be
he will not have foreknowledge of his findings. He refining the present concepts to greater usefulness
must experiment to determine its quality. If he and adapting them to the changing patterns and
succeeds, there will be little in his discovery that practices of the market place.
will apply to additional dishes. This process is well under way. It began when
Another example to illustrate the extending of man first described and analyzed market activities
the range of theory is Boyle's Law, relating to the and published the results for the benefit of others.
expansion of gases. This law operates in steam, From an infinite number of examples of this con-
gasoline, diesel, or jet engines. It also applies to tinuing process, two of contemporary interest and
firearms and explosives. Unlike the chef's recipe, significance will serve as illustrations.
the predictability possible as a result of the law
enables men to extend the range of theory and know Study by Coffin
results before they happen. This law is one of the The first example comes from a pioneering experi-
conceptual schemes that were fruitful in leading to ment in assessing advertising effectiveness, in which
the discovery of a means for splitting the atom. Thomas E. Coffin includes an example of both the
This predictability aspect of science is the popu- fruitful and the useful conceptual scheme.i^ He
lar one. By extending the range of theory in light, states: "It has taken audience researchers some
sound, and chemistry, man has discovered leverage three decades and upwards of a hundred million
with which he has completely changed the world. dollars spent on audience research of all varieties
It was thus a natural development that social to arrive at a point where they can produce reason-
problems were subjected to this so-called scientific ably accurate answers to the question of how many'?
analysis. A typical incident is in the evolution of [Italics added.] Isn't it logical to expect the same
price determination as a measure of value. Smith, sequence of events to accrue in determining how
Malthus, Ricardo, Mill, and others were contribu-
tors to a man-hour theory of value. Nearly a hun- Coffin's statement in the context of "Is Marketing
dred years later Hungarian economists, supported a Science?" says in effect: It has taken researchers
by Jevons from England, advanced a different view three decades and a hundred million dollars in
of value based on utility. experimenting with conceptual schemes that are
In 1890 Alfred Marshall published his Principles, fruitful to establish one that is useful. Isn't it
which compromised the differences and synthesized logical to expect the same sequence of events in
the opposing views. His example of the two blades determining a similar yet different objective? Hav-
of the scissors describing the interaction of demand ing thus cited a useful example. Coffin introduces
and supply curves meets Conant's test of science in one that is fruitful. He reports the results of his
the social realm. The meeting of the forces of experiment wherein a 2-wave panel composed of
demand with the forces of supply at the market the same individuals was reinterviewed to determine
place to set a price is a conceptual scheme that the comparative impact of television and magazine
extends the range of theory in the science of advertising at two points in time, three months
economics. apart; and he is duly modest in claiming his experi-
ment to be fruitful but not yet useful.
The New Concept of Science and Marketing
According to Conant's proposition, the would-be Thomas E. Coffin, "A Pioneering- Experiment for
Assessing Advertising Effectiveness," JOURNAL OF
marketing scientists should not discontinue their MARKETING, Vol. 27 (July, 1963), pp. 1-10.
Same reference as footnote 10, at p. 58. Same reference as footnote 14, at p. 2.
52 Journal of Marketing, July, 1965

Many would disagree with Daniel Starch's claims The use of electronic data processing will make
that he is able to measure the specific results in the recording and analyzing of facts related to
sales of a magazine advertisement or a television everyday business transactions more common. This
commercial in his "net-ad-produced-purchases" extensive and intensive examination of transactions
method.^" Yet there are few who would deny that will serve as a feedback from actual experience. It
his conceptual scheme contains seeds which will could provide a prolific resource for discovering and
sometimes and in some manner infiuence predict- refining relevant conceptual schemes. Oxenfeldt's
ability. project was just such an attempt to measure the
The above-described activities are still "specula- effect of marketing transactions on a broad front.
tive enterprise." Their "fruitfulness" will be meas- Even though he did not discover specific reasons
ured in terms of the "other ideas and other experi- for the change in market shares, it would reveal
ments" they stimulate, and the degree to which they a lack of imagination not to see in his study a
are "continuous." residue of significant knowledge. His contribution
included at least the beginning of conceptual
Study by Oxenfeldt schemes that were speculative, fruitful, continuous,
The second illustrative example is in the area of and possibly useful.
sales outcome. Alfred R. Oxenfeldt reports an
observation that has already proved fruitful in Scientific Method
stimulating comment in learned journals and The traditional view of scientific method includes
books.1'^ He captures a "speculative" and "contin- agreement among respected scholars as to the mean-
uous" tone by presenting his experiment in a diary ing of terms, classifying data so that they will
form which includes his ovm speculations. achieve a high degree of accurate mobility, and
If judged by the law, principle, or central-theory finally testing the validity of hypotheses.
category (the benchmarks of traditional science), Conant's failure to agree that these points are
his experience was disillusioning. Because of the controlling does not mean that he would neglect
inadequacy of records available to him and the them. He would expect such conditions to prevail
dynamics of the competitive television industry, in any scientific endeavor. Yet he considers them
whose share-of-market results he was studying, he as routines and not the source of the dynamics and
was unable to discover the information he originally vitality of science. His three steps in describing
sought. Although he despaired at several levels, the scientific process are: (1) speculative thinking
there were residual ingredients in his observations.
as a creative act; (2) deductive reasoning; and (3)
He lists seven generalizations to guide similar and
subsequent scientific undertakings. He also lists cut-and-try or empirical experimentation.^** This
four conclusions for business executives and four describes a process of getting a working hypothesis
points which describe the nature of executive deci- in mind; eliminating it or improving on it; project-
sions as they relate to scientific undertakings. ing its potentials by deductive reasoning; and then
actually testing it in the field or the laboratory.
Oxenfeldt delves courageously into that twilight
The conceptual schemes resulting from this proc-
area where marketing decisions grow out of knowl-
edge about the problems and practices of business ess are often more tenuous, dynamic, and specula-
and the analytical or administrative skill of the tive than the reliable, stable, traditional law and
executive. Which of these two ingredients is principle. Yet they describe the area of science in
strategic? which most modern scientists are engaged.
He takes the view that it is not an either-or An Art or a Science?
situation, but rather a combination. One is prompted
In answer to the recurring question, "Is market-
by his thinking to reason as follows: The rigorous
analysis of the available facts and subsequent action ing an art or a science?" Jevon's word is the sim-
by the executive may have three residues: (1) the plest: ". . . science is to know, and art is to do. . ."^»
actual results of his course of action; (2) an im- Knowledge makes it possible to improve the skill
proved administrative skill resulting from his ex- in doing; and doing serves as a means of testing
perience; and (3) the knowledge gained from put- and enhancing knowledge. To pinpoint an instance,
ting his plans into action. the act of performing an experiment in the labora-
For the purpose of this discussion, the last of tory requires an artistic skill to some degree. Yet
these is strategic. If this knowledge is analyzed the residue of knowledge recorded as a result of
and given a degree of permanence in writing and the experiment is science. It will serve as a means
its validity determined, it may stimulate the de- of improving the effectiveness of the next experi-
velopment of other useful or fruitful ideas. ment. Science in marketing will provide guides to

Daniel Starch, "How to Relate Readership to Sales," Same reference as footnote 10, at p. 45.
Printer's Ink, Vol. 287 (May 15, 1964), pp. 25-28. See "Science," Webster's Third New Intemational
Oxenfeldt, same reference as footnote 4. Dictionary, unabridged.^
"/s Marketing a Science?" Revisited 53

more efiJicient action and a means of sharpening Its success depended on interrelationships among
skill. production, product development, packaging, finance,
Marketing men are constantly improving their personnel, and public relations. A conceptual view
effectiveness by means of a growing body of con- indicated that all of these, as well as controllable
ceptual schemes that move from the fruitful into areas outside the firm, were in some manner an
the useful stage. The act of marketing is an art. influence on the customer's choice or on the cost
The practitioner as such is not a scientist. Yet in of winning it. The manner in which these activities
the course of his work he may publish observa- were coordinated in a dynamic process to achieve
tions and conduct experiments. To the extent that the desired impact gave coherence and an integrated
he does so and contributes to the fund of conceptual unity to the process.
schemes that are fruitful and that extend the range The adoption of the term marketing concept re-
of theory in marketing, he functions as a scientist. emphasized the consumer's choice as the center of
the concentric circle and made it the heart of the
The Marketing Concept marketing universe.
Winning the consumer's choice in a highly com- Basic to all other conceptual schemes in market-
petitive world at a minimum cost forced the mar- ing are those used in the financial statements. The
keting executive to break free from traditional costs and satisfactions resulting from the processes
patterns of thinking. The method of science which of the firm are converted into expenses and incomes,
consisted of dividing and classifying, then redivid- and summarized to determine profits. They provide
ing and reclassifying, in search of principles or a basis for measuring the ultimate effect of all other
laws did not satisfy the demands of reality in conceptual schemes.
marketing. The concept approach to marketing releases valu-
In order to see all the forces influencing market- able relationships which were "frozen out" of use
ing success in their interrelationships within the by traditional compartmentalized treatment. It pro-
whole, the many intangible ingredients of choice vides a potential for the development of many such
had to be included. Synthesis had to complement schemes that are yet in their budding stages. The
analysis. The marketing department had to be quest is a speculative enterprise, yet fruitful and
viewed as a part of the unified whole. continuous.

•MARKETING MEMO-
Caveat Vendor Is the New Slogan . . .
"Let the buyer beware" has been abandoned as a business philosophy by all but
a marginal few, and few of these have enjoyed any but the most transitory success.
But it is becoming apparent that the natural progress being made through the sur-
vival and growth of the ethical and honest, and the eventual failure of the others,
is not a sufficiently rapid or sure process to satisfy our elected officials in Washington.
New responsibilities for honesty, performance and even good taste are being put
onto the shoulders of the seller, and the penalties are becoming increasingly severe.
—Arthur B. Dougall, "Caveat Vendor,"
Marketing jor Profit, A Report from
Stewart, Dougall & Associates, Inc.
January-February, 1965.
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